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Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Synthesise the manufacture of ammo

nia and its salts. Understand alloys. Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymer. Ap
ply the uses of glass and ceramics. Evaluate the uses of composite materials. Ap
preciate various synthetic industrial materiala.
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(H4SO4)
USES OF SULPHURIC ACID 1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer
such as ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in wa
ter and can be easily obsorbed by plant. 2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid
which is used as the electrolyte. 3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of
artificial silk-like fibres and rayon. 4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug us
e sulphuric acid as one of their component materials.
MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID
1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process 2. The proc
ess contain three stage STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur i. Co
mbustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2. S(s
)+O2(g) SO2(g)
sulphur
ii. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified. STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxid
e From Sulphur Dioxide i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are pa
ssed over vanadium(V) oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum conditi
on to produce sulphur trioxide SO3. 2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g) ii. The optimum used a
re a) Temperature:450-500°C b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V)
oxide iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulp
hur dioxide and oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over
the catalyst in the converter.
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STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is diss
olved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7 which is then di
luted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4. SO3(g)+H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
Oleum
H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq) ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to add
ing sulphur trioxide directly into water. SO3(g)+H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) iii. The additio
n of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction is v
ary vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, alarge cloud of sulphuric
acid fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.
The Contact Process Sulphu r Oxyge n In the converter S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) Oxyge 2S
O(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) Temperature: 450-500°C Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres Catalyst: Va
nadium(V) oxide
SO2(g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq) Outline Of Contact proces
s
Unreacted 2%so2 is flowed back to converter together with oxygen
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 SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a colourle
ss and poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell. 2. Sulphur dioxide which escape
into the air causes air pollution. 3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolv
es in water to form sulphurous acidic, H2SO3. In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide
dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic. SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which fal
ls to the earth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the ai
r to form sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce su
lphuric acid. SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
Acid rain and environmental pollution
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(NH3)
USES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses. 2. It uses: i. In the man
ufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonia nitric, ammo
nia phosphate and urea. ii. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive. iii. In th
e making of synthetic fibre and nylon. iv. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form
to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.
PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS
1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following: i. It colourles
s and has a pungent odour. ii. It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkal
ine solution. iii. It less dense then water. iv. It easily liquified (at about 3
5.5°C) when cool. 2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas: a) Ammonia gas dissol
ves in water to form a weak alkali. NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline
. Thus aqueous ammonia solution: i. Turns red litmus paper blue. ii. Reacts with
acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization reaction. NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) N
H4CI(aq) 2NH3 + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) iii. Reacts with solution of metallic ca
tions to produce precipitates. Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)
(Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate
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 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY
1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process
. In this process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hyd
rogen gas in the volume ratio 1:3. 2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractiona
l distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is obtained form the cracking
of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4, with steam. CH4
(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g) 3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is pas
sed over an iron catalyst under controlled optimum condition as below to form am
monia gas. i. Temperature: 450-500°C ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres iii. Cataly
st used: Iron fillings N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into
ammonia gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back
over the catalyst again in the reactor chamber. 5. The ammonia product is then c
ooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid in the cooling cha
mber.
The Haber Process
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Nitrogen
Hydrogen
N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of 1:3 In the reactor chamber N2(g) + 3H2(
g) 2NHIn cooling chamber (g) Temperature: 450-500°C Liquid Pressure: 200-500 atmos
pheres Catalyst used:ammonia process Iron fillings Outline Of Habert
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Unreacted N2 and H2 gases
AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS
1. 2. 3. 4. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which
are necessary for growth and cell repair. Most plant are not able to get a nitr
ogen supply directly from the air although it is abundant in the air (78%). Plan
ts can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from soil through their roots. The
nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt wh
ich are manufacture as chemical fertilizer. Reactions of ammonia with acids prod
uce ammonium fertilizers. NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
Ammonium nitrate
3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)
Ammonium phosphate
2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Ammonium sulphate
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 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes
the metal to have a hight density The forces of attraction between atoms (metall
ic bonds) are strong. More heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond s
o that the atoms are further apart during the melting. This is why metals usuall
y have hight melting point. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom
to the next by vibration. This make metal good conduct of heat. The freely movin
g outermost electrons within the metal’s structure are able to conduct electricity
. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors. Since atoms of pure metal ar
e of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a regular layered pattern. When
a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one another. This
make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile. Layer of atom slide
Force
Metals are ductile
Force
The shape of the metal change
Matel are malleable
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 WHAT ARE ALLOYS
1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low resistanc
e to corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily. 2. To improve the physical propert
ies of metal, a small amount of another element (usually metal) is added to form
another an alloy. 3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non
-metal) in a specific proportion. For example: a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10%
of tin) b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon) 4. The purposes of making alloys
include the following: a) Increase the strength i. Pure iron is soft and vary m
alleable. When a small amount of carbon is added to iron, an alloy, steal is for
med. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes. ii. Pure aluminiu
m is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and magnesium are added
to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy call duralumin is produced. b)
Improving the resistance to corrosion i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel wh
ich contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon, 18% of chromium and 1% of nickel doe
s not rush. These properties make stainless steel suitable for making surgical i
nstrument and cutlery. ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added,
the yellow alloy which is known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosio
n. c) Enhancing the appearance i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and co
pper is not only hard but also has a more beautiful white silvery appearance. ii
. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an att
ractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins.
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Alloy High carbon steel Stainless steel
Composition 99% iron 1% carbon 80.6% iron 0.4% carbon 18%chromium 1% nickel 70%
copper 30% zinc
Properties Uses Strong,hard and high • Making of cutting wear resistance tools, ha
mmers and chisels Do not rust and • Making of surgical tarnish, strong and instrum
ent, knives durable forks and spoons Hard, do not rust, bright appearance
Brass
Bronze Pewter
Duralumin Cupronickel
• Making of ornaments, electrical wiring and plug. 90% copper Hard, do not corrode
• For casting bells, 10% tin easily and durable medals, swords and statues 90% ti
n Ductile and • Making of 2.5% copper malleable, white ornaments, 0.5% antimony si
lvery appearance souvenirs and mugs 95% aluminium Light, strong and • Making part
of 4% copper durable aircrafts and racing 1%magnesium cars 75%copper Attractive,
silvery • Making of silver 25%nickel appearance, hard and coins tough Composition
, properties and uses of alloys
The formation of alloy 11
 WHAT ARE POLYMER
1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units j
oined together repeatedly are called polymer. 2. The smaller molecules that make
up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer. 3. The process of joining
together a large number of monomers to form a long chain polymer is called polym
erisation. 4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natura
l polymer are found in plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are
starch cellulose, protein and rubber. 5. Two type of polymerisation in producing
synthetic polymer are additional polymerisation. 6. Double bonds between two ca
rbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation. Some Common Addition Polymer
s Name(s) Polyethylene low density (LDPE) Polyethylene high density (HDPE) Polyp
ropylene (PP) different grades Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Poly(vinylidene chlori
de) (Saran A) Polystyrene (PS) Polyacrylonitrile Formula –(CH2-CH2)n– Monomer ethyle
ne CH2=CH2 Properties soft, waxy solid rigid, translucent solid Uses film wrap,
plastic bags electrical insulation bottles, toys
ethylene –(CH2-CH2)n– CH2=CH2 –[CH2CH(CH3)]n– –(CH2CHCl)n– –(CH2CCl2)n– –[CH2CH(C6H5)]n– –(
e CH2=CHCH3 vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl vinylidene chloride CH2=CCl2 styrene CH2=CHC
6H5 acrylonitrile
atactic: soft, elastic similar to LDPE solid carpet, isotactic: hard, upholstery
strong solid strong rigid solid pipes, siding, flooring
dense, high-melting seat covers, films solid hard, rigid, clear solid soluble in
organic solvents high-melting solid toys, cabinets packaging (foamed) rugs, bla
nkets
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(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan)
CHCN)n–
CH2=CHCN
soluble in organic solvents
clothing non-stick surfaces electrical insulation lighting covers, signs skyligh
ts latex paints, adhesives requires vulcanization for practical use synthetic ru
bber oil resistant
Polytetrafluoroeth tetrafluoroethyl resistant, smooth ylene –(CF2-CF2)n– ene solid (
PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2 Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglas) methyl
–[CH2methacrylate C(CH3)CO2C CH2=C(CH3)C H3]n– O2CH3 hard, transparent solid
–(CH2vinyl acetate Poly(vinyl acetate) CHOCOCH3) CH2=CHOCOC soft, sticky solid (PV
Ac) H3 n– cis-Polyisoprene natural rubber Polychloroprene (cis + trans) (Neoprene)
–[CH2isoprene CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CHCH2]n– C(CH3)=CH2 –[CH2CH=CClCH2]n– chloroprene CH2=CHCC
l=CH2 soft, sticky solid tough, rubbery solid
Uses of synthetic polymers
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE
1. Synthetic polymers have many advantages over other type of materials: a. They
are cheap, light-weight and translucent. b. They are easily coloured, easily mo
ulded and shaped. c. They are non-corrosive, waterproof and good insulator. d. T
hey are durable and long lasting because they are resistant to decay, rusting an
d chemical attacks. 2. There are disadvantage using synthetic polymer: a. Most o
f the synthetic polymer are flammable. When a synthetic polymer material catches
fire, poisonous fumes are produce causing air pollution. b. Synthetic polymers
are non-biodegradable. When there are discharge, they cause litter problem and p
ollute the environment. c. Plastic container that are left aside in an open area
collect rainwater which becomes the breeding ground for mosquitoes. d. There ar
e limitation in recycle have to be separated out as the addition of nonrecyclabl
e polymers in the mixture affect the properties of the recycled polymers.
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 WHAT ARE GLASS
1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many
products are made from glass because of its specials properties. 2. Glass is: a.
Transparent, hard but brittle. b. A heat and electric insulator. c. Resistant t
o corrosion. d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack
. e. Easy to maintain. Type of glass Fused glass Composition SiO2: 100% Properti
es • Transparent • High melting point • Good heat insulator • Low melting point, easily
molded into desired shape and size • Low resistant to chemical attacks • Brittle • Res
istant chemical attack and durable • High melting point • Good insulator to heat • Hig
h refractive index • High density • Attractive glittering appearance Uses • Lens • Teles
cope mirrors • Laboratory apparatus • Drinking glass, bottles • Electric bulbs • Window
glass
Soda-lime glass
SiO2: 75% Na2O:15% CaO: 9% Other:1%
Borosilicate glass
Lead crystal glass (flint glass)
SiO2: 78% B2O3: 12% Na2O: 5% CaO: 3% Al2O3:2% SiO2: 70% Pbo/PbO2:20% Na2O: 10%
• Cooking utensils • Laboratory glassware such as conical flaks and boiling tube • Len
ses and prisms • Decorative glassware and art object • Imation jewellery
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 CERAMICS
1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such a
s kaolin to a vary high temperature. 2. Ceramics have many special properties th
at make them one of the most useful materials in our everyday life. That: a. Are
hard, strong but brittle b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high t
emperature c. Are heat and electric instrument d. Are resistant to corrosion and
wear e. Are chemically not reactive f. Do not readily deform under stress 3. Ce
ramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as a. Construction ma
terials i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement,
sinks, and toilet bowls. ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks becaus
e high resistant to heat. b. Decorative items i. To make pottery, china plates,
and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish easily and are durable. ii. They a
re used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles. c. Electrical ins
ulator i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such
as toasters, fridges and electrical plug. Materials Oxide ceramic Alumina,AL2O3
Beryllia, BeO Zirconia, ZiO Non-oxide ceramics Boron carbide,B4C3 Silicon nitri
de, Si3, n4 Metals Aluminium Steel Melting point/ ° C 2054 2574 2710 2350 2830 190
0 660 1515 Density/G cm-3 3.97 3.01 5.68 2.50 3.16 3.17 2.70 7.86 Elastic modulu
s/ GPa 380 370 210 280 400 310 70 205 Hardness/ mohs 9 8 8 9 9 9 3 5
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 WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is form
ed by two or more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer
. 2. Some common composite materials are: a. Reinforces concrete b. Superconduct
or c. Fibre optic d. Fibre glass e. Photochromic glass

REINFORCES CONCRETE
1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to main
tain. It is more important construction materials. 2. The reinforces is a combin
ation of concrete and steel.
SUPERCONDUCTOR
1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20%
of the electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission. 2. Supe
r conductor are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at
a particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible. 3. O
ne of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitat
e a magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed tr
ain (at about 552 km/h). 4. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller an
d faster supercomputer. Superconductor also play an important role in high speed
data processing in internet communication.
FIBRE OPTIC
1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for ligh
t wave. 2. Fibre optic is used in a. Telecommunicate where the telephone substat
ion are liked by fibre optic cables. b. Domestic cable television network c. Clo
sed circuit television security system. 3. Fibre optic also used in medical fiel
ds. It is used in a number of instrument which enable the investigation for inte
rnal body part without having to perform surgery.
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 FIBRE GLASS
1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto
a refractory rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to
fire and water but is brittle. 3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new com
posite material fibre glass reinforces plastic is formed. 4. Fibre glass reinfor
ces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is a. Extrem
ely strong b. Light weigh c. Resistant to fire and water d. Can be molded, shape
d and twisted
PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and
a small amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, phot
ochromic glass is formed. 2. The photochromic glass has a special properties. It
darken when exposed to strong sunlight or ultraviolet. 3. Photochromic glass is
suitable for making sunglasses.
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