HUMAN REPRODUCTION

 Humans have separate sexes and reproduction takes place by sexual method.
 The primary sexual organs of males are testes while of females are ovaries.
 Humans exhibit sexual dimorphism as males are different from females in their sexual features or
accessory sex organs.
 The sexual features include mammary glands in females; beards and moustaches in males.

The Male Reproductive System

 The male reproductive system is made up of a pair of testes, genital ducts, many accessory glands and
penis.
 Each testis is small, pinkish and oval which is compound tubular gland which has numerous highly coiled
seminiferous tubules which are situated in testicular lobules.
 Testicular lobules are protected by tough capsule of collagenous connective tissue which is known as
tunica albuginea.
 Each seminiferous tubule is made up of fibrous connective tissue, a well defined basal lamina and
germinal or seminiferous epithelium.
 The seminifeous epithelium is composed of sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells.
 Sertoli cells are also known as supporting cells and named sertoli because Enricho Sertoli discovered it.
 The apical ends of sertoli cells lie in the lumen of seminiferous tubule while bases adhere to basal lamina.
 The function of sertoli cells is to provide nourishment to the developing spermatogenic cells which are
stacked in 4-8 layers in the space present between lumen and basal lamina.
 Spermatogenic cells divide many times and finally give rise to spermatozoa.
 The interstitial cells or leydig cells lie between seminiferous tubules.
 Leydig cells are named so after the name of discoverer Franz Von Leydig.
 Leydig cells secrete testosterone hormone which regulates spermatogenesis.
 Both the testes are held in a pouch outside the abdomen or pelvic cavity which is called scrotum. That’s
why the testes in humans are extra-abdominal.
 The inguinal canal connects the scrotum with the pelvic cavity and abdomen.

Transverse section of testis showing seminiferous tubules and various stages of spermatogenesis

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 The testes pull their blood vessels, nerves and conducting tubes after them while descending from the
abdomen.
 The spermatic cord has cremaster muscle and connective tissue which enclose all types of vessels, nerves
and conducting tubes after them.
 The loop of intestine gets bulged out into the scrotum because of tearing of inguinal tissue and results in a
condition called inguinal hernia.
 The temperature of scrotum is 2°C lower than body temperature and this temperature is important for
sperm production.
 The straight tubuli recti connect the seminiferous tubules to labyrinth of cuboidal epithelium-lined
channels, the rete testis.
 10-20 fine tubules, ductuli efferentes arise from rete testis,
 The intra testicular genital duct systems are formed by tubuli recti, rete testis and ductuli efferentes.
 The ductuli efferentes get together and form the ductus epididymis.
 The epididymis made up of a single convoluted tubule which is highly coiled and leads into a sperm duct
which is called ductus deferens or vas deferens.
 The ductus deferens is a straight tube which passes through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity.
 The ductus deferens dilates to form ampulla just before entering the prostate.
 Ampulla receives the seminal vesicle of its side.
 This is the place at which ductus deferens enters the single prostate gland and continues as ejaculatory
duct.
 Prostate opens into the prostatic urethra.
 Prostatic urethra emerges from the urinary bladder.
 The urethra goes through penis and opens to the exterior.
 The excretory genital ducts are made up of the ductus epididymis, ductus or vas deferens and the urethra;
which together transport the spermatozoa toward the penile meatus.
 The seminal vesicle secretes spermatozoa activating substances such as fructose, citrate, inositol and
prostaglandins and many proteins.
 Seminal vesicle contributes 70 % of human ejaculate or semen.
 Semen is made up of spermatozoa and fluid from prostate gland and seminal vesicle.
 The prostate gland is a collection of 30-40 tubuloalveolar glands whose secretion falls into prostatic
urethra at the time of ejaculation.
 The bulbourethral glands or cowper’s glands opens into urethra and secrete clear mucus for lubrication.
 The accessory genital glands include seminal vesicles, the prostate and the bulbourethral glands.
 Penis is copulatory organ which is made up of long shaft that enlarges to form an extended tip which is
known as glans penis.
 The penis has three types of erectile tissues: two cylinders of the corpora cavernosa which are placed
dorsally and one cylinder of corpus cavernosum or corpus spongiosum ventrally.
 The corpora cavernosa and urethra are protected by dense connective tissue which is known as tunica
albuginea.
 The secondary sexual organs of a man include accessory genital glands, their duct system and penis.

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 Transverse section of human penis

 Formation of spermatozoa is known as spermatogenesis.

 Spermatogenesis and transfer of sperm to the reproductive tract of the female are two major functions
performed by male reproductive system.

The Female Reproductive System

 The female reproductive system is made up of two ovaries, two oviducts (uterine tubes), the uterus, a
vagina and the external genitalia, accessory genital glands and the mammary glands.

Human female reproductive system

 The ovaries are located close to the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity and are suspended from the dorsal
wall of body by mesovarium which is a section of peritoneum.
 Several ligaments help ovaries to stay there.
 Ovary is made up of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
 There are spindle-shaped fibroblasts in the stroma of cortical region.
 Tunica albuginea gives whitish color to the ovary.

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 Germinal epithelium is the outer layer which covers the surface of the ovary.
 The female gametes are known as ova or egg before their maturation they are enclosed in various follicles
inside the stroma of cortex.

Sectional view of human ovary showing oocytes at various stages of development in the ovarian follicles

 A follicle is made up of oocyte that is surrounded by layer or layers of granulosa cells that are derived
from the germinal epithelium.
 The follicular cells divide by mitosis and form granulose layer.
 The zona pellucida surrounds the oocyte and is made up of glycoproteins which are synthesized by follicle
cells and the oocyte.
 The mature follicle is of 2.5 cm in diameter and is known as Graffian follicle.
 The antrum is a fluid-filled cavity which is formed due to accumulation of increasing amount of fluid in
follicular cavity and this fluid is liquor folliculi.
 The maturing oocytes remain suspended in the liquor folliculi through a pedicel known as cumulus
oophorus.
 Cumulus oophorus is made up of granulose cells.
 Afterwards, the cells which are very close to ovum and zona pellucida get transformed into corona
radiata.
 Ovulation is the process of release of mature ovum and remaining granulose cells and interstitial cells
form mass of yellowish conical cells known as corpus luteum.
 Corpus luteum behaves as temporary endocrine gland and release progesterone and estrogen.
 Follicular atresia is an event which occurs during reproductive years in which most of the ovaries undergo
regression and disappear due to death and disposal by phagocytes.
 So, out of 4 lakhs, only a few ovaries will be left.
 One ovum is released in each menstrual cycle by alternate ovaries and this way 450 ova are produced by a
human female till 40-50 years of age.
 The follicular cells undergo follicular atresia and degenerate while thecal cells persist and become active.
 These thecal cells are called interstitial cells and secrete a small amount of androgen.
 The oviduct (fallopian tube) is a muscular tube of 12 cm with ciliated epithelium lined lumen.
 The oviducts are located at central position in the pelvic cavity and lead into uterus that consists of a body
or corpus, a narrow uterine cavity or the internal os, and a lower cylindrical structure, the cervix.
 The wall of the oviduct is made up of three layers- mucosa, muscularis, serosa.

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 The mucosa of lumen has secretory and ciliated columnar cells which produce a viscous liquid that
provide nutrition and protection to the ovum.
 The mucosa or endometrium is made up of an inner epithelium and an outer connective tissue layer, the
lamina propria.
 The myometrium is external to the mucosa and is made up of bundles of smooth muscles.
 The outermost layer is either serosa (connective tissue or mesothelium) or adventitia(only connective
tissue).
 The cervix leads into the vagina which is made up of mucosa, a muscular layer and an adventitia.
 The vagina is lacking glands.
 The hymen partly covers the exterior vaginal aperture.
 The hymen may get broken by vigorous physical activities.
 The female external genitalia is known as vulva.
 The vulva includes the clitoris, labia minora, labia majora.
 Labia minora encloses a space called vestibulum where many glands open.
 The clitoris is made by two labia minora at anterior position.
 The clitoris is formed by two erectile bodies ending in a rudimentary glans clitoridis and a prepuce.
 The covering of clitoris is stratified squamous epithelium which is homologous to male’s glans penis.
 The secondary sexual organs of human female include the oviduct, uterus, vagina, clitoris, the accessory
genital glands and mammary glands.
 Each mammary gland has 15-25 lobules.
 These lobules are tubuloalveolar type.

Human female mammary gland

 These lobules lead to excretory lactiferous ducts which emerge in nipple.

 The lactiferous ducts have 15-25 opening of about 0.5 nm in diameter
 The lobules are separated by connective tissue and adipose tissue.
 The histology of mammary glands very much depends upon age and other physiological factors.
The following functions are performed by human female reproductive system: production of
eggs-oogenesis, reception of sperm during copulation, fertilization, nourishment to growing foetus.

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EVENTS OF HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 The major events of human reproduction: formation of gametes, menstrual cycle, fusion of gametes,
development of the zygote, gradual transformation into a baby, production of milk for baby, the birth of
the baby and all are regulated and coordinated by hormones which are secreted from anterior pituitary
gland and gonads.

Gametogenesis

 The gametes are haploid cells which are produced through gametogenesis and zygote formation requires
the fusion of two haploid gametes; one is ova and another one is sperm.
 The production of female gamete is known as oogenesis which occurs in follicles of ovary and formation
of male gametes is known as spermatogenesis which occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
 The primordial germ cells are extra gonadal in origin and give rise to spermatozoa and ova.
 The PGC itself originates during early embryonic development from extra-embryonic mesoderm.
 From there, they go to yolk sac endoderm and finally to gonads of the developing embryo.
 Gametogenesis starts at puberty (at the age of 9-11 years in girls and 11-13 years in boys).

 There are three stages in which spermatogenesis takes place: spermatocytogenesis (in which
spermatogonia divide and produce new cells called spermatocytes); meiosis I and meiosis II;
spermiogenesis in which spermatids differentiate into spermatozoa.

 First of all at puberty, the spermatogonia start dividing by mitosis and produce a large number of
spermatogonia.

 Out of these some go for stem cells or type A spermatogonia which serves for stem cells for
spermatogenic lineage and others differentiate into progenitor cells or type B spermatogonia which will
differentiate into primary spermatocytes.

Spermatogenesis

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 The type B spermatogonia undergo growth by accumulating nourishment from germinal cells and become
around double in volume.
 These synthetic activities are preparatory for initiation of meiosis and such diploid cells ie 44+XY
chromosomes are called primary spermatocytes and after they enter the first meiotic division and
complete the stages of prophase leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
 Prophase is followed by metaphase, anaphase and telophase to complete the reduction division (meiosis
I).
 The daughter cells are called secondary spermatocytes which are produced after meiosis I and they are
haploid ie 22+X/ 22+Y chromosome and haploid DNA.
 After meiosis II secondary spermatocytes produce 4 haploid spermatids.
 Finally spermiogenesis occurs which is differentiation of spermatids into mature spermatozoa.
 Spermiogenesis has following stages: formation of acrosome, condensation and elongation of the nucleus,
development of the flagellum, the loss of redundant substances of the cytoplasm and its organelles and
finally transformation into a spermatozoan.
 Sperm cell is made up of a head (having acrosome, a nucleus with a haploid set of chromosomes in a
compact and inactive state); a midpiece (having mitochondria, proximal and distal centrioles in short
neck) and a tail which is reinforced by an axoneme formed of microtubules.
 These sperms get stored in epididymis and mature in first portion of vas deferens and gets stored there as
well.
 An adult male manufactures over 1012 to 1013 sperm cells each day.
 The interstitial cells or leydig cells lie between the seminiferous tubules and release testosterone which is
important for sperm production.
 The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone and this hormone stimulates anterior
pituitary to release interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) or luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
 LH targets leydig cells and controls spermatogenesis by regulating testosterone while FSH targets sertoli
cells which release androgen binding protein (ABP) that concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous
tubules and cause stimulation of spermatogenesis.
 Sertoli cells also secrete another protein, called inhibin, which suppresses FSH synthesis.
 The level of testosterone is under negative-feedback control; a rising level of testosterone suppresses the
release of GnRH from the hypothalamus.

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 Hormonal control of male reproductive system

 Oogenesis takes place in the ovaries. In contrast to males, the initial steps in egg production occur prior to
birth. By the time the foetus is 25 weeks old, all the oogonia that she will ever produce, are already
formed by mitosis. Hundreds of these cells (about 45,000-65,000) develop into primary oocytes, begin
the first steps of the first meiotic division, proceed up to diakinesis, and then stop any further
development. The oocytes resume their development when the female matures sexually, i.e., attains
puberty. The primary oocyte grows and forms secondary oocyte and a small polar body this is how
meiosis I is completed.
 The first polar body does not undergo meiosis II and secondary oocyte goes to metaphase stage of
meiosis II and w.aits for the arrival of the spermatozoa for the completion of meiosis II.
 After sperm entry, the cell cycle restarts which causes breaking down MPF (M-phase promoting factor)
and turning on the APC (Anaphase promoting complex).
 The completion of meiosis II is nothing but fertilization and leads to formation of zygote and a second
polar body.


Fig. 14.14 Oogenesis

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 Menstrual cycle showing hormonal relations : (a) Gonadotropin, (b) Ovarian cycle, (c) Ovarian hormones, (d)
Uterine cycle

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 Hormonal control of female reproductive system
 The human female produces ova at more or less regular intervals within their ovarian follicles.
 Ovulation is rupture of mature follicle to liberate the ovum which takes place generally at 14th day of
cycle.
 The lutenising hormone (LH) secreted by anterior pituitary gland is a stimulus which causes the granulosa
cells of developing ovarian follicles to synthesize estrogens and cause the corpus luteum to synthesise
both estrogens and progesterone.
 The secondary sexual characteristics of a mature woman are because of estrogens. The synthesis of
estrogens is stimulated by FSH which in turn is controlled by Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
 High levels of estrogens suppress the release of GnRH, providing a negative-feedback control of hormone
levels.
 Progesterone production is stimulated by lutenising hormone (LH), which is also stimulated by
hypothalamic GnRH and the increased levels are also controlled by negative feedback loop just like
estrogen.

Menstrual Cycle
 The menstrual cycle is the cyclic time in which the reproductive system of woman shows regular changes.
 It starts at the age of 11-15 years and continues to 45-50 years and the average time to which menstrual
cycle continues is 28 days and then new cycle starts.
 The process in which the endometrium or uterine mucosa sloughs off as menstrual bleeding is known as
menstruation.
 Estrogen plays a central role in the menstrual cycles.

Graphical representation of menstrual cycle

 The menstruation occurs for 4-7 days and it is followed by growth of ovarian follicle which secrets an
increasing amount of estrogens which replenish the thickness of endometrium.
 The increased levels of FSH stimulate growth of the ovarian follicles and the formation of estrogens.
 FSH causes maturation of follicles, completion of meiosis I and formation of secondary oocyte.
 The corpus luteum secretes progesterone by stimulation of LH.
 This progesterone prepare endometrioun for reception of blastocyst, inhibits contraction of uterus and
development of new follicle.
 If fertilization does not occur, the increased level of progesterone will initiate negative feedback loop

 As the progesterone level drops, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and transforms into a white
body, the corpus albicans.

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  Consequently, the endometrium begins to break down, the inhibition of uterine contraction ceases and
menstruation starts.

Fertilisation and Implantation

 The union of two opposite gametes, spermatozoa and ova is known as fertilization.
 The semen is a mixture of spermatozoa and accessory fluids which goes to vagina and through the uterus
into oviducts and all this requires a lot of energy.
 The ejaculation of semen in the vagina triggers motility of spermatozoa it is further triggered by muscular
contraction of the walls of the uterus and the oviducts and by viscous secretion from the secretory cells of
mucosa of oviduct. All this process of sperm activation is called capacitation which takes abpout 5-6 hrs.
 The spermatozoa has to penetrate all the egg membrane which covers the egg.
 Acrosomal reaction is the first step in which head of sperm release various chemicals eg hyaluronidase
(acts on the ground substances of follicle cells), corona penetrating enzyme (dissolves corona radiata)
and zona lysine or acrosin (help to digest the zona pellucida) which are collectively known as sperm lysins.
 While fertilin protein is present on sperm surface. In 3-4 mL of semen 80-100 million spermatozoa are
present.
 Monospermy is fertilization of egg with only one sperm.
 After acrosomal reaction the egg and sperm head has to bind which activates the egg and undergoes
depolarization of its membrane. This depolarization is followed by cortical reaction or zona reaction which
does not allow the egg to receive any other sperm and prevents polyspermy (the entry of more than one
sperm into the ovum).
 Oocyte is released from the ovary and dragged into the oviduct prior to fertilization. So, the exact location
of fertilization is ampulla of oviduct which is closer to ampulla.

Development of human embryo in female reproductive tract (Fertilisation–implantation)

 When head of sperm enlarges into male pronucleus the meiosis II of egg also completes and forms a
female pronucleus.
 The male and female pronuclei move toward each other. Their nuclear envelopes disintegrate. A spindle is
formed, and a full diploid set of chromosomes, one paternal set and one maternal set, assembles on it.
 The zygote undergoes mitotic division to initiate cleavage or embryonic development.

Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

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 Cleavage occurs in succession without any growth and synthetic phase,
 Cleavage is rapid, rhythmic and slowest in mammals.
 Cleavage divisions are asynchronous following arithmetic progression.
 The daughter cells after cleavage are known as blastomeres.
 The complete cleavage is known as holoblastic cleavage.

Stages of formation of blastocyst in a mammal

 The embryo at the 16-celled stage is called the morula because of resemblance to mulberry fruit.
 The morula produces two major types of cells: peripheral cells and the inner cell mass during the process
of compaction.
 The peripheral cells become the trophoblast (trophoectoderm) which produce the four extraembryonic
membranes and part of the placenta and the trphoblast cells also secrete fluid to form the blastocoel and
such structure is known as blastocyst.
 The embryo develops from the inner cell mass.

A human blastocyst
 After one week past fertilization, the blastocyst emebeds itself into the thickened wall of the uterus which
is called implantation and leads to start of pregnancy.
 Implantation causes profound changes in uterine endometrium (decidua) in pregnancy.

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  The decidua tissues are three types: deciduas basalis (situated between the embryo and uterine serosa
myometrium), decidua capsularis (between the embryo and the lumen of the uterus); and deciduas
parietalis (the remaining part of the deciduas).

(a)

(b)

Three regions of deciduas (a) early stage, (b) late stage

 Gastrulation is the next step of development in which three germinal layers are produced by cell
movements called morphogenetic movements.
 The phase of neurulation starts in which neural plate is developed and this neural plate is nothing but
primordium of nervous system.
 The organ rudiments convert into organ and this process is known as organogenesis.
 The extraembryonic or foetal membranes are the amnion, chorion, allantois and yolk sac.
 Amnion is important for developing embryo and it provides a fluid medium and protects from dessication.
 Amnion also acts as shock absorber.
 The human placenta is also called chorioallantoic placenta. The temporary associoation between the
foetal (chorion) and maternal tissue (decidua basalis) is known as placenta.
 The foetal placenta grows intimacy and invades the uterine mucosa with its chorionic villi.
 The blood vessels of the villi bathed in the mother’s blood.
 The human placenta is haemochorial placenta in which chorion comes in contact with maternal blood
with no blending of the two blood supplies.
 The placenta acts as an ultrafilter; soluble inorganic and organic materials nutrients, hormones, antibodies
against diphtheria, small pox, scarlet fever, measles, etc. can pass from the mother to the foetus.
 Placenta helps in exchange of gases between the mother and the foetus and elimination of nitrogenous
waste of the foetus.
 Placenta behaves as an endocrine gland and it synthesizes human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG),
chorionic thyrotropin, chorionic corticotropin, chorionicsomatomammotropin, estrogens and
progesterone.
 The HCG secretes relaxin to facilitate parturition as it softens the connective tissue of the symphysis
pubica and it also stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone until the end of pregnancy.
 The foetus is connected to placenta by umbilical cord.
 The first trimester or first 3 months of pregnancy leads to completion of the basic structure of the baby.
 This is the sensitive period in which foetus is prone to viral infections which are known as teratogens as
they can lead to malformations in the developing baby.
 From first trimester onwards foetus is less susceptible to teratogens.
 Progesterone is also known as pregnancy hormone as it is required continually during entire period of
gestation or pregnancy.

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Parturition and Lactation
 Parturition is a set of events which bring onset of labour which leads to opening of the cervix.
 The amniotic fluid flows out through vagina when continued powerful contraction causes rupture of
amnion.
 Baby comes out and its umbilical cord can be cut.
 Colostrum is first milk which is rich in proteins and energy and antibodies for passive immunity and it
comes out from mother’s mammary gland just after child birth.
 Three or four days after delivery, the breasts begin to secrete milk.
 The synthesis of milk is stimulated by the pituitary hormone prolactin (PRL).
 The increased level of oxytocin causes the release of milk.
 Milk contains inhibitory peptide which if accumulated in breast inhibits milk production by an autocrine
action which matches supply with demand.

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