F-1.

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PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

Unit – II ( Part a and b)

CONCEPT AND NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is the earliest and the most original discipline. It is one of the oldest and the most respected
provinces of knowledge. Philosophy is a systematic and through attempt to relate the universe and human
life to each other in a meaningful way. It is „Open- mindedness‟ which, according to Dr. Prem Nath, „is
cultivated through the rigorous discipline of the mind‟. Philosophical open-mindedness is philosophical
wisdom which implies an understanding of the universe, in terms of human experience, in the true
perspective. In the words of a writer, philosophy represents “the efforts to combine into an integrated
system all knowledge and all experiences both individual and racial.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

(a) Derivative ‘Meaning of Philosophy : The term „philosophy‟ has been derived from the two Greek
words „philos‟ and „Sophia‟. „Philos‟ means love and „Sophia‟ means wisdom. So, the term
„philosophy‟ means love of wisdom of wisdom does not necessarily make one a true Philosopher It
implies understanding it means finding meaning and relationship among ideas. Plato, the great
Greek Philosopher will have us believe, “He who has a taste for every sort of k. and who is curious
to learn and is never satisfied may justly be called a Philosopher.”

(b) Views of Scholars: Scholars have defined the term philosophy‟ in their own ways. It is interesting
to go through these views.

1. Aristotle’s View : “Philosophy is a science which investigates the nature of being, as it is in itself.”

2. Plato’s View: “Philosophy aims at a knowledge of the eternal nature of things.

3. Views of Cisero : Cisero called it as “the mother of all arts.”

4. Views of Coleridge : Coleridge defined Philosophy as the “science of sciences”.

5. Views of Bertrand Russell: According to the great British Philosopher Russell, “Philosophy like
all other studies, aims Primarily acknowledge.

6. Views of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: “Philosophy is a logical enquiry into the nature of reality.”

7. Views of Kant: “Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.”

8. Fichte Considers Philosophy as the “science of knowledge.”

9. View of Bramold: “Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and presistent people to make
life as intelligible and meaning as Possible.”

10. Accor to Handerson, Philosophy is an attempt to conceive and present an inclusive and systematic
view of the universe its main place in it.

11. T. Raymont says, “Philosophy is unceasing effort to discern the general truth that lies behind the
particular facts, to discern the reality that lies behind appearance.”

12. Brightman’s View : Philosophy may be defined as the attempt to think truly about human
experience as a whole and to make our whole experience intelligible.

AREAS OR SCOPE OF THE PHILOSOPHY

Scope refers to extent, operation, width and breadth, outlook, range of experiences, purview etc.
The scope Philosophy is very vast. According to Indian thought, life and Philosophy are complementary to
each other but its scope is expanding under the Western philosophy. It has rather greatly increased. It has
been divided into several divisions.

Within its purview or scope, we discuss soul, God, unknown power, the origin of this world, its
expansion and development truth, morality, aesthetics and logic. These can be divided into three major
divisions.
A. Metaphysics

B. Epistemology

C. Axiology

A. METAPHYSICS

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which deals with the nature of reality. What is the nature
of reality of this universe. Is the materialistic world true or the spiritual world? What is the source or origin
of this world ? It also studies the origin, nature and destiny of man. Actually such doubts and questions are
the creators of philosophy. It has the following constituents:

(a) Theology : Under this, philosophy studies about the existence of God, His nature etc.

(b) Ontology: It is the study of ultimate reality—the nature of existence.

(c) Cosmology : Under this, problems connected with the origin and imposition of the creation
(cosmos) are studied. In other words, it studies the mysteries of the world.

(d) Cosmogony : It is concerned with the theory of the origin and development of the universe—the
creation of the world.

(e) Philosophy of self : It is mainly concerned with the philosophical interpretations of the self. The
first question before man is : Who am I ? This led to other questions.

(f) Eschatology : It is any system of doctrines concerning last, or final matters as death or the after
life.

B. EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE)

It is that branch of philosophy which studies the structure, methods and validity of knowledge. It
deals with the theory of problem of knowledge. Questions discussed are : I-low do we get knowledge? How
does a man know what is real ? The other related issues studied under epistemolgoy are: human
intelligence, problems concerning his capacity for learning, his means, nature of evidence, nature of real
and unreal etc.

The naturalists believe in the knowledge gained through senses and the idealists believe in the
knowledge gained through spiritual experience. In short, such questions are discussed under Epistemology
and it is important for study.

C. AXILOGY

It discusses the theory of values. Axiology deals with the questions like : What are the higher
values of life ? What are the principles of life? How do they support the view of reality? The following sub-
areas are studied under it:

(a) Logic : Logic is the study of the rules and techniques of reasoning. It is the logic that gives an
understanding of scientific method of enquiry through its inductive and deductive methods. Under
this part of philosophy, “logical thinking, imagination or supposition, its characteristics, methods of
enquiry etc., are considered.”

(b) Ethics : It deals with judgement or approval and disapproval, rightness and wrongness, goodness
and badness, virtue and vice. It is also called moral philosophy. Precisely, it deals with the
principles of conduct which help us judge whether a choice or an action is good or right.

(c) Aesthetics: It deals the problems connected with beauty. It analyses beauty and ugliness, their
characteristics and standards of measuring the two concepts.

The above disciplines are the main division of philosophy but the scope of philosophy is
not limited to these divisions only. The knowledge of the entire universe, is the scope of
philosophy.
Different areas explained above may be represented briefly in the following diagram:

PHILOSOPHY

METAPHYSICS EPISTEMOLOGY EXIOLOGY

(Nature of Beauty) (Theory of Knowledge (Theory of Values)

1. Theology 1. Origin of knowledge 1. Logic

2. Ontology 2. Types of knowledge 2. Ethics
3. Cosmology 3. Methods of knowledge 3. Aesthetics
4. Cosmogony 4. Validity of knowledge
5. Philosophy of self 5. Sources of knowledge
6. Eschatology
(soul after death)

Functions of Educational Philosophy : Brubacher’s View: According to Brubacher, educational

philosophy mainly performs three functions:

1. Normative function;

2. Critical function;

3. Speculative function.

These three functions are briefly described below.

1. Normative Function of Educational Philosophy : The word „normative‟ refers to „norms‟ or

„standards‟. So the normative function of educational philosophy refers to the setting of life‟s goal
norms and standards. Philosophy explains the values of human life, the problems that are there and
then sets the goals for conducting practical ways of attaining them. In life, man is ever face to face
the contradictions. His state is first like that Of Shakespeare‟s Hamle ho is caught within the
predicament of „to be or not to be‟. Pros J.R. Taneja puts it‟. “When man is faced with difficulties,
strain. and stresses, contradictory situations, unforeseen circumstances and intriguing problems,
philosophy enables him to consider the „pros‟ and „cons‟ and arrive at correct solution.” When it
combines with education which is its handmaid, and acquires the status of educational philosophy,
it helps the teacher and the administrator to have clear vision of their goals and thus, adopt surer
means to attain them. That is why Brubacher remarks that “balance of mind and search for
principles is the main spring of philosophy.”

2. Function of Educational Philosophy: In its critical function, educational philosophy makes an

indepth study of every aspect of education. It casts a penetrating and searching eye on education, its
content and methodology. It makes an evaluation of process of education as well as what the
educators are up to. “It clarifies concepts, tests hypothesis, establishes consistency, presents unity
of outlook and inspires logical reasoning.” That is why John Dewey opines that “education is the
laboratory in which philosophical distinctions become concrete and are tested.” Educational
philosophy makes a man not only wise, but also enables him to become open- minded and to
exercise unprejudiced judgement and to become more tolerant for the needs of others.

3. Speculative Function of Educational Philosophy : In its speculative function, educational

philosophy strikes a synthesis within the array of facts the bits of knowledge gathered from various
sources. It, thus, “leads the educator and the educational administrator from common sense
approach to rational and perspective approach.” Education becomes a unified whole, a
comprehensive activity leading straight to its destination. In its speculative function, educational
philosophy directs all the wayward streams to the mother occean which is continuous, never
pausing, ever moving, ever growing, vital and pulsating with more life.
 Relationship Between Philosophy and Education
INTRODUCTION

After discussing the meaning, nature and scope of philosophy, our main concern is to highlight the
relationship between philosophy and education.

Philosophy and education are closely related to each other. The common subject for both
philosophy and education is „man‟. Education, which is concerned with the modification of the natural man,
looks to philosophy for the ideal to which to lead him. Thus it is clear that philosophy plays the most
important role in determining the nature of any education. Philosophy and education are interdependent.

It has been rightly said that “Education without philosophy is blind and philosophy without
education is invalid.” Gentile remarks that it is difficult to understand education without a knowledge of
philosophy. In the words of Dr. S.P. Chaube, “The problems of philosophy and education are so much
Interdependent that to Herbart education cannot rest content without the solution of the problems of
„philosophy for ever.”

Before we give detailed view of the topic, it is appropriate to point out the underlying theme or
concept of education

What is Education?

Education enriches life by increasing the power and inclination to reason. It makes human beings
out of us. Education is, infact, apprenticeship of life. It is the process which leads to the intellectual, social,
cultural and spiritual development of the individual and modification of his behaviour.

Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. Education is used as a powerful device by the
philosophers who hold a vital belief to convert others into their point of view.

“All the major issues of education are at heart, philosophical.”

Education is philosophy in action. Education in its widest sense includes everything that exerts a
formative influence, and causes a young person to be, at a given point, what he is. In the words of
Radhakrishnan

“It must include not only the training of the intellect but also the refinement of the heart and the
discipline of the spirit.” This way, education is always guided by certain lines in accordance with certain
ideals, values and standards of life i.e. philosophy of life.

Need for a Philosophy of Education

Philosophy is the corner-stone of the foundation of education. It gives direction to education by providing
certain guidelines. It is only with a philosophy of education that the school officials, teachers and even
parents can co-ordinate their efforts towards achieving an aim.

Philosophy can be interpreted as a Vision in a wider perspective. This being so, education should be
wedded to some philosophy in general. Education is a plant on which the flower of philosophy blossoms.

Philosophy is the Basis of All Education

Without a philosophy of education we get nowhere at all. All our efforts prove useless. There is an
enormous loss of time, energy and finance. Moreover, there is an immense waste of human resources.
Practice, unguided by theory, is aimless, inconsistent and inefficient.

Education is essentially a philosophical enterprise. “Philosophising” is the main business of

philosophy. Therefore, there is a need for a philosophy of education.

Philosophy is fundamentally a belief or an opinion. There should, therefore, be a consensus among

different beliefs. This consensus will lead to co-ordination and evolving a desirable philosophy of education
based upon certain criteria. Thus philosophy of education is the living and unifying force behind the
educational aims and activities.

PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION—THEIR INTERDEPENDENCE

Philosophy and education are closely inter-related. Education is the application of philosophy or
philosophy of education is applied philosophy. It is the application of philosophy to the study of the
problems of education that is known as philosophy of education. Further, “a sound philosophy of education
is based on an adequate philosophy of life.” In fact, philosophy is the groundwork or foundation out of
which comes the objectives of education. Philosophy and education walk hand in hand. In this relationship,
philosophy and education are reconstructive ; they give to and take from each other in ebb and flow of
thought and action ; they are means to one another, and ends ; they are process and product.

(a) Great Philosophers have also been Great Educationists: According to Ross, “Philosophy and
education are like the sides of a coin, presenting different views of the same thing, and that the one
is implied by the other.” In the words of Sir John Adams “Education is the dynamic side of
philosophy.” If one is contemplative the other is active side.

Educators who are also great philosophers have bearing upon educational scheme through
their philosophical views and ideals. Education is the strongest instrument for the realisation of the
ideals of life and a civilized attempt to bring about the desired development of human personality.
This indicates the fact that plant of education draws its nourishment from the soil of philosophy.

(b) The Ultimate Questions of Educations are the Questions of Philosophy : Philosophy answers all
the ultimate questions of education Bertrand Russell contends that philosophy an attempt to answer
the ultimate question of education Philosophy of education undertakes the systematic discussion of
educational problems on a philosophical level. It consists of “probing into educational question
until it is reduced to an issue in etaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic or to combinations of these.”

(I) Philosophy and Aims of Education. Education being a planned and purposeful activity, has manifold
aims. These aims or objectives are formulated by the philosophy of life. It is again philosophy
which formulates the aims of education based upon-deep insight and fundamental thinking. In the
words of Rusk, “Philosophy formulates what it conceives to be the end of life; education offers
suggestion how this end is to be achieved.” We always require some sort of guiding philosophy in
the determination of objectives of education.

IMPACT OF PHILOSOPHY ON EDUCATION

Since philosophy and education are intimately related, it seems necessary to discuss their
relationship in different fields viz., (i) Aims, (ii) Curriculum, (iii) Teaching techniques, (iv) Concept of
discipline, (u) Teacher and so on.

(i) Philosophy and Aims of Education. Education being planned and purposeful activity, has
manifold aims. These aims or objectives are formulated by the philosophy of life. It is again philosophy
which formulates the aims of education based upon-deep insight and fundamental thinking. In the words of
Rusk, “Philosophy formulates what it conceives to be the end of life; education offers suggestion how this
end is to be achieved.” We always require some sort of guiding philosophy in the determination of
objectives of education.

Aims of Education are co-related to the Ideals of Life

The aims of education are related to the aims of life. In the light of changing philosophy of life we
have aims of education which are at variance. They change with the changing philosophy of life. To prove
the statement we can refer to the study of aims of education in their historical prespective. In short,
“Philosophy is the determining force for laying down the aims of educations.” Unless we have
philosophical understanding of life and some guiding philosophy, education will be meaningless and the
teacher like rudderless boat. Bode says, “Unless we have some guiding philosophy in the determination of
objectives, we get nowhere at all.” With such a philosophical background we direct our efforts and energies
towards achieving the goals. A philosopher lays down ultimate values of life and these become the aims of
education for a particular society or nation. Hence it is clear that aims of education are determined by
philosophy. Different philosophies have prescribed different-aims of education. Idealism recommends-
exaltation of human personality as the main aim of education, while Naturalism emphasises self-
preservation as the fundamental aim of education. Pragmatism believes in the socialisation of an individual
as the aim of education.

(ii) Philosophy and Curriculum. There are two sides of philosophy, one is theory and the other is practice.
Curriculum being the contents of education may be deemed as the practical side of philosophy. Philosophy
of education being an abstract though forceful entity, prescribes a curriculum for the achievement of its
aims. According to Rusk, “Nowwhere is the dependence of education on philosophy more marked than in
the question of the curriculum”. He is correct, for specific curriculum problems demand a philosophy for
satisfactory solution. Briggs, while discussing curriculum problems says, “It is just here that education
seriously needs leaders—leader who hold a sound comprehensive philosophy of which they can convince
others, and who can direct its consistent application to the formulation of appropriate curriculum.”

(iii) Philosophy and Methods of Teaching. The next main problem is the impact of philosophy on the
science of teaching. “It is on philosophy that the art of education must wait for a design of action.” The
choice of methods of teaching depends on a philosophy of education. Kilpatrick‟s use of the term
Philosophy of method shows that teaching methods and philosophy are closely related. Method is a means
by which a contact is developed between the students and the subject-matter. “In the absence of an adequate
philosophy of life, the method of teaching employed by the teacher may repel the student from the subject.”
This may lead to even disliking of the teacher by the students.

(iv) Philosophy and the Concept of Discipline. The nature or concept of discipline is again governed by
the philosophy of life. In other words, discipline reflects the philosophy of life. It reflects the philosophical
pre-possessions or particular ideologies. A belief prevalent in the past like, “Spare the rod and spoil the
child” signifies a philosophy behind it. Naturalists believe in the concept of discipline by natural
consequences. Idealists favour inner discipline—discipline of mind or intellect. Pragmatists stress free
discipline and self—discipline, inner or outer discipline. Militant or self-imposed discipline has been
propagated by different schools of thought and political ideologies. Indian philosophy has always been
favouring discipline of the soul, mind and intellect, control over the physical movements, actions and
4houghts. Modern concept of discipline gives maximum freedom to child and provides opportunities to
have self-control, co-existence and the inner discipline. This is a clear impact of democratic idealogy and
social philosophy.

Different educationists and philosophers have prescribed different techniques of teaching according
to their bent of mind or mental disposition and scheme of education. To support the statement, we can quote
idealists, naturalists and pragmatists with their separate methods which are in consonance with their
respective philosophy. The naturalists lay emphasis on motivation, direct experiences and on maintaining
interest of the child. The idealists believe in lecture method and discussion. Their sole concern is to create
suitable environments in order to influence the development of an individual. Pragmatists recommend
socialized techniques, projects and problem—solving methods and other activities as the teaching
techniques. In the end it may be said that teachers who think that they can do without a philosophy of life
render their methods of teaching ineffective.

(v) Philosophy and Teacher. Every man is born a metaphysician. So every teacher is a philosopher. In the
process of education, teacher is the pivotal point, the heart of the matter. Education takes place through the
interaction between the teacher and the taught. The teacher influences the personality of the child and instils
in him a thoughtful awakening, a new life and beliefs. This is in no way indoctrination. To be a successful
teacher it is essential for him to know the philosophy of education and its related ingredients. He himself
should have a desirable philosophy of life. His philosophy of life finds an expression in the philosophy of
education. Therefore, a knowledge of philosophy is fundamental not only to an understanding of education
as a‟ whole but also to have a clear grasp of the actual techniques of teaching and their effective use.

Different philosophies of education have prescribed the role of a teacher in the light of their
principles. Idealism assigns a very important role to a teacher who has to inspire and influence his pupils
and mould them to become spiritual beings. He is a co-worker with God in perfecting man. Naturalism
regards teacher as the stage manager who has to provide educational environment. According to
pragmatism, teacher is a friend, a guide and a philosopher. He encourages self education on the part of his
pupils. Thus, in all the cases, a teacher is guided by a particular philosophy of education

(vi) Philosophy and Text-Book. Next important factor is „philosophy and text-book‟. Text-book is an
important means for the realisation of educational aims. Philosophical implications are given special
attention in the preparation of a text-book and in the selection of the content. We have to keep in mind some
standard and judgement. These are formulated by philosophy. Text-books also reflect philosophical
approach to curriculum.

“A good text-book must reflect the prevailing values in life fixed by philosophy.” It should also be
in accordance with the prevailing accepted social ideals, norms and standards. For further clarification,
books also reflect the political ideologies. Present system of text-book writing is very defective. There is an
apparent lack of consensus among its various phases. Text-books need special care and attention. These
must be written in accordance with the philosophy of the time, cultural, social and political background of a
society or nation.

Idealism and Education

Idealism according to Adams, permeates the whole history of Philosophy. It is an old philosophy
represented by persons like Socrates, Plato, Berkley, Fichte, Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, Gentile, Guru Nanak,
Tagore, Gandhi, Vivekanand and Radhakrishanan.

In the words of Prof. Taneja, “In every age it had its own appeal for the thoughtful, rational and
critical minds. Idealism idolises mind and soul.”
 Idealism has many forms, and deals with certain basic questions of human life. It holds that mind or
spirit, as each man experiences it in himself, is fundamentally real and that the totality of the universe is
somehow mind or spirit in its essence.

Idealism shifts the emphasis from the natural or scientific fact of life to the spiritual aspects of
human experience.” Man‟s spiritual nature is considered to be the very essence of his being. To the idealist,
the reality is spiritual in nature rather than physical; mental rather than material. Ideas are of ultimate
cosmic significance. They are rather the essence or archetypes which give form to cosmos. Ideas are eternal
and unchanging.

DERIVATIVE SENSE OF IDEALISM OR DEFINITIN OF A IDEALISM

The word „Idealism‟ signifies two terms : „Idea‟ and „ideal‟. In other words Idealism is born out of Plato‟s
“Theory of Ideas.” According to this doctine, the ultimate supermacy is of ideas. In this way, the real word
is „ideaism‟, but adding the letter „I‟ for pronunciation facility it is known as idealism.

Views of J.S. Ross : “Mind, or spirit is the essential world stuff, that the true reality is of a mental
character.”

Views of D.M. Dutta : “Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritual.”

Idealism further maintains that knowledge is perceived and crystallised in mind. “Knowledge
acquired through the activity, creativity and exercise of the riiu is more important than the knowledge
acquired through sense.

CHIEF ASSERTIONS OF IDEALISM

1. Spirit and Mind constitute Reality. The mind or spirit is the essential world stuff arid the true
reality is of mental character. Idealism believes that the spiritual nature of man is the essence of his
being. The mental or spiritual is more real and important than the material. Idealism holds that the
final truth is in the nature of mind. The study of man and the realisation of „spirit‟ is the „be all and
end all‟ of human life. This realisation comes through institution and an understanding of our own
„self‟.
2. Man being spiritual is a Superior Creation : According to Idealism, the supreme aim of life is
“exaltation of human personality.” Ross says, “Human personality is of supreme value and
constitutes the noblest work of God.” Man is an incarnation of God, the roof and crown of all
creation. His spiritual side distinguishes him from other animals. Reality is found in the mind of
man and not in the external world.
3. Ideas are more Important than Objects : To the idealis are the ultimate Reality whereas objects
die out sooner or later. Hence they give more importance to ideas over the objects and material
things.
4. Universal Mind : According to idealism, there is a spiritual universe permeated by the Universal
Mind. This little mind is a part the Universal Mind. The goal of human life is to realize the
Universal Mind. The whole universe is one organism with its varied parts. Since mind comes from
Mind and soul from Soul and since they are not matter, they are imperishable. Final reality is Mind.
This is also known as principle of Unity in Diversity.
5. Knowledge is perceived and crystallised in mind. Knowledge acquired through the activity,
creativity, and exercise of the mind is more important than the knowledge acquired through sense.”
6. Realisation of Higher Values. According to Idealism, ideals of higher values are made by man.
They have their prior existence. The chief aim of human life is to realize these values which are
Truth, Goodness and Beauty. Idealism visualises glimpses of God in whatever is true, good and
beautiful. The beauty and grace of human life lie in the achievement of these fundamental, absolute
and eternal values.
7. Importance of Personality Development : Idealists give much importance to the „self‟ of the
individual. Hence they insist upon the fullest development of personality of an individual.
According to them, the development of personality means achievement of perfection.
Idealism also believes that there is a certain wholeness about spiritual life as, for instance,
maintained by Vedanta.
The knowledge of spiritual reality, Brabma gyan, is the highest knowledge.

IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Idealism has greatly contributed to the aims of education. It has faith in the glory and grandeur of
human life and in its elevation. It provides human life and education with very high aims. These aims are:

(i) Exaltation of Human Personality. Human life is the grandest work of God. The exaltation of
personality is based upon the concept of realisation of the highest potentialities of the self in a social and
cultural environment. Adams has given great importance to self realisation and development of personality.
The divine within man has to be unfolded and brought to his consciousness. Education must cultivate free
personality.

(ii) Universal Education. Human role is one. Idealism believes in the concept of „universe as
home‟. Education, therefore, should be universal, based on the teaching of universal truth, from the
standpoint of rationality of the universe. “The universe is regarded as a thought- process. It is rational,
cosmos rather than chaos.” We have to learn certain invariable laws that govern this universe.

(iii) Enrichment of Cultural Environment. Man creates his own environment. According to
Rusk, „Cultural environment is an environment of man‟s own making‟. It is a product of man‟s creative
activity. The aim of idealistic education is the preservation as well as enrichment of culture. Education must
contribute to the development of culture, enlarging the boundaries of spiritual realm. It must maintain and
transmit the established values of the past.

(iv) Cultivation of Moral Values. Man is essentially a moral being. Therefore, moral, intellectual
and aesthetic aspects of his personality should be promoted. Naturalism keeps the child away from such
type of positive and normal education where as, idealism gives top priority to the fur values of life. Idealism
also emphasises character building and character formation. Man is sui-generous. He must cultivate his
inventive and creative powers. In the words of Dr. Prem Nath, “The process of education must lead to the
deepest spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual conduct.”

(v) Preparation for a Holy Life. A holy life full of piety and good ideals will lead naturally
towards spiritual development and self realisation. Hence another important aim of education is to prepare
the child for a holy life.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

Idealism attaches great importance to those subjects which provide significant knowledge and
wisdom. Curriculum reflects experience of the human race as a whole. These experiences correspond to
various activities through which one has to acquire the highest good and the inherent values.

Human activities maybe classified as (i) intellectual, (ii) aesthetic and (iii) moral. On the basis of
this, great importance is given to humanities, culture, art, history, philosophy, literature and religion.
Besides, study of science, social studies and mathematics are also given due recognition.

Ross observes, “The health and fitness of the body must receive due attention. For, without such
health and fitness, the pursuit of spiritual values is seriously handicapped.”

Idealism does not ignore physical activities. T.P. Nunn, while suggesting various activities,
recommends that only those activities that are of the greatest value and permanent significance should be
recognised. He has described these activities as “the grand expression of the human spirit.”

James Ross has beautifully synthesised physical and spiritual activities. His scheme is given below:

Moral values which are spiritual can be found in spiritual activities. Physical health is instrumental to the
health of the mind and the spirit. In this way in an idealistic curriculum the scientific subjects as well
humanities are included.

IDEALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Idealism has not contributed much towards the teaching techniques. It is rather the weak point of
this philosophy. According to this school of thought, class-room is a temple of spiritual learning, a meeting
place of human minds—a place for self-education The pupils have to receive knowledge and critical ability
to realise their true selves. For this, no specific method has been prescribed by this philosophy. However,
Pestalozzi, Froebel and others have attempted to provide some class-room teaching techniques. In general,
Idealism advocates:
(i) Questioning;

(ii) Discussion;

(iii) Lecture method;

(iv) Imitation;

(v) Inductive and Deductive Method.

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

Freedom is the cry of the naturalists, while discipline is that of the idealists. This discipline is not strict or
expression of spontaneous activity. Idealists are not in favour of free discipline. Children must endure a
restraint on freedom. This leads to inner discipline. Thus self-insight and self-analysis are the main
discipline is not to be imposed on pupils. The teacher has only to help them to develop self-discipline and
through that self-knowledge.”

IDEALISM AND TEACHER

Idealism gives prominent place to the teacher. He is an indispensable necessity. He has to

constitute special environmental factors to lead the child nearer to reality. A teacher has to guide him
towards his utmost possible perfection. The teacher serves as a living ideal or model for the students and
represents, to some degree, what the students can become. In reality, an idealist teacher is imbued fully
with high degree of self knowledge, self dynamism and essential qualities of spiritualism.

CONCLUSION

The supporters of idealism have their own ground to answer these issues. The above criticism can be
overcome after making a thorough study of this philosophy. We cannot deny the significant features of
idealism. Here more emphasis is laid on the spiritual atmosphere of the school and on practice of moral and
other essential virtues. Idealism generates depth of vision and faith in life. For this, a teacher is only a
helping hand. In the end it can be maintained that idealistic approach to life and education will definitely
reduce the present tension and conflicting situations of educational crisis. By providing suitable
environments and spiritual atmosphere and by becoming right types of teachers we can make the destinies
of our pupils and shape their lives. However, the philosophy of idealism must be supplemented by
pragmatic philosophy.

NATURALISM AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Naturalism is a distinct philosophy according to which reality and nature are identical and that beyond
Nature there is no re According to Naturalism, “Material world is the real world.‟ It emphasises „matter‟
and the physical world. It is absolute and real. It does not believe in sentimentalism, spiritualism and
supernaturalism. Naturalism believes that nature alone contains the normal and the only final answer to all
philosophical problems.

Nature is real, propelled by her own laws and consequently determined by them. It is the doctrine
that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter.

NATURALISM DEFINED

1. Views of Dr. Prem Nath : Dr. Prem Nath observes, “Naturalism is an attitude rather than a specific
system of philosophy.”
2. Views of Ward James : Ward James says that naturalism is the “doctrine that separates nature
from God, subordinates spirit to matter and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme.” According to
this thesis, nature is real, propelled by her own laws and consequently determined by them.
Naturalism denies the existence of spiritual entities beyond the natural world.
3. Views of R.B. Perry: “Naturalism is the philosophical generalization of science—the application
of the theories of science to the problems of philosophy.” Naturalism is but science in the role of
philosophy.” Naturalism, as opposed to idealism, subordinates mind to matter, and holds that
ultimate reality is material, not spiritual.”
CHIEF ASSERTIONS OF NATURALISM

1. Nature is the Ultimate Reality : One of the main concerns of every school of philosophy is
regarding the nature of reality. Naturalism regards nature as the ultimate reality. This means that Nature is
propelled by her own laws and consequently determined by them. For the naturalists, reality and nature are
identical. In the words of Hocking

“Naturalism denies existence of anything beyond nature, behind nature, other than nature, such as
the supernatural or other-worldly.”

2. No distinction between Mind and Body : The Naturalists do not distinguish between mind and
body. Idealists regard the mind as spiritual and the body as just the matter which decays But, for the
naturalists, man is matter and his mind is the resultof his brain- function.

3. Scientific Knowledge : „What knowledge is of most worth ?„—this is one fundamental question
which has been raised very often. The naturalists regard the scientific knowledge as of highest value and of
utmost worth. The scientific knowledge must be in the context of living.

4. Inductive Method : The naturalists advocate the inductive method of acquiring knowledge. It is
the method of science. Naturalists believe that knowledge gained primarily through observation is of the
„greatest value.

5. Values are resident in Nature : Naturalists have no belief in spiritual values. For them, values
are resident in nature. To realise the values which must govern life, one has to live in harmony with nature.
Values are subjective and relative. Values are created in terms of specific needs and purposes which are the
outcomes of the conditions of life.

6. Man—an offspring of Nature : The naturalists regard man as an off spring of nature and not a
segment of society. For them man is a natural animal and not a social animal as pragmatists believe.

7. Senses are the gateways of Knowledge : While Idealists eve that mind is the only source of
knowledge the Naturalists say that all knowledge is comprehensible through senses.

8. Unchangeable laws of Nature : Laws of nature are unchangeable and the whole universe is
governed by them.

SCHOOLS OF NATURALISM

On account of its implications, there are three schools of naturalism:

1. Physical Naturalism

2. Mechanical Naturalism

3. Biological Naturalism.

1. Physical Naturalism

This form of naturalism concentrates its hold on external nature. The laws of physical nature govern
the laws of human life. “The fundamental of these laws is that the natural is good and the citilized evil.”

Physical Naturalism lays more strass on the external material phenomena than the conscious human
beings. Rousseau also contends that cities are the graves of the human species. He also says that everything
is goad when it comes from the hands of the author of Nature. It degenerates in society. Education must be
in conformity with the impulses and tendencies of individuals. For this, experiences are the better products
if supported by natural laws—internal as well as external. Reality is visualised as physical substance. The
extern Nature has complete hold on the life of human beings.

2. Mechanical Naturalism

Mechanical naturalism regards man as a machine. The belief further gives birth to behaviouristic
psychology. Mind as well as man is matter. He is mere machine devoid of spiritual soul. This machine is
run by tune guiding principles and these principles are natural. Nature pulls this machine according to her
laws. Science is the only dependable method of knowledge.
3. Biological Naturalism

This form is based on the notion of evolution, seeking the explanation of man in terms of his racial
past. It was Lamark and them Darwin who believed in the survival of the fittest. According to the life is
dynamic, ever changing and ever developing and needs constant adjustment on the part of the organism.
Their survival depends up on this adjustment. There is a controversy over the impact of heredity and
environment and a compromised formula seems to be the appropriate solution.

Biological Naturalism emphasises the development of mar‟s natural impulses, natural propensities
and inborn tendencies. It hi put forward the following three principles of evolution.

(1) Adaptation to Environment

(2) Struggle for Existence

(3) Survival of the Fittest.

NATURALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Aims of education as prescribed by Naturalism are specified below.

(i) Self Expression. Different schools of naturalism have given different aims of education
Idealism gives importance to self realisation, whereas the main aim of naturalism is „self-expression and
self-preservation ; Self-preservation, as Spencer maintains, is necessary to continue one‟s existence.

(ii) Redirection of human instincts. Mc Dougall regards the instincts of man as the guiding forces
and the basis of his conduct. The aim of education, therefore, should be the redirection and sublimation of
these instincts. This will help in the achievement of natural and social goals.

(iii) Struggle for existence. The evolutionists like Darwin consider education to “equip the
individual for struggle of his existence and thus to assure his survival. Life must be perpetuated into the
future by raising the children and enabling them to adjust themselves to the environment.

While agreeing with the evolutionists, Lamark also believes that the aim should be to help the
individual to secure adjustment, physical as well as mental. “Education is seen as the process of adjustment
to environment‟

(iv) Education according to the nature of the child. According to Munroe, “Education finds its
purpose, its process and its means wholly within the child-life and the child-experiences” Rabinder Nath
Tagore also forcefully pleads that education should take place entirely according to the nature of the child.
It was Rousseau who first advocated this belief. He believes that it is the nature of the child which is to be
first understood.

(v) Au development. The aim of education should be to develop a self-developed and self-realised
individuality.

Sir T.P. Nunn also supports this idea and says that “the proper goal of human life is perfection of
the individual.” According to him, individuality is the ideal of life. In short, education is the process of
development of the child into joyous, rational, harmoniously balanced; useful and mature child.

NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM

1. No rigid curriculum. Like aims, there are different views on curriculum construction.
Naturalism does not advocate any rigid or fixed type of curriculum. Child learns best in a natural setting
and nature is a grand book. Naturalistic curriculum is based upon the psychology of child and gives
maximum importance to the age and stage of his development. Spencer contends that only those subjects
should be included in the curriculum which would subserve self- „preservation.

2. Sciences. Idealists lay emphasis on the study of humanities but naturalists believe in science
subjects viz. Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany. They also give due importance to Mathematics and
Languages.

3. Focal point. The focal point in the curriculum construction is that the “text books and teaching
should be oriented towards science .and scientific point of view with simplicity and objectivity as the
watchwards and with knowledge of relevant facts as the controlling aim.”

4. Study of past experience of the race is given due importance in the curriculum. Past experiences
explain the origin of the present. As such, subjects like history and social studies should be included in it.
 5. Rousseau suggests a separate type of curriculum for “Emile” He advocates the idea of negative
education. Let the child learn through direct experience in the lap of nature. He was against verbalism and
text-hooks.

6. T.H. Huxley prefers literary and aesthetic culture to be the main points of the curriculum. In all,
subjects like History, Science, Geography, Mathematics, Nature-Study etc. should be given propriety in the
curriculum.

NATURALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Naturalism discards all rigid, uniform, traditional and stereo-typed techniques of teaching.

It lays stress on direct experience of things. It is based on Rousseau‟s contention when he says,
“Give your scholar no verbal lesson, he should be taught by experience alone.” Naturalism regards child as
the supreme centre of educational procedures. it is firmly based on the modern principles of teaching. These
principles are:

(i) Principle of growth.

(ii) Principle of pupil activity.

(iii) Principle of individualization.

On the basis of these principles the teacher is not to impose anything, not even his teaching, on his
students. The child should be encouraged to discover things for himself. Further, the child should be
allowed to grow according to his own nature. His needs and interest should be given top position in the
teaching process. Naturalism prefers self-education or auto-education. Child learns through his personal
experiences with things and nature. A teacher has to facilitate learning which takes place automatically.

(a) Play-way Method. In the words of Dr. Prem Nath, “Play way is a stable method of naturalistic
education.” Froeble, too, has recommended play as the supreme and valuable technique of teaching.
Through play child acquires various skills. Play is an indication of the natural bents of children and is
indeed, “a rehearsal for the serious life to come. Play is nature‟s mode of education. Actually, playway has
been considered as an outstanding and the most natural technique of teaching. Modern methods like
Kindergarten Method, Montessori Method, etc. are based upon this concept of teaching. “It fosters the spirit
of joyful, spontaneous and creative activity; its applications are endless.”

(b) Play-way Method. The next important factor are, observations and experiments in laboratory.
Science should be taught through these techniques. Similar procedure should be followed for other subjects.
„Chalk and talk‟ find no place in this procedure. Children learn through their actual participation in different
activities.

NATURALISM AND TEACHER

Teacher-an observer : In the naturalistic scheme of education a teacher is merely an observer of

the natural development of the child. The job is to facilitate the process of child‟s growth as well as
learning.

Teacher to understand the nature of the child: “Know thy pupil” is the maxim applied to this
concept. The teacher must understand the child and in no way interfere with his spontaneous growth and
development. According to Tagore, to teach the child, teacher ought to have and realize child in himself.

Teacher as the stage-setter : Naturalism accepts teacher‟s position behind the scene of the curtain. He is
the setter of the stage manager. He has to supply material, provide an ideal environment and create
conditions conducive to the natural development of the child. This fact has been recognised by the modern
psychology arid progressive education. In fact, he has to adopt his material to the interests and temperament
of his pupils.

However, it may be clearly mentioned that naturalism has contributed a lot to give birth to
progressive education. All the modern methods of teaching owe their origin to this school of philosophy. It
made teaching more enjoyable, useful, effective and real. “Naturalism is responsible for creating tone and
temper for the study of sciences. Anyway, in the end, we can say that if supplemented by some other
schools of thought, naturalism can prove to be the most outstanding philosophy of education.