The anatomy and physiology of the human eye is an important part of many courses

(e.g. in biology, human biology, physics, and practical courses in medicine, nursing, and
therapies).

This page is a very basic introduction the subjects of "The Eye" and "Visual Optics" more
generally.
It includes a simple diagram of the eye together with definitions of the parts of the eye labelled in
the illustration.

Term Definition / Description

AqueousThe aqueous humour is a jelly-like substance located in the anterior chamber of the
Humour eye.
... more about the Aqueous Humour
Choroid The choroid layer is located behind the retina and absorbs unused radiation.
... more about the Choroid
Ciliary The ciliary muscle is a ring-shaped muscle attached to the iris.
Muscle It is important because contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscle controls the
shape of the lens.
... more about the Ciliary Muscle
Cornea The cornea is a strong clear bulge located at the front of the eye (where it replaces the
sclera - that forms the outside surface of the rest of the eye).
The front surface of the adult cornea has a radius of approximately 8mm.
The cornea contributes to the image-forming process by refracting light entering the
eye.
... more about the Cornea
Fovea The fovea is a small depression (approx. 1.5 mm in diameter) in the retina.
This is the part of the retina in which high-resolution vision of fine detail is possible.
... more about the Fovea
Hyaloid The hyaloid diaphragm divides the aqueous humour from the vitreous humour.
... more about the Hyaloid Membrane
Iris The iris is a diaphragm of variable size whose function is to adjust the size of the pupil
to regulate the amount of light admitted into the eye.
The iris is the coloured part of the eye (illustrated in blue above but in nature may be
any of many shades of blue, green, brown, hazel, or grey).
... more about the Iris
Lens The lens of the eye is a flexible unit that consists of layers of tissue enclosed in a tough
capsule. It is suspended from the ciliary muscles by the zonule fibers.
... more about the Lens
Optic The optic nerve is the second cranial nerve and is responsible for vision.
Nerve Each nerve contains approx. one million fibres transmitting information from the rod and
cone cells of the retina.
... more about the Optic Nerve
Papilla The papilla is also known as the "blind spot" and is located at the position from which
the optic nerve leaves the retina.
... more about the Optic Papilla
Pupil The pupil is the aperture through which light - and hence the images we "see" and
"perceive" - enters the eye. This is formed by the iris. As the size of the iris increases
(or decreases) the size of the pupil decreases (or increases) correspondingly.
... more about the Pupil
Retina The retina may be described as the "screen" on which an image is formed by light that
has passed into the eye via the cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, lens, then the hyaloid
and finally the vitreous humour before reaching the retina.
The retina contains photosensitive elements (called rods and cones) that convert the
light they detect into nerve impulses that are then sent onto the brain along the optic
nerve.
... more about the Retina
Sclera The sclera is a tough white sheath around the outside of the eye-ball.
 This is the part of the eye that is referred to by the colloquial terms "white of the eye".
... more about the Sclera
Visual A simple definition of the
Axis "visual axis" is "a straight
line that passes through
both the centre of the pupil
and the centre of the
fovea". However, there is
also a stricter definition (in
terms of nodal points) which
is important for specialists in
optics and related subjects.
... more about the Visual Axis
Vitreous The vitreous humour (also
Humour known as the "vitreous
body") is a jelly-like
substance.
... more about the Vitreous
Humour
Zonules The zonules (or "zonule
fibers") attach the lens to
the ciliary muscles.
Types of simple lenses

Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex(or double
convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of
curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concavesurfaces is biconcave (or
just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens isplano-convex or plano-concave depending
on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-
concave or meniscus. It is this type of lens that is most commonly used in corrective lenses.

If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or parallel beam of light travelling parallel to
the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged (orfocused) to a spot on the axis, at
a certain distance behind the lens (known as thefocal length). In this case, the lens is called
a positive or converging lens.
If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is
diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverginglens. The beam after passing
through the lens appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens;
the distance from this point to the lens is also known as the focal length, although it is negative
with respect to the focal length of a converging lens.

Convex-concave (meniscus) lenses can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative
curvatures of the two surfaces. A negative meniscus lens has a steeper concave surface and will
be thinner at the centre than at the periphery. Conversely, a positive meniscus lens has a steeper
convex surface and will be thicker at the centre than at the periphery. An ideal thin lens with two
surfaces of equal curvature would have zero optical power, meaning that it would neither
converge nor diverge light. All real lenses have a nonzero thickness, however, which affects the
optical power. To obtain exactly zero optical power, a meniscus lens must have slightly unequal
curvatures to account for the effect of the lens' thickness.

THE EMMETROPIC EYE-ALL DISTANCES

The picture shows what is known as an "emmetropic" eye, i.e.

it has sharply focused vision at all distances.
In emmetropic eyes the refractive power of the cornea and
lens is exactly matched to the length of the eye. Light rays are
deflected in the eye in such a way that they fall exactly on the
retina, producing a sharp image.

With the aid of its crystalline lens, the eye can adapt to all
distances in much the same way as a zoom camera lens. This
process is known as accommodation.

MYOPIA (SHORTSIGHTEDNESS)

Myopia or shortsightedness is a condition where the eye is too

long in relation to its refractive power. The light rays therefore
intersect in front of the retina instead of on it. Blurred vision
results. The further away the object observed, the more
blurred it appears. Clear vision is limited to nearby objects.
Shortsighted therefore means having good near vision but poor
distance vision.

With an appropriate eyeglass lens, a myopic eye can once

again enjoy clear vision at all distances. As you see here, the
light rays are slightly diverged in front of the eye, shifting their
point of intersection to the surface of the retina. This creates
the same conditions as those enjoyed by emmetropic eyes,
providing the wearer with excellent vision.

A lens for myopia is a diverging or minus lens. Minus lenses are

always thinner at the centre than at the edge. The front
surface is relatively flat, while the back surface has a more
pronounced curvature. The higher the power required, the
thicker the edge becomes and the heavier the lens.
 HYPEROPIC (LONGSIGHTEDNESS)

Hyperopia or long sightedness means the closer an object is,

the more blurred it appears uncorrected, hyperopia bring on
fatigue, sore eyes, headaches and eyestrain. The eye is too
short in relation to its refractive power. The light rays intersect
behind the retina, resulting in a blurred vision. An attempt is
sometimes made to compensate for this defect by
accommodation, but in the long term this leads to problems.

With an appropriate lens, a hyperopic eye can see clearly again

at all distances without strain. As you see, the light rays are
converged in front of the eye, shifting their point of
intersection to the surface of the retina. Accommodation can
once again be used solely for adjusting to different distances.

A lens for hyperopia is a converging or plus lens. Plus lenses

are always thicker at the centre than at the edge. The back
surface is relatively flat, while the front surface has a more
pronounced curvature. The higher the power required, the
thicker the centre becomes and the heavier the lens.

THE ASTIGMATIC EYE-DISTORTED VISION

Astigmatism is a condition where there is a variation in the
shape of the cornea. Rays of light pass through the cornea on
two planes - vertical and horizontal. In the astigmatic eye one
corneal plane is steeper than the other, so that the rays of light
do not come together at the same point. One point can be in
front of the retina, the other behind. Both can be in front of the
retina, etc.

The more unequal the curvature of the cornea, the more

blurred your vision will be.
With an appropriate lens, an astigmatic eye can once again
enjoy clear, undistorted vision. The rays of light are deflected
in such a way they fall exactly on the retina.
A lens for astigmatism is a cylindrical lens, i.e. it is not
spherical in shape but has a different curvature in two
directions. It can be more easily imagined as the section of a
ring.

THE PRESBYOPIC EYE-READING DISTANCE

If you are over 40 and finding it difficult to read because your
eyes can no longer focus at short distances, you may have a
condition known as presbyopia.

Presbyopia is a condition where the accommodation of the eye

is no longer sufficient to see objects clearly at the usual
reading distance of approx. 40 cm. This is due to the fact that
the lens of the eye gradually starts to lose its elasticity from
the day we are born. However, this does not become
noticeable until about the age of 45: having to hold a
newspaper at arm's length is one of the first symptoms!

UNBALANCED EYES

Sometimes our eyes can feel tired. We may have unexplained

headaches and even feel generally fatigued especially
following certain visual tasks such as computer use or driving .
This can be attributed to our eye muscles not being perfectly
balanced in strength between the left and right eyes. Our
oculomotor balance tests will measure your muscle 'balance' to
ensure your eye are perfectly comfortable at all distances. If
not then we can prescribe prism in your spectacles to help
relieve symptoms.