CONTRAFACTUM: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A Research Paper

Presented to

the English Department

Central Philippine Adventist College

In Partial Fulfilment

of the Requirements for the Subject

Writing in the Discipline

By Egyleamm M. Orbe & Nove Ann M. Torres

March 19, 2018

Introduction
I. Etymology and Origins

A. Etymology

B. A brief history

C. Examples

II. Disadvantages of Contrafactum

A. John Calvin’s standpoint

1.Reformation

2.Psalmody

B. Associations

1.Past

2.Present

III. Advantages of Contrafactum

A. Martin Luther’s defence

1.Limitations

2.Familiarity

B. The Proper use of Contrafactum

1.Social situation

2.Careful selection

3.Disassociation

IV. Conclusion
 Introduction

Throughout history, contrafactum has been used by musicians as a compositional method

in their music. From the Baroque Era to the present times this compositional technique continues

to prove useful time and time again. From then until this century, its use has been repeatedly

dragged into the midst of debates concerning the conservative standards of Christian music,

especially in our church. This research attempts to clarify the advantages and disadvantages of its

use so that the reader will have more information and better discernment when dealing with this

matter.

In the book Patriarchs and Prophets, White (1890) stated that music was made to serve a

holy purpose but unfortunately, it is “often perverted to serve purposes of evil, and it thus becomes

one of the most alluring agencies of temptation. But, rightly employed, it is a precious gift of God,

designed to uplift the thoughts to high and noble themes, to inspire and elevate the soul” (p. 594).

This study concerning contrafactum was chosen for its relevance in the Christian

communities, since the employment of this compositional technique has not only gained

prominence during the past years, but has also been misused and condemned altogether by a

significant quantity of people.

We believe that a knowledge of history and an application of its lessons can lead to insights

on how contrafactum can be used properly and effectively, both in compositions for congregational

singing and also for the purpose of witnessing to other people. We are confident that God has not

left His people wanting in regards to the truth concerning controversial music-related topics such

as the modern-day applications of contrafactum.

 Orbe & Torres 1

Etymology and History

According to the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2001), the word

contrafactum was derived from the Medieval Latin word contrafacere which means to imitate,

counterfeit, or forge. Although the term was defined and commonly used during the Renaissance,

its roots could be found dating back to the Middle Ages, in Medieval polyphony. In the definition,

it was stated that the aforementioned word had a negative connotation until the 15th century, where

the word contrafactum was mentioned in a German Pfulligen manuscript. Therein contrafactum

acquired the foundation of its modern definition as a textual adaption of secular melodies for sacred

use (p. 368).

In strictest form possible, a contrafactum would have to use the same melody, rhyme,

metric scheme, and an adaptation of the original lyrics’ meaning into the new text. But in modern

usage, any restrictions in contrafactum is limited to the boundaries set by the composer himself,

thus making it a highly versatile compositional technique (Sadie & Tyrell, 2001, p. 368).

In the book Music in Western Civilization, contrafactum’s earliest notable appearance was

during the late Renaissance, around 1475-1540 in Florence, Italy. It was used in Laude, or songs

of praise which employed the use of the vernacular rather than the common Latin texts. One of the

earliest examples is O malign, e duro core which Lorenzo d’ Medici wrote to the tune of Canto

de’ profumeri, a secular carnival song (p. 160).

Other examples include a significant number of Bach’s chorales during the Baroque period,

Haydn’s Austrian Hymn during the Classical period, Hark! The Herald Angels Sing by

Mendelssohn during the Romantic Period, and folk tunes such as Auld Lang Syne and Greensleeves
 Orbe & Torres 2

throughout history. Modern examples of contrafactum are Candle in the Wind by Elton John and

How You Remind Me by Nickelback. Most campaign jingles that can be heard during elections are

also borrowed from other secular sources.

Disadvantages of Contrafactum

While contrafactum itself is not a bad thing, its usage poses the risk of being used in a

corrupt manner that may bring more harm than good. One of the dangers that it brings is the

desensitization towards discernment between sacred and secular things.

Bacchiocchi (2001), pointed out that countless individuals have lost the ability to discern

between sacred and secular things “because we live in a society which has largely lost the sense

of the sacred.” For a lot of people, the Sabbath has become a day of relaxation and enjoyment, the

Church has become a place of entertainment, and marriage is treated as a legal contract rather than

a covenant which is sacred to God. In the same manner, secularization “has influenced the adoption

of secular music for the sacred worship of God” (p. 11).

This was the reason why during the sixteenth century in Switzerland, one reformer going

by the name of John Calvin sought to clarify the lines between sacred and secular, to the extent

that he instituted special measures concerning music. In his article, Barber (2006) elaborated about

John Calvin’s principles concerning music. He said that the Swiss reformer took the idea of “Sola

Scriptura” to heart, leading to Calvin’s belief that the words of a song should come from the Bible

since it is the safest source of religious texts. Believing that music possessed a tremendous
 Orbe & Torres 3

influence on the mind, he emphasized that no leeway should be given to the secularization of

sacred things, especially music (p. 7).

To create an alternative, John Calvin encouraged the use of psalmody or music which uses

the Psalms as a basis for lyrics. He also employed composers to write new tunes that were distinct

from the folk tunes and love songs of his time. Despite the abounding musical innovations during

the Renaissance, his earnest conviction that the sacred nature of the Book of Psalms helped him

remain steadfastly devoted to their supreme usage in congregational worship (Barber, 2006, p. 7).

Although for some it may seem that John Calvin went overboard in keeping church music

free from any association with secular matters, it was the best course he could take at a time when

corruption flourished in the palaces of kings and in the halls of great cathedrals.

Music always occurs in context to various variables in our environment. Its outcome is

what we commonly call associations. According to Doukhan (2010), it is a product of the diverse

effects of music such as intensification, beautification, and stimulation. Through associations that

the listener makes, emotions and memories may be triggered or and magnified. She concluded that

“the musical experience creates social understanding and, ultimately, meaning. Association, of

course, plays an important role in this” (p. 43).

Although the creation of associations is an extremely subjective process, the society can

also be identified as a variable for the creation of associations. “Music is associated with the time,

place, and situation in which it is played, or with the people who perform it and, through

association again, their lifestyles.” This means the more times a music is played in the same

context, the more meaning it will have in that association (Doukhan, 2010, p. 41).
 Orbe & Torres 4

The reason why many people fail to use contrafacta properly is because they either

downplay or disregard the effects association has on the meaning of the song. Thus, turning the

song into a transitional medium that distorts the line between sacred and secular.

Furthermore, choosing an appropriate melody for contrafacta is harder at present due to the

fact that popular music today contains musical elements which do not adhere to the proper

standards of our Church.

Advantages of Contrafactum

During the late Middle Ages and even up to early Renaissance, most commoners had little

access to academic and artistic matters. Knowledge and learning were controlled by those with

power such as the aristocrats and people of the Church. This situation meant a slower dispersion

of the Gospel in Europe and throughout the world.

Only the learned few could read and write in the vernacular, much less in Latin. And since

only choirs were allowed to sing in church, people had little experience in singing except for folk

music and popular tunes.

Doukhan (2010) stated:

Luther drew from artistic models, from sacred and secular folk melodies, and from other

popular tunes that were familiar to everybody. He also kept the sturdy, lively rhythms

characteristic of his time in order to adequately translate into music some of his dynamic

texts, such as the one on the eternal battle against the age-old foe. (p. 107)
 Orbe & Torres 5

According to Bacchiocchi (1999), “The musical training of most people consisted mostly

of popular tunes picked up on the street, people accustomed to singing only in a secular

surrounding and to remaining silent in the traditional church... now they had to learn how to sing

in the church" (p. 8).

However, Martin Luther refused to resign to fate. He thought of ways wherein the truth

could be heard by the masses and finally came up with the plan to use music as a tool for

evangelism. And through his efforts, John Barber (2006) stated, “Not only did Luther exercise a

profound influence on the religious and cultural life of sixteenth-century Europe, but also he freed

music from the domination of the Roman Catholic Church, opening the door to a revolution in

music and in the arts generally” (p. 01).

One of the reasons he used contrafactum is because there was a shortage of religious

melodies that were simple and easy to sing. Vocal music of the Church this time were highly

complex in both music and words. Not only was it elaborately polyphonic, it also is written in

Latin, making it incomprehensible for the congregations. The only association it impressed on the

people was that God was mysterious and unreachable.

Doukhan (2010) stated that another reason Luther made use of the traditional popular

practice is that of the principle of familiarity. He knew that for a tool to be efficient, it needed to

be practical and need-oriented. The tunes, being well known, enabled the new lyrics to be sung

with ease, people started singing these songs everywhere, even in public places such as the market

and bars (p. 106).

 Orbe & Torres 6

Luther thoughtfully selected each tune so that the message would match perfectly the

characteristics of the music he chose. He made sure that a song of praise would use more dynamic

rhythms and a solemn one would use a well-fitted melody.

Although some have misattributed him for substandard contrafactum, history would tell

otherwise. His employment of contrafactum is used by scholars such as Doukhan, Bacchiocchi,

and Barber, as an example of proper use of contrafactum. These researchers agree on many points

that Luther’s contributions to Christian music are important on many levels.

First, they agree that the reformer’s use of contrafactum was timely, considering the social

situation wherein people were deprived of education, connecting with them through a common

ground is something that we, today, can utilize in order to facilitate the learning of new things,

from the known to the unknown. One quote explained that “He took advantage of the well-known

character of texts and melodies, and of their particular musical language, to exploit their popularity

for loftier purposes” (Doukhan, 2010, p. 106).

Second, these scholars pointed out that Luther was careful in selecting source materials for

his work. His criteria in music include effectiveness, association, and versatility. In the same way,

we have to make sure that the criterion would meet our goals. In an article by Ulrich Leopold

(1966) on Journal of Church Music, he reaffirms that Luther “was careful to match text and tune,

so that each text would have its proper tune and so that both would complement each other” (p. 5).

Third, if he found a source material that he liked, but felt it was too worldly, he employed

his knowledge of music theory and manipulated musical elements to remove its worldly
 Orbe & Torres 7

associations. In a magazine article, Bacchiocchi (1999) quotes the book Martin Luther, His Music,

His Message.

Here, Robert Harrell explains:

The most effective way of [negating] worldly influence would be to ‘de-rhythm’ the music.

By avoiding dance tunes and ‘derhythming’ other songs, Luther achieved a chorale with a

marked rhythm, but without the devices that would remind the people of the secular world.

So successful was the work done by Luther and other Lutheran musicians that scholars

were often unable to detect the secular origins of chorales. (p. 9)

Martin Luther was proficient in disassociating the tunes with the secular connotations that

it seemed to be an entirely new work. People had no qualms about singing his songs in reverence

and their conscience was rest assured that they were praising God. Today, manipulating the music

theory-wise can help us in using contrafactum.

Conclusion

History has provided us answers for important questions that are raised in today’s society.

If we really cared about the moral implications of music, we could learn much by researching

about people (like the Reformers) who see music not only as an art but as a powerful tool to convey

crucial ideas.

Through this, we have reaffirmed that contrafactum is still a timeless and useful technique

in arranging and composing music for the church. Contrafactum, if used properly, can lift the mind
 Orbe & Torres 8

to noble thoughts and to things above. On the other hand, its misuse can also facilitate the

stimulation of the lower passions and lead the mind to think of worldly things. Its use must be

given thoughtful consideration is aspects, such as appropriateness in time, effectiveness in

conveying the main idea, and most of all, the associations it makes on the listener regarding secular

and sacred themes.

In support, the SDA Church Guidelines (2004) states:

Vocal music employs lyrics that positively stimulate intellectual abilities as well as our

emotions and our will power. Good lyrics are creative, rich in content, and of good

composition. They focus on the positive and reflect moral values; they educate and uplift;

and they correspond with sound biblical theology. (para. 16)

By properly employing contrafactum, music can be used as an effective entering wedge

and a powerful medium to preach the everlasting Gospel throughout the four-corners of our world.
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