Communication Theories - mergedPDF

FORMAT OF THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF REPORT :
I. THE OUTLINE OF THE REPORT
A. TOPICS
Definition of Terms
Science And Human Behavior

Mass (Society)
Mass Communication
Mass Media
Theory
Fundamental Theories
Postpositivist Theory
Hermeneutics Theory
Critcal Theory
Normative Theory
Eras Of Media Theory
Mass Society Theory

Limited-Effects Perspective
Administrative Theories
Neo Marxism Theory
Framing Theory And Media Literacy
Magic Bullet Theory
Harold Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
Walter Lippmann’s Theory Of Public Opinion
Libertarian Theory
Social Responsibility Theory

Mass Communication Theory Timeline
B. LEARNING OUTCOMES
Students of Masters in Communication Management will be able to learn and

understand the history and development of Mass Communication Theory. It will
further explain and predict social phenomena relating the subject of interest to
some other phenomena. MACM Students shall also understand how and why
these theories occurs and develop in the social world.
C. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Reverse Charade Game Introduction for the Topic

2. Video Presentation of History of Mass Communication
3. Discussion of History of Mass Communication Theories thru power point
presentation.
It is commonly known to students about the game of Charade but not this
one. When game participants are limited to answer and to guess the given
word assigned to them. As communication students there will be a difficulty to
respond when the message is not clear and restricted. Creativity and critical
thinking are important to this kind of challenge. A participant must use the
allowed verbal and non verbal communication. With this type of the game
stimulants – the communication process shall be appreciated particularly the
presence of each elements must clear and there will be communication
consequences when one of the elements therein shall be sacrifice. In
comparison from the development and history of mass communication
theory, it has its own limitation and restriction. Its development has great
importance to comprehend the existing communication theories for future
studies and research of MACM Students of PLM.
REFERENCES:
II. THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Basic elements and definition of terms of theory and mass communication were
discussed including the fundamental theories. As the social behaviour changes
through the aid of Mass Media - mass communication theories developed from the
basic concepts to critical paradigm . It is important to analyze these developments
happened as far as the mass Communication theories are concern.
Human behavior is exceedingly complex Mass communication is defined as a

message created by a person or a group and sent through a transmitting device (a
medium) to a large audience or market.
Mass media includes all the formats used for communication intended to reach a
large audience. This may include print, radio, television, or digital content. Influence of
Mediated communication on political campaigns
฀ How do we control which forms of media people choose to use?
฀ How do we control
฀ the amount of attention they pay to specific types of news?
฀ How do we take into account factors that influenced people long before the start
of research.
Mass -refers to very large aggregates of people in contrast to small, local groups; collective
behavior in contrast to interpersonal behavior, emerging society in contrast to older,
traditional society
Product of the modern age, that is division of labor, mass communication and mass
democratic participation lading to a consensus. Any organized set of concepts, explanations,
and principles of some aspect of human experience.Theories are stories about how and why
events occur..Theories are sets of statements asserting relationships among classes of
variables.” Explanation and predictions of social phenomena relating the subject of interest to
some other phenomena.
฀ Fundamental Theories
฀ Postpositivist Theory
Social scientist committed to the scientific method practice postpositivist theory This
Theory is based on empirical observation guided by the scientific method, but human
behavior are not as constant as elements of the physical world. Researchers who wants
to explain the operation of political advertising Predict which commercials will be the
most effective Control the voting behavior of targeted citizens would.
฀ Hermeneutics Theory
Originally began as the study or interpretation of the Bible and other sacred works
.Maintained its commitment to the examination of “objectifications of the mind”
For Miller it is “social creations” Hermeneutics Theory –Study of understanding
especially by interpreting action and text Many Communication Theorists do not want to
explain, predict and control social behavior. Goal is to understand how and why that
behavior occurs in the social world.
฀ Critical Theory
There are still other scholars who do not want explanation, prediction, and control of the
social world. Nor seek understanding of the social world as the ultimate goal for their
work.
They start from the assumption that some aspects of the social world are deeply flawed
and in need of transformation.
To gain knowledge of that social world so they can change it. Inherently political
because it challenges existing ways of organizing the social world and the people and
institutions that exercise power in it.
Their theories do more that observe, describe, or interpret; they criticize Critical theories
view “media as sited of (and weapons in) struggles over social, economic, symbolic, and
political power (as well as struggles over control of, and access to, the media
themselves)”
฀ Normative Theory
It may be applied to any form of communication but is most often applied to mass
communication. A normative media theory explains how a media system should operate
in order to conform to or realize a set of ideal social values. How knowledge is
developed and advance, is based in comparative analyses—we can only judge and
therefore understand the worth of a given media system in comparison to the ideal
espoused by the particular social system in which it operates.
฀ Eras Of Media Theory
19th century – Origin of Media Theory in the nineteenth century and ending with the
emergence of an array of contemporary perspectives
It will help us to better understand how past theories evolved and why current theories
are considered important.
฀ Mass Society Theory
Perspective on Western, industrial society that attributes an influential but often negative
role to media It can be regarded as a collection of conflicting notions developed to make
sense of what was happening as industrialization allowed big cities to spring up and
expand.
Developed by people who wanted to maintained the old political order, and others were
created by revolutionaries who wanted to impose radical changes. Mass media
troublesome - downright and dangerous. In general, mass society ideas held strong
appeal for any social elite whose power was threatened by change. An essential
argument of mass society theory is that media subvert and disrupt the existing social
order.
Mass society notions greatly exaggerated the ability of media to quickly undermined
social order Media advocates exaggerated their ability to create an ideal social order.
These ideas failed to consider that Media’s power ultimately resided in the freely chosen
uses that audiences make of it .
฀ Limited-Effects Perspective
Mass Society—dominant among social theorist –Mid-1800 and Lasting until the 1950’s.
1930’s, world events seemed to continually confirm the truth of mass society ideas
In Europe, reactionary and revolutionary political movement used media in their
struggles for political power. German Nazis improved on World War I propaganda
techniques and ruthlessly exploited new media technology like motion pictures and ratio
to consolidate their power. Nazis seemed to have found powerful new ways to
manipulate public attitudes and beliefs
Paul Lazarsfeld- Trained in psychological measurement Fled the Nazis and came to the
United States on Ford Foundation fellowship. For the emerging field mass
communication research, he proved to be a thinker and researcher. Lazarsfeld- argued
that it wasn’t enough to merely speculate the influence of media on society.
Instead, he advocated the conduct of careful designed, elaborate surveys and even field
experiments in which he would be able to observe media influence and measure its
magnitude. Media were not nearly as powerful as had been feared or hoped.
Researchers found that people had numerous ways of resisting media influence, and
their attitudes were shaped by many competing factors, such as family, friends and
religious community.
฀ Neo Marxism Theory
- asserting that media enable dominant social elites to maintain their power These left-
wing social theorists argued that media are dominant social elites to create and maintain
their power. Media provide the elite with a convenient, subtle, yet highly effective means
of promoting worldviews favorable to their interests. During the 1960s some neo Marxist
in Britain developed a school of social theory widely referred to as British Cultural
Studies. It focused heavily on mass media and their role in promoting a hegemonic
worldview and dominant culture among various subgroups in the society.
฀ Framing Theory And Media Literacy
Emergence of Communication Technologies that forces a rethinking of traditions about

how people used the media. They offer compelling and cogent arguments concerning
the way mass communication influences and individuals and plays an important role in
the social word Assertion that people use expectations of the social world to make sense
of that social world.
Active audience that have uses media content to create meaningful experiences.
These perspectives acknowledge that important media effects can occur over longer
periods and often are a direct consequences of viewer or reader intent.
฀ Magic Bullet Theory
Magic Bullet Theory- Idea that propaganda is powerful enough to penetrate most
people’s defenses and condition them to act in ways that are useful to the propagandist.
฀ Harold Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory

It is a blended ideas borrowed from Freudianism into a particularly pessimistic is on of
media and their role in forging modern social orders. He argued that propaganda was
more than merely using media to lie to people in order to gain temporary control over
them.
People need to be prepared to accept radically different ideas and actions.
Communicators need well-developed, long –term campaign strategy (multiplication of
those stimuli) in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and then
cultivated.
฀ Symbols must be created, and people must be gradually taught to associate specific
emotions, such as love or hate with these symbols. It envisioned a long and quite
sophisticated conditioning process. Exposure to one or two extremist messages would
not likely have significant effects. And propaganda messages can be delivered through
many different media, not just radio or newspapers.
฀ Walter Lippmann’s Theory Of Public Opinion
Lippmann share Lasswell’s skepticism about the ability of average people to make
sense of their social world and to make rational decisions about their actions.
In Public Opinion (1922), he pointed out the discrepancies that necessarily exist
between “the world outside and the pictures in our heads.
Lippmann shared Lasswell’s conclusion that the best solution to these problems was to
place control information gathering and distribution in the hands of a benevolent
technocracy – scientific elite. Who could be trusted to use scientific methods to sort fact
from fiction and make good decisions about who should receive various messages.
฀ Libertarian Theory
Libertarianism –Belief in a good and rational public and totally unregulated media
First Amendment Absolutists They believe that there should be no laws governing media
operations, who take the notion of “free press” quite literally to mean that all forms of
media must be totally unregulated. Origin of Article 3 Section 4 Phil. Constitution, 1987
In rebelling against authoritarian theory, early Libertarians argued that if individuals could
be freed from the arbitrary limits on communication imposed by church and state, they
would “naturally” follow the dictates of their conscience, seek truth, engage in public
debate, and ultimately create a better life for themselves and others.
฀ Social Responsibility Theory
A normative theory that substitutes media industry and public responsibility for to all
media freedom on hand and for external control on the other.
Libertarian Theory arose in the opposition to authoritarian Theory – an idea that placed
all forms of communication under the control of a governing elite or authorities
Mass Communication Theory Timeline.
MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS THEORY

This is a variation of fundamental principle of capitalism- the notion of a self-regulating
market. In classical capitalist theory as formulated by Adam Smith, there is little need for
the government to regulate markets. An open and competitive marketplace should
regulate itself. The idea that government shall allow business to operate freely and
without official intrusion.
According to the Marketplace-of ideas theory, the laizzez-faire doctrine should be

applied to mass media; that is, if ideas are ‘traded’ freely among people, the correct or
best ideas should prevail. American Media System- the market place of ideas—
someone comes up with a good idea and then transmits it rough some form of mass
communication.
If other people like it, they buy the message. When people buy the message, they pay
for its production and distribution costs. Once these costs are covered, the message
producer earns a profit. If the people are wise message consumers, the producers of the
best and most useful messages will become rich and envelop large media enterprises,
and the producers of bad messages will fail, The Marketplace of ideas is self-regulating,
so there is no need for a government agency to censor messages. Audiences won’t buy
bad messages, and therefore irresponsible producers will go out of business.
MACM 701: Communication Theory
Executive Summary October 7, 2017
Submitted by:
Mr. Bryan Edward G. Villasana
Master of Arts in Communication Management Student Number: 201160004
Topic:
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the session, the students would be able to learn the following:
- The Concept of Paradigm Shift in Communication
- The Origin of the Mass Communication Theories
- Different Communication Models
Learning Activities:
In order to facilitate the actual learning of the students, the following activities
would be conducted:
- Game and Exercise as Introduction
- Discussion of the Topics
- Forum, including the Appreciative Inquiry
Timeframe of the Session:

For three hours, the academic session would be timed according the following
activities:
- 07:15am to 08:00am – Game: Recapitulation and Introduction
- 08:00am to 08:15am – Analysis of the Drawing Exercise
- 08:15am to 08:45am – Discussion of the Concept of Paradigm Shift
- 08:45am to 09:45am – Discussion of the Communication Models
- 09:45am to 10:00am – Forum
References:
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Definition of Paradigm Shift. https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/paradigm%20shift. Accessed on June 23, 2017.
Stanford University. Biography of Thomas Kuhn.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/. Accessed on June 23, 2017.
Business Communication. Different Models of Communication.
https://thebusinesscommunication.com/types-of-communication-model/. Accessed on June 23,
2017.
International Association of Communication Activists. Models of
Communication. http://www.iacact.com/?q=models. Accessed on June 23, 2017.
Executive Summary
Communication is a continuous process of evolution from one concept to another.

Even its history, our communication process started from the tribal age up to its
current structure, which highlights technological advancement.
According to Merriam-Webster, this concept of evolution is commonly referred to as

the paradigm shift, which is a fundamental change in the approaches or underlying
assumptions. Paradigm shift also means an important change that happens when
the usual way of thinking or doing something is replaced by another or different way.
The term Paradigm Shift is popularized by American physicist, historian and

philosopher Thomas Kunh in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolution, which
was published in 1962.
In his research, he referred it as a form of advancement where one conceptual view

is revolutionary changed or replaced by another. Among the revolutionary changes
that he cited include the conceptual view of the world from flat to spherical,
conceptual view of the solar system from the earth being at the middle to the sun
being the actual center of the galaxy. Another paradigm shift cited in the process of
communication is from the tribal age to the birth of the printing press by Johann
Guttenberg in 1440s and the introduction of the personal computer and internet in
the 21st century.
This concept of the paradigm shift actually governs the evolution of the
communication processes and theories.
Basic Communication Models
Greek philosopher and scientist, Aristotle is the first person

recognized to have given importance in the concept of
communication. During his time, 300 BC, Aristotle popularized the
rhetoric or oral communication, which highlights the communication
practice consisting of a new loudspeaker, a message and also a
listener. The Aristotelian model of communication can be as
follows:
Speake Subject Listene

r r
Through the model of Aristotle, the person at the end of the communication process
or the hearer holds the key to whether communication takes place.
Political scientist, Harold Lasswell in 1948 designed another

communication approach combining the basic elements of
communication exchanges. His style of verbal exchanges consists
of several parts, including the Sender (who), Message (what) in
addition to receiver (whom). Lasswell included solely the actual
component-channel. The majority of modern-day theorists talk
about these several areas of the actual communication procedure
by employing diverse terminology.
This linear approach explains that communication occurs when a source sends a
message through a medium to a receiver producing an effect.
Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver

structured another model based on the following
elements: an information source, which produces a
message; a transmitter, which encodes the message
into signals; a channel, to which signals are adapted
for transmission; and a receiver, which 'decodes' or
reconstructs the message from the signal.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for
communication within this model. The technical problem: how accurately can the
message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning
'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning
affect behavior? This model assumes that communicators are isolated individuals. It
gives no allowance for differing purposes, differing interpretations, unequal power
relations and situational contexts.
Communication theorist and consultant David Berlo expanded the

linear model of Shannon and Weaver, and created the SMCR Model of
Communication, where he separated the Sender-Medium-Channel-
Receiver into clear parts.
The source or sender might be one person, a group of people or a

company. Several things determine how a source will operate in the
communication process such as communication skills like abilities to
think, write, draw and speak. Message is the information, views of
thoughts to be sent by the source. The source must choose the code
or language for sending the message. The channel is the method such as telegraph,
newspaper, radio, letter, poster or other media through which the message will be
transmitted. Receiver is the final element in the communication process. The
receiver is the audience of the message.
Another communication theorist who developed a straightforward process of

communication is Wilbur Schramm. He explained that communication is a social
interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs
semiotic rules. This model, in some sense, ignores intrapersonal
communication via diaries or self-talks, since both secondary
phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences are within social interactions.
Schram is the first proponent who considered the sociological aspects in the process
of communication. He also expanded his model by highlighting the mass
communication.
Another model of communication is introduced by communication theorists Ray

Eldon Hiebert, Donald Ungurait and Thomas Bohn.
Referred to as the HUB Model of

Communication, the three proponents
highlighted the communication process as
circular, dynamic and ongoing. It posits
communication as an interactive and
interpretative process.
Due the weaknesses of the previous models, Dean Barnlund in 2008 proposed a
transactional model of communication.
The basic premise of the transactional model of communication

is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending
and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form, a
sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally.
This communication, referred to as the constitutive model or

constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates
as the determining factor of the way the message will be
interpreted.
Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from

one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the
communication itself.
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
Intramuros, Manila
SUMMARY OF REPORT IN THE NORMATIVE

THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION
Submitted by:
WILHELMINA B. DAYANGHIRANG
Submitted to:
DR. BERNARDO RAMOS
September 9, 2017
NORMATIVE THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION
I. I. OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

A. TOPICS
• Social Responsibility Theory
• Democratic-Participant Theory/Democratization Theory
• Development Communication Theory
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
“Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an

absolute right, as under pure libertarian theory. One’s right to
free expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and
against vital society interest.
Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm
Fred S. Siebert is Director of the School of Journalism and Communications

at the University of Illinois.
Theodore Peterson is Associate Professor of Journalism and

Communications at the University of Illinois.
Wilbur Schramm, former Dean of the Communications Division of the

University of Illinois, is Professor of Journalism and Communications at
Stanford University.
HISTORY AND ORIENTATION
• Social responsibility is ethics that guide any action, be it in media or other

organizations, that put an obligation towards environment, society, culture
and economy.
• The media like any other sector should not harm, but should
promote environment and socio-cultural aspects in relation to the economy
of the place.
• Social Responsibility theory of mass media is relatively a new concept which

started in the mid-20th century and is used mostly by developing and least
developed countries.
• The theory started from Europe and took a shape with the Commission on
the Freedom of Press that happened in United States in 1949.
• The model was designed formally by Siebert, Peterson and Schramm in 1956
in their book.
• It encourages total freedom to press and no censorship, but it should be

regulated according to social responsibilities and external controls.
• Content is also filtered through public obligation and interference.
• The theory replaced libertarian theory with the view that libertarianism was
outdated.
• The theory also incorporates some aspects of authoritarian theory.
• After the emergence of this theory, professionalism in media started to be
taken seriously.
• The social responsibility theory of mass media changed the way press
published news from objective reporting to interpretative reporting.
• Before this theory, facts were presented without any interpretation.
• The audience interpreted it the way they wanted to.
• This caused problems as interpretation was not based on reality and it

affected the social order.
• Interpretative reporting and investigative reporting started to uncover the

reality behind every case.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
• The task of the press is to make a code of conduct and follow it, to develop a
standard in journalism, to make journalism better, to protect journalists and
to have penalties if any journalist violates the code of conduct.
• This way, the facts provided by the press are analyzed and interpreted so
that the people get true information and understandable news.
• This helps maintain social harmony by revealing social evils like corruption
and discouraging other bad conducts.
• The media is taken as a place for the voiceless to have a voice and develop
public opinions where each and every person has the right to speak, express
and publish.
• It is considered not an end but a tool for social development.
• The objectives of media are stated to inform, document, analyze, interpret,
mediate and mobilize by creating and finding solutions.
MAJOR FEATURES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
• Private press ownership

Press is supposed to be owned privately. The government does not own the
press. The private owners should publish within the ethical guidelines and in
a responsible way.
• Helps democracy prosper
Media helps in maintaining democracy and does not encourage
authoritarianism or communism.
• Media as a democratic institution
Media is not a part of the government and it must work on its own. It has
the freedom to do anything they want, just not work out of the ethical
standards.
• Public participation
Public must get to participate through comments, response, write and get
involved in all aspects of media's work.
• Emphasis on social responsibility
The media must be responsible towards the society.
• Self-regulation in media
The media must have some boundaries within itself to be ethical. The
regulations are to be followed by all the media professionals involved in the
particular institution.
• Code of ethics
All the media institutions must have a written or unwritten code of ethics
which should be the standard followed by all.
• Professional standards
The quality of the publishing should be maintained, false interpretation of
any information should be avoided.
• Media role of criticizing government
Media is allowed to criticize the government roles, works and policies. It is
done to help the government get better.
• Helping eradicate social problems
Media must speak against and aware people about social problems as it is
media's responsibility to work for the betterment of the society.
• Pluralistic media (including ideas and people from different groups)
Media must write the views of different groups of people and not only about
a single group. It must never be biased. biased.
• Social benefit
Media must work for the society and only do the things that are beneficial to
the society. It should not write about the things that are ambiguous or
contradictory as those messages might cause conflict in the society.
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
• Reports of health news in the media can be taken as media acting socially
responsible. The media gives information and awareness on health
problems. It also provides awareness on some basic health problems like
diarrhea and how to cure them. The media gives information about
epidemics and health hazards. Here, acting responsibly is by not spreading
wrong news and panic. There have been instances of mass panic among the
people because of some misunderstood news on health published by various
media. Also, advertisements of harmful substances like cigarettes and
alcohol are considered to be wrong according to the social responsibility
theory.
• Reporting on the performance of government institutions and unveil tyranny

and corruption by the media is also an example of socially responsible media
as Media acts like a critic of the government. But, there are times when the
media has severely damaged the reputation of some politicians and political
parties through irresponsible journalism, leading to major conflicts in the
society.
STRENGTHS OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
• It helps in avoiding conflicts during wars and conflicts.
• It accepts public opinion and works for the citizens.
• Press and media houses do not have monopoly as rules and ethics guide
them.
• The media publishes truth due to regulatory activities and their

moral obligation to do so .
• Yellow journalism decreases as media can be questioned by the law and

public.
• There is pluralism and diversification on news and people involved.
• The voiceless and marginalized people are able to raise their voice.
WEAKNESSES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
• Ethics are always vague, ambiguous and differs from case to case.
• It is difficult to determine who sets clear principles and standards.
• Social responsibility and ethics are morally obligatory things. Any form
of legal limitations should not be imposed if media is just working in the
principle of responsibility. Laws are authoritative and not democratic
concepts.
DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY/DEMOCRATIZATION THEORY
• Denis McQuail was a British communication theorist, Emeritus

Professor at the University of Amsterdam, considered one of the most
influential scholars in the field of mass communication
studies. Wikipedia
• Born: 12 April 1935
• Died: 25 June 2017
• Awards: Frank Luther Mott--Kappa Tau Alpha Journalism and Mass
Communication Research Award
• The idea of Democratic participant Theory was started by grass-root level

media in 1960s.
• It emerged because of the dissatisfaction with other models such

as Libertarian theory, social responsibility theory, etc.
• The democratic-participant theory believes there is democratic and

professional hegemony in the media today and the media is totally
commercial.
• All these ill practices should be removed for the media to be democratic and
be easily accessible or participatory.
• It considers there should not be monopolization (public/private),

centralization of press and top down approach in the media.
• The press should be pluralistic, decentralized, bottom-up or horizontal and
must have equality.
• The major concept is participation and full circular communication.
• The theory places greater importance to the receivers.
• There are no political regulations but some legal regulations.
• The theory is also known as Democratization theory.
CONCEPTS OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
• Media is said to be important in rural settings and in the cultures that are
degrading with time.
• The theory is believed to conserve and revive local cultures by promoting the
right to information (global and local), right to express (feedback), right to
use new technologies (means of communication), freedom to local data,
freedom to take part in social action, etc.
• In the process, it expects the government to provide funds, trainings and

subsidies after identification if they have financial or technical difficulties.
• The democratic-participant theory is more relevant in liberal democratic

developed countries than developing and least developed countries because
the countries in transition from underdevelopment and non-democracy are
alleged to lack the infrastructures and professional skills needed for free
media in democracy.
• It discourages uniform, monopolized and commercialized media culture.
• It wants local non-institutionalized media to provide the information relevant

to small groups of population.
• This theory makes interaction between the media and the audience possible
as the population is less.
• It also encourages feedback which is only possible in small groups and

communities.
• The model is completely non-political and does not bolster political control;
its main objectives being encouraging national development, supporting local
culture and maintaining a good relation with other countries.
• It also promotes equality between various genders, classes, castes, races,

etc. controlled by the group.
• This focus on equality known as association mode which is the opposite
of command mode (sender superior to receiver).
FEATURES OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
• Encourages horizontal and bottom up approach in media
• Supports democracy, existing political rule, national socio-economic

development efforts and to implement policies
• Media has supportive rather than critical role
• Government controls some aspects if media does not act as it should by the
process of registration, licensing, censorship, by preparing guidelines for
media, monitoring, etc.
• Self regulation of media is also encouraged
• More applicable to new media
• Development of creativity and innovation in small media
• Replacement of media from big media houses to small media
• Participation and interaction of media and audience (as both are from the
same group of population)
• Different communities, groups and organizations possessing their own media
EXAMPLES OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
• The examples of democratic-participant theory are the present concepts of

community newspapers, community radios and televisions.
• Another example are the trend of social action through social media and
language programs through phone apps.
• Even, underground and alternative press are examples of this theory.
The theory is in use in Western Europe which can be seen by the cultural
and ethnic revival through media. Many countries have started following the
theory in mass media such as Yugoslavia, Kosovo, Ghana, Bangladesh,
Nepal, India, US, UK, etc. Community radio is mostly popular in South East
Asian countries.
STRENGTHS OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
• The audience can participate and get alternatives if not satisfied with one
media.
• The theory is stricter than libertarian and social responsibility which makes it
more responsible towards the needs of the audience.
• The community can work for themselves as social action.
• The theory is not very authoritative unless the press hinders the work of the
government.
• There are the concepts of equality, inclusion and equal access which makes
it eliminate marginalization.
• Democracy becomes strong with the application of this theory.
• Small media gets the chance to work for local people.
WEAKNESSES OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
• Criticizing the government is not considered to be productive role of media.
• Local level media might lack professionalism and skills.
• The small local media might not be able to compete with media giants.
DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• Denis McQuail was a British communication theorist, Emeritus

Professor at the University of Amsterdam, considered one of the most
influential scholars in the field of mass communication studies.
• Born: 12 April 1935

• Died: 25 June 2017
• Awards: Frank Luther Mott--Kappa Tau Alpha Journalism and Mass
Communication Research Award
• The main idea behind development communication theory is media for

development of people in a nation or to help the target population.
• Communication seeks to serve the people without manipulation and
encourage genuine response.
• There is no propaganda as ulterior motive of communication.
• Communication is to develop Conscientization or critical consciousness which
can be about self-responsibility, social conscience and self-determination for
right judgments and for social communication.
• The theory was used for social change.
EXPLANATION OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• Development used to be taken as bridging the disparity between the so-

called 1st world and the 3rd world countries before the 20th century.
• Development was believed to be the process which made the third world
countries follow the first world countries/ western countries, which were
considered to be fully developed.
• The under-developed countries had to follow their kind of political and
economic systems, like heavy industries, capital intensive technology, etc.
• All other countries had to replicate a single form of development
process which was practiced in some specific countries.
• Development was linked with Westernization.
• Development communication was at first based on the developmental theory
of westernization but later had its own basis in the developmental theory of
modernization (1950s).
• The definition of development communication has been evolving with time
from considering people as audiences who were to be influenced (one way)
and the process rooted in the SMCR model.
• The unilateral communication flow was criticized for cultural imperialism.
• The socially engineered messages were disseminated for a propaganda to
control the culture of the poor countries by glorifying the conditions of the
rich nations.
• The theory focused on passive audience which was not participatory.
• This gave the notion that development was being, like the developed
countries, one way influence.
• Thereafter, the aspect of feedback was added.
• Before, communication was said to be horizontal and today, development
communication is about working for local development and creating
opportunities.
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• Its objective is to uplift the quality of life of people not only economically but
also socially, culturally, politically, etc. by using the tools of development
communication.
• The theory later became known for its use in the developing and under
developed countries.
• The concept of participation was later added which paved the way for model
to be used for social change, development communication and democratic-
participant communication theory.
• Development communications process can be adjusted according to the
needs, which improves the program as a learning process, as the concept of
development communication is continuously evolving.
• Development of different digital technologies have made the concept broader

and more participatory.
• The implementation of this theory plays an important role in the overall

development of a country.
• If done for international development projects, the communication process

becomes a catalyst for the project to be successful.
MAJOR FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• Development roles and objectives to help people
• No manipulation or propaganda
• Generates genuine response from the audience
• Used to develop critical consciousness
• Self-responsibility and self-determination
• Two way communication flow
• Uses development communication tools
EXAMPLES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• The reports and brochures of international development projects along with

the Information Education Communication and Behavioral Change
Communication materials can be taken as the examples of development
communication tools.
• The posters, brochures, documentaries, etc. used for development projects

like awareness in rural areas are development communication tools.
STRENGTHS OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• Specified tools for communication makes communication effective.

• Helps in international development projects.
• Participation in communication media makes it inclusive.
WEAKNESSES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION THEORY
• It enforces westernization more than modernization.
• Cultural hegemony is occurred through development communication

implementation.
The social responsibility theory of mass media changed the way press
published news from objective reporting to interpretative reporting. Before
this theory, facts were presented without any interpretation. The audience
interpreted it the way they wanted to. In this theory, interpretative
reporting and investigative reporting started to uncover the reality behind
every case.
The media is taken as a place for the voiceless to have a voice and
develop public opinions where each and every person has the right to speak,
express and publish. It is considered not an end but a tool for social
development. The objectives of media are stated to inform, document,
analyze, interpret, mediate and mobilize by creating and finding solutions.
DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT THEORY/DEMOCRATIZATION THEORY
This theory challenged the necessity for and desirability of uniform,

centralized, high-cost, commercialized, professionalized or state-controlled
media. While media is said to be important in rural settings and in the
cultures that are degrading with time, the theory is believed to conserve and
revive local cultures : promoting the right to information (global and local),
right to express (feedback), right to use new technologies (means of
communication), freedom to local data, freedom to take part in social action,
etc.
Moreover, the model is completely non-political and does not bolster

political control; its main objectives being encouraging national
development, supporting local culture and maintaining a good relation with
other countries.
The main idea behind development communication theory is media for

development of people in a nation or to help the target population. This
theory seeks to explain the normative behavior of the press in countries that
are conventionally classified together as “developing countries” or “third
world countries”, purposely because the theory was used for social change.
Moreover, schools maintain that values, social justice, critical
consciousness, intergenerational equity, and political consciousness included,
must be learned through experience as Aristotle said: "For the things we
have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.
The discussant used the following classroom activities for further learning:
• MATH TRICK
Instruction: Grab a pen or calculator and answer six (6) questions
1.Choose a number from 1 to 9, the number you’ve picked will be (x)
2.Multiply your number by 2 (X x 2)
3.Add 5 to your result
4.Multiply the result by 50
(X x 2 + 5) x 50
5.If you’ve already had your birthday this year add 1767, if not add 1766
6.Got a four digit number, now subtract the year of your birth from the
result. You should get a 3-figure number. The first figure is the number you
choose initially and the two others are your age.
• SHAPE TRICK
Instruction: Choose a shape that you think fit your personality.
This person is intellectual, objective, rational and a good decision

maker.
This person is steady and dependable, conservative and has

perseverance and will never let go of the opportunity that comes along
his/her way.
This person is dissatisfied with status quo, believes in no-

nonsense behavior and tends to be a risk-taker.
This person is strongly pre-occupied with sex. They think

about sex almost constantly and have a sexual thought every minute or so.
They often look at the other people’s bodies when they aren’t looking. In
short, these people are INQUISITIVE.
Social Responsibility Theory is used mostly by developing and least

developed countries. Under this theory, the press is taken to be for the
people and society. The government cannot intrude media as per its will.
Media is allowed to criticize the government roles, works and policies since it
is done to help the government get better.
Moreover, it encourages total freedom to press and no censorship, but

it should be regulated according to social responsibilities and external
controls. Content is also filtered through public obligation and interference.
The task of the press is to make a code of conduct and follow it, to develop a
standard in journalism, to make journalism better, to protect journalists and
to have penalties if any journalist violates the code of conduct.
Here, the media is taken as a place for the voiceless to have a voice
and develop public opinions where each and every person has the right to
speak, express and publish. It is considered not an end but a tool for social
development. The objectives of media are stated to inform, document,
analyze, interpret, mediate and mobilize by creating and finding solutions.
Likewise, the facts provided by the press are analyzed and interpreted so
that the people get true information and understandable news. This helps
maintain social harmony by revealing social evils like corruption and
discouraging other bad conducts.
DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT THEORY/DEMOCRATIZATION THEORY
The democratic-participant theory is more relevant in liberal

democratic developed countries than developing and least developed
countries because the countries in transition from underdevelopment and
non-democracy are alleged to lack the infrastructures and professional skills
needed for free media in democracy.
This theory talks about the participation of audience in media. It

emerged because of the dissatisfaction with other models such as Libertarian
theory, social responsibility theory, etc.
Moreover, the democratic-participant theory believes that there is

democratic and professional hegemony in the media today and that the
media is totally commercial. The model is completely non-political and does
not bolster political control; its main objectives being encouraging national
development, supporting local culture and maintaining a good relation with
other countries.
Thus, for the media to be democratic and be easily accessible or

participatory, all ill practices should be removed like there should not be
monopolization (public/private), centralization of press and top down
approach in the media. Moreover, the theory is stricter than libertarian and
social responsibility which makes it more responsible towards the needs of
the audience. And in the process, it expects the government to provide
funds, trainings and subsidies after identification if they have financial or
technical difficulties. However, the government controls some aspects if
media does not act as it should by the process of registration, licensing,
censorship, by preparing guidelines for media, monitoring, etc.
The Development Communication Theory talks about media as a tool

for development in local level. This theory seeks to explain the normative
behavior of the press in countries that are conventionally classified together
as “developing countries” or “third world countries”. The theory was used for
social change for its objective is to uplift the quality of life of people not only
economically but also socially, culturally, politically, etc. by using the tools of
development communication.
Development communications process can be adjusted according to

the needs, which improves the program as a learning process, as the
concept of development communication is continuously evolving.
Development of different digital technologies have made the concept broader
and more participatory. The implementation of this theory plays an
important role in the overall development of a country. If done for
international development projects, the communication process becomes a
catalyst for the project to be successful.
D. REFERENCES
Pickard, Victor (2015). America's Battle for Media Democracy. Cambridge

University Press. p. 144.
Pickard, Victor. America's Battle for Media Democracy. Cambridge University
Press. pp. 146–150.
Freire, P. (2005) Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Continuum
International Publishing Group.
Bynum, W.F. and Porter, R. (Eds) (2005). Oxford Dictionary of Scientific
Quotations. Oxford University Press. 21:9.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
(University of the City of Manila)
General Luna Street, Intramuros, Manila
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES, ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

MA in Communication Management
COMMUNICATION THEORY
MACM 701
AN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ON
THE NORMATIVE THEORIES
IN MASS COMMUNICATION
Submitted by
ABUAN, Melody P.
NORMATIVE THEORIES IN MASS COMMUNICATION
A. TOPIC
My assigned topic was the first three (3) normative theories in mass communication. Said
theories were initially proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and
Wilbur Schra i their ook Four Theories of the Press . The Theories ere origi ally used
in the United States of America, together with the words communism and Soviet, and was
later referred to as the western theories of mass media.
The Normative Theories describe the roles the media take within different forms of
government.
B. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The overall purpose of the report was to enable students to analyze communication
practices in a systematic/theoretical manner. Specific goals in line with this aim include:
1. Recognizing, differentiating and understanding major communication theories such

as normative theories;
2. Correlating the normative theories to existing practices in communication;
3. Analyzing communication issues from different perspectives applying both general

theoretical views and specific theories (i.e., normative theories); and
4. Applying the knowledge of normative theories to real-life issues
To accomplish the aforementioned objectives, this reporter associated the assigned

normative theories to famous songs, namely:
1. The King and I – The Authoritarian Media Theory was correlated with this musical play
to emphasize the distinguishing feature of the theory, that is, all forms of
communication (information or news) are controlled by the governing elite, the
authorities, influential bureaucrats and in some cases, the King or the monarchy.
2. From Russia with Love – The Soviet-Communist Media Theory was based on Marxist,
Leninist and Stalinist thoughts with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology.
He e, it’s association with the song.
3. I Did It My Way – The Libertarian Theory is characterized by the laissez-faire approach
thereby putting emphasis on free-will and freedom of the press.
In addition, group dynamics and active classroom participation by the everyone were also
encouraged during the presentation to further emphasized the different characteristics of
each theory. Such activities include:
1. Pass the Message – This reporter started her presentation by asking the class to divide
themselves into two (2) groups. Each group selected their respe ti e Leaders . A
message was given to both groups. The objective of the game was for each group
member to pass the message (through whispering) to all members. The Leader will be
the last member to receive the message and was responsible to write/decode the
message on the board.
Interpretation: Although the same message was delivered to both groups, each
member has different interpretations/understanding of the message. Said activity
clearly illustrated how messages are commonly interpreted/understood.
2. Mirror-Image – Ea h e er of the lass ere asked to air-dra u ers 1 to 5.

The class gave a unanimous feedback that they have no difficulty in performing the
task. The class were then asked to group themselves into pairs. Facing each other,
they were instructed to air-draw the same numbers they drawn earlier. The class
responded that the activity was more difficult and they needed time to adjust with
their partners.
Interpretation: The communication process is usually based on our individual

perspectives resulting to different interpretations of the same message. Thus, a clear
understanding of the basic communication theory will help us to analyze the behavior
of both media and the audience.
3. Paint A Scene – This reporter gave a single word and the class were asked to describe
the word using single words as well.
Interpretation: The descriptive words given by the class are usually based on their age,
gender, and personal characteristics thereby emphasizing the need for understanding
communication theories to better explain both communication and real-life issues.
D. THE OUTLINE OF THE REPORT
1. Origin and Development
The collapsed of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mogul empires during
the 19th century lead to the growth and development of the British, Russian, German,
French Colonial, Meiji Japan empires, the simultaneous growth of American influences,
on the other hand, resulted to stiff media competition and the emergence of YELLOW
JOURNALISM wherein news and information are usually based on sensationalism and
crude exaggeration to boost sales. The need for responsible media suddenly came into
focus and hence, the Normative Theories of the Press were developed.
2. Purpose of Normative Theories
The Normative Theories of the Press aims to understand and explain the use and
responsibilities of media for the general public through the relation of media and
governments. Specifically, it cleans media practices; guides the Press by telling them
how they should behave even though their philosophies were different; shows the
ideal path to be taken by the media as well as the structures that media can adopt and
professional media operations.
Moreover, it helps the audience get the bigger picture of the effect of the
environment in which a media operates.
3. Types of Normative Theories
AUTHORITARIAN MEDIA THEORY. The theory explains that all forms of

communication (information or news) are controlled by the governing elite or
authorities or influential bureaucrats. The government/state has absolute control of
the media to protect and prevent the people from national threats. Since the media
serves the interest of the governing body, the needs of the people are often ignored.
Furthermore, the Press enhances the powers of the government by focusing on the
positive image of the government while the government controls the media through
censorship, licensing, punishments and control approval.
Censorship is the suppression of any communication considered as harmful to the

public, the King, the government and its nation. In this case, freedom of speech and
freedom of expression is usually affected. Common types of censors are political,
moral, religious, military and corporate.
SOVIET-COMMUNIST MEDIA THEORY. After the 1917 revolution, the Soviet Union
was restructured with new political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles.
The newly-formed communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media which
serves to the working class and their welfares. This lead to development of the
Soviet-Media Theory (also known as Communist Media Theory).
I this theory, i for atio is used to de elop people’s skills a d fulfill their asi
needs by providing useful and beneficial information on education, entertainment,
motivation, mobilization and positive thoughts to create a strong, socialized society.
The State have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of the people.
The pubic, on the other hand, was encouraged to give feedback which would create
interests towards media. This resulted to the closure of privately-owned press and
other media.
Although it may seemed similar with the Authoritarian Theory, the core part of the
Soviet-Communist Theory is different because it provide two (2)-way communication
and it allows some restriction based on the national interest rather than personal
benefits. Also, journalists in this theory supports the leadership rather than be a
watchdog.
LIBERTARIAN/FREE PRESS THEORY. This theory originated from the Libertarian

thoughts from 16th century Europe against Authoritarian thoughts. This resulted to
international trade and urbanization opposing rural aristocracy in which various social
movements such as Protestants reformation demanding an individual’s freedo , their
own lives and free thoughts.
Liberalism believes that information is knowledge and knowledge is power. Hence,

this theory is free from any authority , control or censorship. People are believed to
be more conscientious, intellectual, capable of recognizing the truth from false and
rational.
A laissez-faire approach is commonly used in this theory allowing for people to have
a lot of press freedom with little to no government control.
MACM 701 – Communication Theory
SOURCE THEORIES
I. OUTLINE OF THE REPORT
A. TOPICS
SOURCE THEORIES
■ Agenda Setting Theory
■ Gatekeeping Theory
AGENDA SETTING THEORY

By: Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw
Maxwell McCombs
■ Born December 3, 1938 in Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America

■ He is one of the two founding fathers of empirical research on the agenda-setting function of
the press.
■ Educational Background:
Bachelor’s Degree – Tulane University, New Orleans, 1960
Master’s Program – Stanford University, 1961
Doctoral Program in Communication – Stanford University, 1966
■ Work Experiences:
Reporter – New Orleans Times-Picayune, 1963
Assistant Professor – University of California, Los Angeles, 1967
Director – American Newspaper Publishers Association, News Research Center, 1975-1984
Professor & Journalism Department Chairman – University of Texas, Austin, 1985-1991
Visiting Professor – University of Navarra, Spain, Since 1994
President – World Association for Public Opinion Research, 1997-1998
Donald L. Shaw
■ Born February 14, 1930 in Manchester, England

■ He is one of the two founding fathers of empirical research on the agenda-setting function of
the press.
■ Educational Background:
Bachelor’s Degree – Victoria University of Manchester, 1952
Master’s Degree – Trinity College, 1954
Doctor of Philosophy in Journalism – University of Wiscons, 1961
■ Work Experiences:
▪ University of Dublin, Ireland – Assistant Lecturer (1955-1957)
▪ University of Glasgow, Scotland – Lecturer (1957-1964)
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▪ University of Edinburgh, Scotland – Lecturer (1964-1969), Senior Lecturer (1969-1972), Reader

(1972-1979), Professor of Latin American Studies (1979-1986), and Department Chair between 1969
& 1985
▪ University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Brown Forman – Professor (1986) & Department Chair
(1989-1992)
▪ Brown University (1967), Univ. of Stirling (1976-1978) & Univ. of Virginia (1983) – Visiting
Professor
▪ Member of Editorial Board – Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Hispanic Review, Chasqui, Insula,
Antipodas, Revista Contemporanea / Contemporary Spain, Journal of Hispanic Research, Indiana
Journal of Hispanic Literature, Romance Quarterly, Studies in Twentieth Century Literature New Novel
Review, and North Colina Studies in Romance Language & Literature
▪ Royal Air Force (Military Service) – Flying Officer (1953-1955)
■ Agenda Setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – “the ability to tell us what
issues are important”.
■ Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw investigated presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and
1976.
■ In the research done in 1968 they focused on two elements:
1. Awareness 2. Information
■ Both attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one community said were
important issues and the actual content of the media messages used during the campaign.
■ McCombs and Shaw concluded that the mass media exerted a significant influence on what
voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign.
■ In the Chapel Hill Study of McCombs and Shaw, they studied the aspects of the agenda, the
descriptions of presidential candidates in the news and the agenda aspects in voters’
descriptions of the candidates.
■ Results shown that there was a relationship between the media agenda and the public
agenda as it decides what parts of those issues that are important in line with presidential
election.
CORE ASSUMPTIONS
Two basis assumptions underlie most research on Agenda Setting:

1. The press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it.
2. Media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues
as more important than other issues.
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METHODS
1. Media Content Analysis

- It was introduced as a systematic method to study mass media by Harold Lasswell (1927).
- Today it help us to define and understand media profile by evaluating issues, messages,
advocates, critics, media and journalists by giving qualitative ratings to print, broadcast and
online coverage and recommending PR actions and responses.
2. Audience Interviews
- It is a participatory question and answer sessions in which members of the audience take
the lead in asking a subject matter questions to experts.
LEVELS
First Level
■ Mostly studied by researchers, media uses objects or issues to influence the people “what
people should think about”.
Second Level
■ Media focuses on the characters of issues “how people should think about”.
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GATEKEEPING THEORY
By: Kurt Z. Lewin
Kurt Z. Lewin
■ Born September 9, 1890 in Mogilno, Poland.

■ He was a great Psychologist and pioneer in Social Psychology.
■ His studies are more based on to understand a person’s own world, physical, mental and
social through frequent conversation between his pre-memories, desire and his goals.
■ His works help to understand the relationship between attitudes and behavior in the group or
individuals.
■ He coined the word called “Gatekeeping” which means to block unwanted or useless things
by using a gate and the person who make a decision is called “Gatekeeper”.
CONCEPTS
■ In this theory the “gatekeeper decides what information should move to group or individual
and what information should not”.
■ “Gatekeepers are the decision makers” who manage the whole social system, having its own
influence like social, cultural, ethical and political.
■ Gatekeepers let the information to the group based on their personal or social influences.
■ Through this theory the unwanted, sensible and controversial information are removed by
gatekeepers which help to control the society or a group and letting them in a right path.
■ Gatekeeping Theory includes series of checkpoints that the news has to go through before it
gets to the public.
■ Through this theory many people have to decide whether or not the news is to be seen or
heard.
■ Existing gatekeepers in our society might include reporters, writers, and editors.
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EXAMPLES
1. At home mother plays the vital role and she has to decide what her children’s needs and what
should be avoided.
2. An international news channel receives numbers of news items within day like international
terror issues, UN discussions, Texas Bull Fighting and religious abuse on international
community.
฀ This news channel cannot show all those news items to audience because it may affect
the channel’s reputation in public and organization’s policy.
฀ Here, editor decides the news items especially he cannot show the Texas bull fighting
because it is not internationally popular story.
฀ The news channel cannot show the religious abuses also because it may hurt audience
directly and it may affect organization’s policy also.
฀ The international terror issues and UN discussions are universal common news that
won’t affect the channel reputation in public and organization’s policy.
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Agenda Setting Theory
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw focus on agenda setting of media influence which
affects the order of presentation in news reports, events, and issues in the public mind. Both
went on to write on agenda setting at great length, they have produced many articles and
research (Chapel Hill Study) on the various facets of the theory.
This theory is intended to apply to the news media, although in certain cases it has been
applied to other areas of the media and messages which they transmit to audiences. Mass
media coverage in general and agenda setting in particular also have a powerful impact on what
individuals think that other people are thinking, and hence tend to allocate more importance to
issues that have been extensively covered by mass media.
Other factors that affect agenda setting these may be the combination of gatekeepers,
editors, managers, and external influences. These external influences may be from non-media
sources, government officials and influential individuals. These factors affect the agenda setting
process to an extent that depending what power each factor may have will eventually influence
the media agenda.
This theory of agenda setting has many useful uses in our society. It gives media the
strength to establish what news that people see or hear and what part of the news is important
that should be seen or heard. This concept of agenda setting as the idea of issue salience as a
media effect is intriguing and important. Therefore agenda setting is used for many purposes to
establish the media agenda and to retrieve the opinion of the public.
Moreover, agenda setting is very important in the political aspect because the public
agenda influences the policy agenda which means that candidates will try to focus on issues
that the public wants to hear about. Lastly, this agenda setting theory was indeed beneficial in
our society and a significant part of our daily communication.
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Gatekeeping Theory
The main concept associated with the agenda setting theory is Gatekeeping. The term
gatekeeping used by Kurt Lewin controls over the selection of content discussed in the media.
Public cares mostly about the product of a media gatekeeping. Media practitioners such as
reporters, writers, and editors are considered gatekeepers in our society. These gatekeepers
have constructed a hierarchy of information which people need to look at as important and the
perceived to be a need. They have a great responsibility to provide unbiased and true
information.
In this theory, Information moves in a step by step process which depends on the
structure of an organization. Individual views, daily routine of media practitioners, different
organizations, sponsors, advertisers, government, are some of the factors that influence
gatekeeping.
The gatekeeping process suggests that there is only one gate, but in reality, there might
be many. Sometimes it can cause negative presentations and abuse of power as the reality
might not be shown as it is. Lastly, gatekeeping is inevitable and in some circumstances it can
be useful to our society.
The discussant of those topics under Source Theories used the following classroom
activities for further learning. Below are interactive brain teasers as reference.
Game Number 1: “Name that Politician!”
Instructions: This activity aims to recall those memorable taglines that were used by famous
politicians and aspiring personalities during election campaigns in the Philippines. Each member
of the class was given tiny sheets of paper which includes the number that corresponds to the
item that should be answered.
1. “Use your KOKOte!”
– Sen. Koko Pimentel, Senatorial Campaign 2013
2. “Walang maiiwan sa laylayan dahil lahat tayo magtutulungan upang mapaunlad ang ating
bayan.”
– Vice President Leni Robredo, Vice Presidential Campaign 2016
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3. "Edukasyon ang solusyon sa kahirapan. Uunlad ang Pinoy sa mahusay na edukasyon.

Angara ng Pamilyang Pinoy!”
– Sen. Edgardo "Sonny" Angara, Senatorial Campaign 2013
4. “Sipag at Tiyaga.”
– Sen. Manny Villar, Senatorial Campaign 2001
5. “Pro – Pinoy!”, "Pangarap kong tuparin ang pangarap ninyo." and “Itanim sa Senado!”
– Surigao del Sur Rep. Prospero Pichay, Senatorial Campaign 2007
6. “Sumaya ang buhay ko! Sasaya ang buhay nyo sa TESDA!”
– Sen. Joel Villanueva, Senatorial Campaign 2016
7. “Walang iwanan!”
– Sen. Grace Poe, Vice Presidential Campaign 2016
8. “Tapang at Malasakit.”
– Pres. Rodrigo R. Duterte, Presidential Campaign 2016
9. “Iboboto mo pa ba sila?”
– (1)Sen. Juan Ponce Enrile, (2)Sen. Panfilo Lacson, (3)Sen. Gregorio Honasan, and
(4)Sen. Miriam Defensor Santiago, Senatorial Campaign 2001
10. “Lagot siya sa Nanay nya!”
– Sen. Benigno Simeon “Noynoy” C. Aquino III, Senatorial Campaign 2007
11. "May bagong umagang darating.“
– Fernando Poe Jr. (The King Philippine Movies), Presidential Campaign 2004
12. “Tama na! Sobra na! Palitan na!”
– Pres. Corazon “Cory” C. Aquino, Martial Law Period
13. “Healthy Pinoy, Healthy Pinas!”
– Sen. Risa Hontiveros, Senatorial Campaign 2016
14. “Pag pursigido, ang tulong sa kapwa ay sigurado.”
– Manila Vice Mayor Isko Moreno, Senatorial Campaign 2016
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15. “Bakit tayo magpapaakit sa baka kung meron naman sigurado?.”
– Sen. Mar Roxas, Presidential Campaign 2016
16. “Competence and Experience.”
– Vice President Jejomar Binay, Presidential Campaign 2016
17. “Iboto 13 – 0! VOT FOR D CHAMMP!”
– V-Villar (Manny), O-Osmeña (Sergio, III), T-Tañada (Wigberto), F-Flavier (Juan), O-Obet
(Pagdanganan), R-Recto (Ralph), D-Drilon (Franklin), C-Chato (Liwayway), H-Herrera
(Ernesto), A-Arroyo (Joker), M-Monsod (Winnie), M-Magsaysay (Ramon, Jr.), and P-Pangilinan
(Francis)
Film Showing Activity
The discussant provided a compilation of selected television advertisements in view of

political election campaigns in the Philippines. Below is the list of video clipping titles as
reference.
1. “Television Advertisements of 2013 Senatorial Bets”
2. “2016 Philippine Elections – Battle of the Campaign Jingles”
3. “The 2016 Elections’ Moments”
Game Number 2: “Beads that Leads…”
Instructions: This activity aims to build awareness among the members of the class about the
challenging role of “Gatekeepers” in our society. The class will be divided into two groups.
Each group will be provided materials such as tiny plastic bags and a container which includes
pearl beads and colored sequins. For two minutes, each group are required to put five (5) pearl
beads, seven (7) purple sequins, and nine (9) pink sequins to their respective tiny plastic bags.
The first group who can accomplish this task appropriately will win.
D. REFERENCES
฀ McCombs, M.E. & Shaw, D. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. POQ,
36; 176-187.
฀ McCombs, M.E. (1972). Mass Communication in Political Campaigns: Information,

Gratification and Persuasion. In: Kline, F. & Tichenor, Ph.J. (Eds.) Current Perspectives
in Mass Communication Research. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage.
9 of 11| P A G E
฀ McCombs, M.E. (1982). The Agenda-Setting Approach. In: Nimmo, D. & Sanders, K.
(Eds.) Handbook of Political Communication. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage.
฀ McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass
Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (Summer), 176-187.
฀ McCombs, M.E., & Weaver, D. (1973). Voters’ Need for Orientation and Use of Mass
Communication. Presented at the annual conference of the International Communication
Association. Montreal, Canada.
฀ McCombs, M.E., & Weaver, D. (1985). Toward a Merger of Gratifications and Agenda-
Setting Research. In: Rosengren, K.E., Wenner, L.A. & Palmgreen, P. (Eds.) Media
Gratifications Research: Current Perspectives. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage.
฀ McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L., & Weaver, D.L. (1997). Communication and Democracy:
Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence
Erlbaum.
฀ Shaw, D. L. & McCombs, M. (1977). The Emergence of American Political Issues: The
Agenda-Setting Function of the Press. St. Paul: West.
฀ McCombs, Maxwell E, and Donald L. Shaw. The Emergence of American Political

Issues. New York. West Publishing Co, 1977.
฀ University of Magla Web Services, n.d, infromation, University of Magla,accessed 12

October 2010
฀ Carvalho, Susan, editor, Modernisms and Modernities: Studies in Honor of Donald L.

Shaw, Juan de la Cuesta (Newark, DE), 2006.
฀ Lewin, K. Z. (1943). Gatekeeping Theory. Retrieved from http:// communication

theory.org/gatekeeping-theory/
Agenda Setting Theory
฀ It is a theory in mass communication that serves as a psychological process whereby

“the mass media determines what and how people should think and worry about”.
฀ Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw are the two founding fathers of the Chapel Hill
Study in view with the agenda-setting function of the press.
฀ Agenda setting theory is used in political advertisements, campaigns, business news,

public relations, etc.
10 of 11| P A G E
Gatekeeping Theory
฀ This theory aims “to block unwanted, sensible, controversial and useless information that
are removed by the gatekeeper” (media) which helps to control the society.
฀ Kurt Z. Lewin formulated the term “Gatekeeping” which means that someone has to
decide whether and how to pass the information to another person by using a gate.
“The media uses Agenda Setting and Gatekeeping to control our access to news,
information, and entertainment”.
- Wilson, 14
11 of 11| P A G E
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF REPORT
A. TOPICS:
 Two Step flow theory

 Diffusion of Innovation Theory
 Social Construction of Reality Theory
To apply the learning derived from the audience theories in

understanding and solving existing mass communication problems
a. Discussion of the topic

b. Presentation of downloaded video clips related to the theory
c. Identifying the theory’s name with only a given image
d. Getting the personal insights of classmates
e. Tons of Humorous talks
D. REFERENCES
 www.britannica.com
retrieved on July 2017
 www.utwente.nl
retrieved on July 2017
 Baran, Stanley J., Mass Communication Theory, Foundations,
Ferment, and Future, Sixth Edition, 2006, Wadsworth
 You tube videos
The theories that were discussed under message theories are Two-Step
Flow theory, Diffusion of Innovation Theory, and Social Construction of Reality
Theory.
The Two-Step Flow Of Information theory describes how firstly, certain

individuals considered to be “opinion leaders” receive and interpret information
directly from mass media. They in turn pass on their interpretations along with
the media information itself, thus influencing the individual’s interpretations.
The Diffusion of Innovation Theory is to explain how, over time, an idea or

product gains momentum and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population
or social system. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social
system, adopt a new idea, behavior, or product. It is the theory that explains how
innovations are introduced and adopted by various communities.
The Social Construction of Reality theory relies on processes of

socialization, where individuals learn and internalize refers to the way we create
meaning through social interaction with others. Cultural practices and norms give
rise to the existence of social constructs and govern the practices, customs, and
rules concerning the way we use, view and understand them.
Submitted by:
Teotilde Gazmin Mendoza

S#2015-60039
For
MACM 701 Communication Theory
Communication Theory
Executive Summary
Priming Theory
I. Outline of the Report
A .Topic
My report will cover of one of the message-related theories in communication –

Priming, which was developed by political science researchers in the early 1980s
after studying the effects of media, television in particular, on decision-making of
voters during an election in the United States.
My report will briefly touched on psychological and behavioral aspect of the theory
before moving on how it impacts on communication.
B. Learning Outcomes
At the end of my report, it is expected that the members of MACM class to be more
knowledgeable about the theory on priming and being able to explain its significance
and distinguish it from other message-related or audience-related communication
theories. They will not just have complete understanding of the theory but the
students will be able to appreciate, use and apply the theory to practical use in their
work.
C. Learning Activities
I presented the Priming Theory through a PowerPoint presentation, showing visual

images and video on how it works and how it is applied. As an example, I will intend
to show several photos of the events seen by the students almost daily on television,
like the Marawi conflict, the South China Sea issue, the Korean peninsula situation,
and the more latest political developments in the country, such as the domestic
problem between Andres Bautista of the Commission of Elections (Comelec) and his
wife, and President Rodrigo Duterte’s second State of the Nation Address (SONA) in
Congress.
I have shown pictures on how priming happens daily with an actual demonstration in
class and on how the news media is applying it in daily programming to influence
public opinion and making them support and decide on certain ideas, event, a
person and an institution.
II. Executive Summary of Iyengar, Peters and Kinder’s priming theory
A. Introduction
The concept of planting an idea into the minds of the people and allowing that idea
to dominate all further debate is not new. Modern-day media organizations used this
to drum up awareness and interests on certain event, show, person and institution,
and ultimately supporting it when making decisions.
Priming is also a powerful political tool to influence voters’ assessment of candidates
and was first use in public opinion surveys in the 1960s when John F. Kennedy run
for elections for president.
But, it was not until the 1980s when priming was developed into a theory by political
science researchers - Shanto Iyengar, Mark Peters and Donald Kinder. Priming
theory believes that the media has the power to control how audiences interpret new
information. By emphasizing some issues and ignoring others, the media, in
particular, may be able to determine which issues will have a bearing on decisions
the people will make and which will not.
B. Priming theory
In 1982, Iyengar, Peters and Kinder of the American Political Science Association
made a breakthrough study on priming in an experimental demonstration of the “Not-
So-Minimal Consequences of Television News, testing it during elections on how the
media actually influence the decisions of the voters who lack the knowledge
concerning political matters.
Priming is an important concept in media effects. As agenda setting brings out only
the importance of the issue, priming offers explanation on how the information from
the media are stored in the human mind and how it influences in making decisions.
Media affect the judgment or behavior by stimulating the associating thoughts which
are caused due to the mental relationships created inside the memory.
The media effects have impact on particular aspects while ignoring the others. The
prominence shown in the media for any issue becomes a major factor in creating an
impact in a person’s judgment. This can cause to lessen concern on the more
important issue.
As a communication theory, it proposes the media’s continuous reporting on an
issue to stimulate related thoughts in the minds of the audience and aggressive
reporting cause the people to think the issue being reported is important.
Simple actions and behaviors can shape emotions and feelings, like holding pencil
vertically or horizontally, which shows a happy person. The way the people stand
could suggest confidence. Images, smell, colors, and words would also suggest
something.
Priming is both a tool and a potential weapon. Thus, one has to think carefully about
all the ways in which one can prime others and be primed himself.
Media priming works on a subconscious level and only has a temporary effect on
people to make them act impulsively and hold biases
C. Types of priming
Political media priming is the process in which the media selects issues to feed the
public, thereby altering the standards by which people evaluate election candidates.
A number of studies have demonstrated that there is a dimension of powerful media
effects that goes beyond agenda-setting. Thus, people make political decision based
on what comes into their mind.
Movies, crime dramas and talk shows can influence people’s political evaluation.
Media can also prime gender, race, religion and ethnicity stereotype which affects
perception and political judgment.
Many studies found that boys with high aggression were primed by violent television
viewing and will act violently in sports activities. Recent studies on video games
have reported higher level of violence among those who play video games.
Recent prime creates greater effect. The more frequent or longer prime causes more
effect. Prime decreases with time, starting from 15 to 20 minutes. Therefore, the
effect of priming is more on people who follow the issues ardently.
D. Priming versus Agenda-setting and Framing
In agenda setting, the media’s emphasis is on certain issues that make audience
attach importance on the issues. Agenda setting and priming are related to each
other; but one affecting people’s judgment (priming) and the other making some
issues salient than others (agenda setting). Both models are based on media’s
ability to increase accessibility.
Framing, on the other hand, is on how news media characterize an issue influences
audiences’ perception of the issue.
In agenda-setting, media do not tell us what to think, but rather what to think about.
In priming, the media provide a context for public discussion of an issue, setting the
stage for audience understanding. And finally, framing is when media provide a
focus and environment for reporting a story, influencing how audiences will
understand or evaluate it. Framing is similar to a news slant, in how a particular
news story is presented by the media to influence the perception of the reader or
audience.
E. Criticism of priming theory
- Government or powerful people can bend information to their favor by priming.

- It can be used to establish false or distorted reality.
- People are influenced unknowingly.
- Priming can even affect the voting patterns of people in elections or establish
opinions on any issue.
- Priming degrades with time.
F. References
- http://communicationtheory.org/priming/, retrieved 02 August 2017

- http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/smithrd/PR/Framing.htm, retrieved 02
August 2017
- https://www.businesstopia.net/mass-communication/priming-theory,
retrieved 02 August 2017
- https://www.marketingsociety.com/the-library/put-pencil-your-mouth-
power-priming#eocJL2sGfAXLLtWo.97, retrieved 01 August 2017
Manuel P. Mogato
MAMC – COMMUNICATION THEORY Executive Summary: Media Priming theory
Submitted on 07 October 2017
Executive Summary
Propaganda Model
I. The Outline of the Report
A. Topic
My report is about the Propaganda theory, introduced by Edward S. Herman and

Noam Chomsky in a book “Manufacturing Consent – The Political Economy of the
Mass Media” in the late 1980s. It is one of the message-related communication
theories. My report will touch on the history of propaganda and then go into the
theory, which was developed in the late 1980s, during the elections in the United
States, which was won by George W. Bush, a Republican, and, at the time, when
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics collapsed, ending the Cold War.
At the end of my presentation, it is expected students to learn and appreciate what is

Propaganda theory. The students will also know, spot and identify the theory and
differentiate from other similar models, like source-related theory on gate-keeping
because both served to filter information to be given to the public.
During my presentation, I used PowerPoint presentation as a tool to make the report

understandable. It included text, pictures and graphic illustrations. To break the
monotony of the reporting, there was a simple quiz about the Filipino propagandists,
heroes during the late 19th century when the Philippines was fighting a rebellion for
its independence from Spain and matching them with their pseudonyms.
II. Executive Summary of the Herman-Chomsky’s propaganda model
A. Introduction
The Propaganda theory was introduced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky
in a book “Manufacturing Consent – The Political Economy of the Mass Media” in
the late 1980s, at a time when media is controlled by the government and big
business, which decide which information or news should be disseminated to the
public.
To help better understand Herman and Chomsky’s media model, let’s look at the
basic element of the theory – propaganda. Based on the latest edition of Merriam-
Webster dictionary, propaganda is defined as the spreading of ideas, information, or
rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution a cause, or a person.
Propaganda is actually an old concept, dating back to 1274 BC when Egypt’s
pharaoh, Rameses the Great, immortalized his battle victory over the Hittites, which
was actually a stalemate. Up to the Second World War and in the Cold War, there
was active propaganda war between the West and Communists led by Russia to
deceive and to discredit rivals. In modern history, there were several personalities,
who were widely known as effective propagandists, like German communist Karl
Marx, Nazi Germany’s Joseph Goebbels, American anti-communist Joseph
McCarthy, and climate advocate Al Gore, a former vice president of the United
States.
In today’s age of digital technology, propaganda is spread easily and swiftly through
the Internet in the social media, like Facebook and Twitter. In the United States,
Jestin Coler rose to fame, or notoriety, as the king of fake news after posting a
fabricated story about the death of a federal agent investigating the improper use of
electronic mail of Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton.
The 2016 U.S. presidential elections gave opportunity for the proliferation of dozens
of fake news sites in the U.S., many of them originating from Eastern Europe, where
one high school student was earning about $10,000 a month maintaining a website
which produced fake news about the elections. Coler himself was earning $30,000
to $50,000 a month due to tens of thousands of comments, shares and likes on his
social media accounts and websites.
Locally, bloggers became overnight sensation by producing fake news. Some of
these social media influencers, like Mocha Uson and Rey Joseph Nieto aka
“Thinking Pinoy”, have been hired by the government.
B. Discussion on the theory and the five filters
The development of the propaganda media model by Herman and Chomsky was
inspired by the ideas of Harold Laswell’s wartime propaganda in the 1940s and by
Jacques Ellul’s sociological techniques of propaganda and the media.
The propaganda model focuses on this inequality of wealth and power and its
multilevel effects on mass media interests and choices. In a way, the model, as a
message-related theory, deals with the manipulation of content by selecting which
information would be relayed to influence the general audience’s perception, opinion
and eventually action.
It traces the routes by which money and power are able to filter out the news fit to
print and broadcast, marginalize dissent, and allow the government and dominant
private interests to get their messages across to the public. Sadly, the theory is U.S.-
centric but it can be applied universally, including in the Philippines.
Herman and Chomsky also argued the media is one big, systematic propaganda tool
to control the public, protecting the ideology of the rich and powerful. A classic
example is the role of CNN in promoting the political, social and economic interest of
Western countries in general, and the United States, in particular.
In contrast, the Qatar-based Al Jazeera was born to present news from the
perspective of Muslim-dominated Middle East countries. In 1999, Singapore started
Channel News Asia in an attempt to come up with Asia-centric cable news channel.
Dominant powers - governments and businesses – control the media and decide
which information will be disseminated, misshaping it. Herman and Chomsky call the
factors which misshaped as filters. News is filtered by each of these factors before
they reached the audience or the public.
There are five filters:
- Size, ownership and profit orientation of mass media
The major traditional media organizations are in the hands of a few elites, like
CNN and Fox News in the United States and ABS-CBN, GMA and ABC 5 in
the Philippines. News organizations are controlled by large corporations and
conglomerates. The information presented to the public is slanted to promote
and protect the interests of these controlling organizations.
- Funding
Advertisements play the major rile of funding in mass media. If advertising
were not funding them, then prices of the newspapers may include cost of its
production. In the same way, production of shows in both radio and television
would also be higher and costly. Thus, it is very common among print and
broadcast media to filter news and information in favor of their advertisement
providers.
- Source
News sources are very important in news gathering and for both print and
broadcast media. Media organizations wanted to get continuous flow of news,
thus, newspapers, radio and television would take suitable actions in favor of
sources of information, protecting them. It is important to keep a very good
relationship with news sources, fine-tuning the news to make them happy.
These powerful and influential newsl sources tend to change some media
policies.
- Flaks
Flaks refer to the negative responses to the news and information produced
by the media. These negative responses do not only come from high
government officials but also among the ordinary people. With social media
now, negative responses could easily spread, through trolls and fake news. If
the flaks are produced in a large scale, it is destructive to the media. The
media will always have an eye for the negative responses. As a filter, it will try
to avoid news, which may bring sort of negative responses, including libel
lawsuits.
- Anti-Communism
As far as, large American corporations and elite groups are concerned,
communism was an ultimate evil because it took their wealth and power,
threatening their positions. So, the elites, who are owners of media, adopted
a policy to bring censorship to the articles and news which talks about the
good side of the communist ideology. It will demonize groups which are
perceived to be threats to free market ideology. Thus, it will try to suppress
dissent.
These five filters do not only manipulate but will selectively disseminate news
and information to influence how people should perceive, feel, think and
eventually decide on an issue, idea, event, person and institution.
C. Propaganda model versus Gate-keeping model
The propaganda model is to be distinguished from the gate-keeping model of

media operations, although both theories served to filter news or information.
While the gate-keeping model is a source-related theory or the people who
will filter and censor the message, the propaganda model is more of
message-related theory, dealing on the content to be manipulated or filtered.
To further explain, the gate-keeping model is principally concerned with
micro-analysis and focuses on how decisions of particular editors and
journalists influence news production and news selection processes
The kind of micro-analyses is not the task of the propaganda model. The
model provides an overview of the system at work, making sense out of a
confusing picture by extracting the main principles of the system. Its
overarching concern with the broader issue of social class firmly distinguishes
the propaganda model from the gate-keeper model.
Finally, the propaganda model, initially referred to as a ‘general theory of the
Free Press’, contends that America’s elite agenda-setting media play an
important role in establishing cultural hegemony, primarily by establishing a
general framework for news discourse that is typically adhered to by lower-tier
media.
D. References
- http://communicationtheory.org/propaganda-model/, retrieved 31 July 2017

- https://chomsky.info/consent01/, retrieved 31 July 2017
- http://www.zeepedia.com/read.php?propaganda_theories_origin_of_propaga
nda_engineering_of_consent_behaviorism_theories_of_communication&b=8
1&c=10, retrieved 30 July 2017
- https://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/mediatheory/keywords/propaganda/,
Manuel P. Mogato
MAMC – COMMUNICATION THEORY Propaganda Theory
Executive Summary
Social Shaping of Technology
A. Topic
My report is about the Social Shaping of Technology (SST), a channel-related theory,

which originated from the study of Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman in the
1990s as one of the models of the technology. Social Shaping of Technology is
concerned with exploration of the material consequences of different technical
choices, but criticizes technological determinism, which argues that technology
follows its own development path, outside of human influences, and in turn,
influences society. SST theorists believed the relationship between technology and
society as one of “mutual shaping”.
B. Outcomes
At the end of my presentation, it is expected students to learn and appreciate what is

the Social Shaping of Technology.. The students will also know, spot and identify the
theory and differentiate from other similar models, like channel-related theory on
Technical Determination because both deals with society and technology.
C. Activities
In my report, I will use a PowerPoint presentation, which includes text, pictures and
graphic illustrations. I will have actual demonstration in class showing technological
gadgets which are important to people to illustrate the theory.
II. Executive Summary of the Social Shaping of Technology
A. Introduction
The sociology of technology is an emerging but as yet embryonic field. In a broad

sense, it is concerned with explaining how social processes, actions and structures
relate to technology, and in this is concerned with developing critiques of notions of
technological determinism.
Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman point to the centrality of technological
determinism, they refer to it as “the single most influential theory of the relationship
between technology and society”.
Technological determinism is the notion that technological development is
autonomous with respect to society; it shapes society, but is not reciprocally
influenced. Rather, it exists outside society, but at the same time influences social
change.
In more extreme varieties of technological determinism, the technology is seen as
the most significant determinant of the nature of a society.
Technological determinism is unsatisfactory because technologies do not, in practice,
follow some predetermined course of development. Research and development
decisions, for example, are significant determinants of the sorts of technologies
which are developed. Also, although technologies clearly have impacts, the nature of
these is not built in to the technology but depends on a broad range of social,
political and economic factors.
The social shaping of technology approach serves as a needed corrective and an
antidote to naive technological determinism. While not denying that technologies
have social effects, the focus, rather, is on the social forces which give rise to
particular technologies. Sociologists of technology, it is argued, need not restrict
themselves to the effects of technologies.
There are two broad approaches to the social shaping of technology. The first of
these focuses on the “micro” and can be seen in terms of three schools: the social
constructivist, the systems and the actor-network approaches.
Social constructivist approach draws on the sociology of scientific knowledge.
Scientific facts are seen as social phenomena. Thus, for social constructivists,
technological artefacts are socially constructed. The focus is on design and
development, which are seen as embodying these social processes, as
encompassing the social interests which they represent.
On the second school, the systems approach sees system builders – inventors,
engineers, managers and financiers – creating and presiding over technological
systems; heterogeneous people, organizations and disciplines become part of a
seamless web
The actor-network approach is a program for empirical research, which is opposed
to the social constructivist agenda in that it collapses any distinction between the
technical and the social, and, for that matter, between these and the scientific, the
economic or the political. Thus, the development of a technology is seen in terms of
the relationship formed between human and non-human elements of “actor
networks”.
The second broad approach is the neo-Marxist. This argues that technological
chance cannot be fully understood by reference to individual inventions. Rather, it is
argued, we need to examine how wider “macro” socio-economic forces affect the
nature of technological problems and solutions.
Technology is designed, consciously or otherwise, to secure particular social or
political objectives. In this vein, the labor process approach looks at how the social
relations of workers and management affect the nature of technologies.
Both broad approaches to the social shaping of technology, then, are concerned
with explaining the social process of the conception, invention, design and
development of technology and both see this as embodying particular social
relations.
It is interesting to note that the sociology of technology shares with technological
determinism an almost exclusive concern with the conception, invention design and
development of technology. Unlike technological determinism, however, it roots this
within a complex of social forces, which not only anchor, but mold the investing
process. Thus, the interest is in what shapes technology in the first place before it
has effects.
Technologies are created not by lone inventions or geniuses working in a social
vacuum, but by a combination of social forces and processes. A clear example is the
development of television, it is not a product of an overnight flash of inspiration, but
was the result of an evolving complex of social and technical factors. The entry of
television into the home was a response to a series of needs which, in turn, were a
consequence of the developing twin processes of mobilization and privatization.
B. Reference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology,
retrieved 30 September 2017
http://www.nyu.edu/projects/nissenbaum/papers/socialshaping.pdf,
retrieved 30 September 2017
file:///C:/Users/U8001754/Documents/Downloads/MackayGillespie-
ExtendingSocialShaping-SSS.pdf retrieved 30 September 2017
Manuel P. Mogato
MAMC – COMMUNICATION THEORY Propaganda Theory
FRAMING ANALYSIS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
MACM 701 – COMMUNICATION THEORIES
SUBMITTED BY :
JO-ANNA LIZA M. DE LOS ANGELES
SUBMITTED TO :
DR. BERNARDO F. RAMOS

FRAMING ANALYSIS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
A. Topics
• Framing Analysis
• Discourse Analysis
At the end of the session, the MACM students will be able to :
1. Distinguish the difference between framing and discourse analysis;
2. Examine and discuss the effects of framing;
3. Determine the strengths and weaknesses of framing and discourse

analysis.
1. Discussion of topics through power point presentation
2. Presentation of the images and its meaning
3. Analogy Game
D. References
1. Goffman, Erving. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization

of Experience. New York, NY et al.: Harper & Row
2. Fairhurst, G. & Sarr, R. 1996. The Art of Framing. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass
3. Scheufele, Dietram A. 199. “Framing as a Theory of Media Effects.”

Journal of Communication
4. Discourse (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.Discourse)
5. Modes of Discourse
(blogs.harrisonhigh.org/stephanie_tatum/Modes%20of%Discourse
.ppt)
Framing Analysis and Discourse Analysis are both under Message Theories which
discuss influences and effects to people and society.
Framing Analysis is a process by which communication source defines and constructs a

political issue or public controversy. The concept was first put forth by Erving Goffman in 1974
which is used to analyze how people understand situations and activities. It focuses attention
on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. It suggests that how
something is presented to the audience influences the choices people make about how to
process that information.
In addition, this theory can be used for effective communication in all fields of media and
other organizations which highlights particular aspects of the issue and stimulates the
decision-making process.
Furthermore, framing regulates the audience’s perception and the acceptance of a

particular meaning of a message. However, biased media can negatively frame an issue and
can influence a large group of people.
On the other hand, Discourse Analysis is defined as analysis of language beyond the
sentence. It is concerned with the study of language in text and conversation which was
conceptualized by Evenlyn Hatch. This theory emphasizes that language development should
be viewed within the framework of how the learner discovers the meaning capacity of
language by taking part in communication. This theory focuses on second language acquisition
which is vital in making interaction.
In 1983, Canale refined the theory adding discourse competence. It is the ability to
understand and produce the range of spoken, written and visual texts that are characteristics
of a language.
According to discourse theorists, language acquisition will successfully take place when
language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they
have successfully cognized various forms of competence.
The main principles of the discourse theory are :
฀ In second language acquisition, the rules of grammar are acquired in a

natural order which is largely influenced by the learner’s age, context of
learning and learner’s background.
฀ When communicating with non-native speaker, the native speaker adjusts
his discourse to negotiate meaning with the speaker.
฀ The strategies and means used in discourses and the adjusted language
input will influence the speed and order of second language acquisition.
฀ The natural order of second language acquisition is the result of the
learner’s learning to make discourse interactions.
Audience Theories
A. Topics
a. Social Learning Theory
b. Spiral of Silence
c. Hypodermic/Stimulus-Response/Magic Bullet Theory
d. Reception Theory
To apply the learning derived from the audience theories in
understanding and solving existing mass communication
problems.
a. Lecture/Discussion about the theories
b. Monkey See, Monkey Do - Activity relevant to Social
Learning Theory)
c. Presentation of video clip on Bobo Doll Experiment and
Positive/Negative Reinforcement relevant to Social Learning
Theory
d. Presentation of video clip on Hypodermic Needle Theory
e. Tulak ng Bibig, Kabig ng Dibdib – Activity relevant to
Reception Theory
 https://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-
D. References
 http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-learning.html,
bandura.html, retrieved 14 August 2017
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac, retrieved 14
 https://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/spiral-of-
August 2017
 https://www.utwente.nl/en/bms/communication-theories/sorted-
silence/, retrieved 15 August 2017
by-cluster/Mass%20Media/Hypodermic_Needle_Theory/,
 https://www.slideshare.net/dphillips4363/reception-theory-
presentation, retrieved 17 August 2017
ANGELIQUE J. MALIGALIG
MAMC – COMMUNICATION THEORY
Executive Summary: Social Learning, Spiral of Silence, Hypodermic Needle and Reception
Theories
Submitted on 16 September 2017
II. The Executive Summary
The four theories discussed, namely Social Learning, Spiral of Silence,

Hypodermic Needle and Reception theory, focus on the response and effects of
the mass media to its audience.
According to Albert Bandura, proponent of the Social Learning Theory,

“most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on
later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” The findings
of the Bobo Experiment support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory, that is,
children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of
observational learning - through watching the behavior of another person. The core
principles of this theory are observational learning (through Attention, Retention,
Production and Motivation), reciprocal determinism (influencing factors are
environment, individual and behavior), self-efficacy (refers to the belief of one’s
ability to succeed in a specific situation or accomplish task) and reinforcement (can
be direct and indirect, positive or negative).
The Spiral of Silence theory refers to the tendency of people to remain silent
when they feel that their views are in opposition to the majority view on a subject.
This behavior is caused by fear of isolation. Silence may also be caused by
pluralistic ignorance wherein people mistake idea that everyone thinks like they
do. More so, media accelerate the muting of minority or it can make a majority look
like a minority.
The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also referred to as linear communication,
views the audience as passive and with no individual difference. This theory
suggests that an intended message is directly received and accepted by the
receiver. The public essentially cannot escape from the media’s influence and is
therefore considered a “sitting duck.”
The Reception Theory refers to the particular reader’s reception or
interpretation in making meaning from a literary text or other forms of media. This
theory uses the encoding/decoding approach model of communication where the
receivers may be Dominant (how the producer wants the audience to view the
media text), Oppositional (when the audience rejects the preferred reading) or
Negotiated (when audience accepts parts of the producer’s views but has their
own views as well). Factors such as life experience, mood, age, culture, beliefs
and gender affect whether the audience will take the dominant, oppositional or
negotiated reading.
These four audience theories exhibit the great impact the mass media to
the public. Mass media influence the behavior of its audience through
Theories
observational learning and modelling. Mass media may even present ideas and
concepts taken as it is by the audience. Though there may be factors that affect
the perception of the public, it is still best to use the mass media in presenting
ideas or concepts that will be advantageous to the majority. Mass media should
not be used for deceiving or silencing the public instead should promote goodwill
and transparency.
Theories
Executive Summary Report: Audience theories
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

In the Subject:
Communication Theories
Submitted by:
Herminia Ignacio
Submitted to:
Dr. Bernardo Ramos
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF REPORT:

A. TOPICS
a. Two step flow theory
b. Individual differences theory
c. Selectivity Processes theory
d. Knowledge gap theory
e. Perception theory
a. We will be able to know the types of audience theories and its
descriptions.
b. We will be able to distinguish when this theories are happening or when it
is applicable.
c. We will be able to use or relate the theories in the upcoming written
assignments.
a. Video watching: Two step flow
b. Video watching: President Duterte praised the police operation in Bulacan
c. Video watching: Jollibee series “Date”
d. Who’s the monster activity
e. Reactions on President Duterte’s picture in the front cover of TIME
magazine and General Dela Rosa’s picture while in Senate hearing
f. Yes or No game: Do you remember?
g. Video watching: “Xennials”
D. REFERENCES
a. http://communicationtheory.org/two-step-flow-theory-2/
b. https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-
1940
c. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.201108031000
01738
d. https://www.slideshare.net/AnirbanMandal2013/theories-41619377
e. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDQ28_YmTz4
f. http://mediatheorieseffects-alwoods.blogspot.com/p/mass-
communication-theories.html
g. https://prezi.com/3jsueurmxxrj/limited-effects-theory-of-mass-
communication/
h. http://communicationtheory.org/knowledge-gap-theory/
i. https://www.slideshare.net/durgasathyan/knowledge-gap-information-rich-
and-information-poor
j. http://www.masscommunicationtalk.com/perception-psychological-
factors-that-influence-perception-in-mass-communication.html
k. http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-perception-in-psychology-
definition-theory-quiz.html
l. https://www.learning-theories.com/self-perception-theory-bem.html
m. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/big-effect-small-frank-prestipino
n. Baran, Stanley J. (2009). Mass Communication theory: foundation,
ferment, and future. Australia : Wadsworth Cengage Learning
TWO STEP FLOW THEORY:
Short history:
In 1944 Paul Lazarsfeld, (1901-1976) an American Social Researcher, Bernard Berelson

(1912 – 1979) and Hazel Gaudet was introduced The Two-Step Flow of Communication in
the book called “The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential
campaign. New York: Columbia University Press”. United States presidential election of
1940, American presidential election held on Nov. 5, 1940, in which Democrat Franklin D.
Roosevelt defeated Republican Wendell L. Willkie. By becoming the first president to win a
third term, Roosevelt broke the two-term precedent established by the country’s first
president, George Washington.
Theory Introduction:
The purpose of the study was focused on Presidential election Campaign and the people
decision-making process towards the campaign. All three researchers were wanted to find
out practically whether the mass media messages affect direct influence in voting decision
among the people. Unexpectedly they found the media messages (like radio and
newspapers) are very less influence then an informal, personal communication on voting
behavior. Based on this researched data, The Two Step Flow Communication Theory of
Mass Communication was developed by Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld.
Illustration:
The Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to
lesser active persons in the group. In the office, the managing director is an opinion leader.
In public, a political leader is an opinion leader. They interpret the information to their own
group. Few people are not influenced by the leader and their political views and thought.
These people won’t support opinion leaders and isolated from the population.
But one thing is that the opinion leader is a leader only for their own group not for all. The
Opinion leaders have enough voice only in structured social groups not in an isolated
individual in the population.
According to Katz and Paul, “the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion
leaders and then the leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the population”.
Through this transformation of message, the leaders may add their opinion on the actual
content which may affects the low active users. In some cases the Opinion leaders are
filtering the actual content ensures the information is needed by the people. Mostly the
opinion leaders are selective and they pass the messages to the group. Example of low-
end media users are poor, workers and people who cannot afford to get the information
directly.
Some criticism on this theory are:
฀ Researchers found substantial evidence that initial mass media information flows
directly to people on the whole and is not relayed by opinion leaders.
฀ The two-step hypothesis does not adequately describe the flow of learning.
Lazarsfeld and his associates in the 1940 election study were unable to determine
the specific flow of influence.
฀ Today, most of the advertising researches are based on this theory. Especially
opinion leaders’ role in the society as well as in home which helps to improve the
market with less efforts.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES THEORY:
Individuals respond differently to the mass media according to their psychological needs,
and that they consume the mass media to satisfy those needs. The reaction to media
content differs according to motivation of audience members, their position to accept or
reject a given message, intelligence, beliefs, opinions, values, needs, moods, prejudices,
perceptibility etc. The audiences are very selective about what they read, listen and see
and behave differently to different messages.
Individuals have different types of needs:
1. NEEDS FOR INFORMATION- people perceive the same message differently and
respond in various forms. Intake of information helps us develop knowledge on given
topics which helps us form relationships, opinions and debate. Example is providing
statistics about players and teams.
2. NEEDS FOR INTEGRATION- people naturally gather together to satisfy the need for
belonging. Offering a sense of belonging to a group of similarly interested people.
Example is being a member of a group of fans.
3. NEEDS FOR AFFECTION-media appeals to our emotions by having excitement /
happiness for winning the game or disappointment of frustration for losing the game
4. NEEDS FOR ESCAPISM-media helps release pent-up emotions and provide a sort
of escape from the busy and stressful environment. Examples of such are listening to
music while stuck in traffic or watching your favorite after a tiring day at school or
work.
SELECTIVITY PROCESSES THEORY:
This theory is also called Theory of Selective Influence” or Limited Effects Theory. It holds
that the media will present messages to the society but it is interpreted selectively. This
theory explains that variations occur because every individual has a beliefs, values and
attitudes acquired through learning. It argues that the influence from a mass media message
on the individual is limited or trivial. People did not believe everything what they hear or see
in the media and usually turn to others for advice and interpretations.
There are three categories of audience selection:
1. Selective Exposure - people tend to expose themselves to various messages or stimuli

that are in accordance with their opinion and interest and avoid communication which is
in dissonance to their beliefs.
2. Selective Perception- mental or psychological recasting of a message so that its

meaning is in line with a person’s beliefs and attitudes.
Gordon Allport and Leo Postman’s now-classic 1945 study of rumor is among the first
and best examples of selective perception research. The two psychologists showed a
picture of a fight aboard a train to different groups of people (Figure 4.1). The
combatants were a Caucasian male grasping a razor and an unarmed African American
male. Those who saw the scene were then asked to describe it to another person, who
in turn passed it on. In 1945 America, people of all races and ages who recounted the
story of the picture inevitably became confused, saying the blade was in the hands of the
black man, not the white man. Allport and Postman concluded, “What was outer
becomes inner; what was objective becomes subjective”
3. Selective Retention- people tend to remember best and longest information consistent
with their preexisting attitudes and interests.
KNOWLEDGE GAP THEORY

Introduction:
This theory was first proposed in 1970 by Philip J Tichenor, then Associate Professor of
Journalism and mass Communication, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology and Clarice.
N Olien, Instructor in Sociology, all three researchers in the University of Minnesota. They
defined the Knowledge Gap theory, “as the infusion of mass media information into a social
system increases higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information faster
than lower socioeconomic status population segments so that gap in knowledge between the
two tends to increase rather than decrease.” In simple words, it means, as the access to mass
media increases those particular segments of population inevitable gain information faster and
hence the wide gap increases with the lower economic status of the population. The world is yet
to see the complete effect of the new technologies but as the globe turns out more technological
and the expense rises, it more goes out of the league of the poor. As a result the knowledge
gap also widens and the people of the higher economic class gain the benefits more. If the
Information services are not made equal for the entire society, this gap of information will
increase over the years.
THEORY EXPLANATION:
Knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally throughout the
society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it. This theory was used
in the presidential election and it is was seen that when a new idea invades in the society, the
people of the higher strata understand it better and hence the gap expands. But, events such as
debates, free talks may help to reduce this gap.
Knowledge gap is cause by Digital Divide. It is the gap between people with access to digital
information technology, and those that have limited access to digital information technology.
The people who are considered Information Rich have an access to information and information
technology equipment such as TV, radio, books, newspapers and journals, computer and
internet while the Information Poor are those who have no access to the web, and have a
difficulty to access relevant books and journals. They lack the skill or knowledge to access
information even in general conversation, a discussion about TV program might be a lost topic.
This usually happens between the following:
1. Old and young

2. English speaking and non-English speaking people
3. Third world society and developed society
4. Rural and urban
Few reasons why this pattern of gap exist:

1. Communication Skills– As a person receives more education, his communication skill
increases and hence gathering information becomes easier for him. Along with this reading,
understanding mad memory skills also become better and thus he understands the issues of
various spheres better.
2. Stored information– Via classrooms, textbooks, discussions, educated person is exposed
to much more topics than a less educated person and hence his awareness is more.
3. Relevant Social Contact– A person with more education has more social integration. This
helps him to counter various perspectives, diverse stories etc which makes his understanding of
public issues better.
4. Selective Exposure– An educated person knows well of how to use optimum use of a
medium while on the other hand a person with no knowledge is unlikely to know it. Hence he will
be less aware of the issues around the world and less interested and may not also know of how
it may affect him.
5. Media Target Markets– For every product, news or any commodity a certain segment is
targeted and it is usually the higher strata of the society who is targeted and hence the lower
strata remains unaware.
Ways of Reducing the Gap
George A. Donohue and his other colleagues by the end of 1975 came up with three variables
after a survey on local and national issues, which will help to reduce the gap and that failed this
theory upto a certain extent.
฀ Impact of local issues– It was seen that local issues that directly impacted the people had
aroused more of social concern than national issues that did not have such a great impact
and hence in these issues widened gap could be reduced.
฀ Level of social conflict surrounding the issue– Until a communication breakdown, issues
with more perceived conflict tends to grab more attention and weakening the knowledge gap
hypothesis.
฀ Homogeneity of the community– If it is a homogeneous community, the gap tends to be
lesser than a wider heterogeneous community.
PERCEPTION THEORY
Perception is the process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use
that information in order to interact with our environment and make it into something
meaningful. It also includes how we respond to the information. It can also be considered as a
process of interpretation of a present stimulus on the basis of past experience.
Sensory information is collected from sensory receptors that are located throughout our body
(such as photoreceptor cells in our eyes for vision and taste receptor cells on our tongue for
taste) and then sent to the brain where it is processed.
Perception & Mass Communication
Perception in general is influenced by assumptions (often unconscious), cultural expectations,

needs, moods, and attitudes. It affects how people respond to mass communication messages.
• Satirical Cartoons
People tend to view satiric cartoons differently, depending on their own attitudes. Both
prejudiced and unprejudiced people tended to see elements in the cartoons that
confirmed their existing attitudes.
The editorial cartoons in the newspapers show how the people who manages the print
material understand and interpret the issues in the country. The theme differs; it can be
favorable or against to the administration. It might be an appreciation on the success
and loss of the country in any field.
• Pictures
People may think about pictures in the mass media as transparent representations of
reality, as conveyors of affective or emotional appeal, and as complex
combinations of symbols put together to make up rhetorical arguments.
SELF PERCEPTION THEORY
Describes the process in which people, lacking initial attitudes or emotional responses, develop
them by observing their own behavior and coming to conclusions as to what attitudes must have
driven that behavior.
Self-Perception Experiments
Daryl Bem, the originator of the theory, conducted an original experiment that involved subjects
who listened to a recording of a man describing a peg-turning task enthusiastically. One group
was told that the man was paid $1 for his testimonial, while the other group was told he was
paid $20 for it. The $1 group believed that he enjoyed the task more than how much the $20
group believed he enjoyed it. The two groups’ conclusions correlated to the feelings that the
actors themselves expressed. Because the participants were able to correctly guess how the
actors felt, it was concluded that the actors must have arrived at the way they felt from
observing their own behavior as well.
Example is if you are a fan of pop music. According to self-perception theory, you didn’t decide
that you like pop music because you think it’s the best type of music or because listening to it
makes you feel good. You decided that you like pop music based on the fact that you listen to it
a lot.
Application in Marketing:
In the marketing and persuasion industry, self-perception theory has led to a variety of tactics
based on acquiring a small commitment from a person that will lead to a greater possibility that
the person will agree to larger requests from the seller/marketer. This is the basis behind the
foot-in-the-door tactic, in which a salesperson might ask a person for something relatively small,
such as filling out a questionnaire, which would make it easier to ask the person for a larger
commitment, since the act of fulfilling the small request would likely lead to the person altering
their self-image to explain their decision (i.e. I filled out the survey, therefore I must be the kind
of person who likes their products).
PRESTIPINO’S SMALL THINGS PRINCIPLE
Published by Frank Prestipino, an Executive Coach and Mentor, Education Consultant, Keynote
Speaker and Co-Founder of Wellness Today Corporation. He published his article titled “SMALL
is the new BIG” last August 11, 2015. The article is about making many small changes daily by
everyone and measuring its effect is not noticed by everyone. Here is the full article:
Statistically more than 60% of big projects fail to deliver the initial expectations or simply just fail.
So - can there be an alternative approach to thinking BIG but without the risk of big
revolutionary change?
Proven time and time again are the results of companies that have taken incremental steps
towards growth and have become BIG in the process. Not only that they’re financially stable,
have great company cultures and are innovative without fear or taking on high risk.
The idea of making many small incremental changes every day by everyone and measuring the
effect seems basic and nothing new. But hardly anyone does it.
So where and what is the application for this SMALL approach to BIG goals?
INNOVATIONLISE the Business - don’t care how small or large your business is start thinking
disrupt or be disrupted. Disrupter or disruptee - you choose. Fact is that smaller and medium
sized companies can disrupt markets faster than large corporations. Plenty of examples. If you
have Uber'ed or AirBnB'd - you know how utterly better the disrupter can make the customer
experience of the mono/duo or colludo -opolies.
You don't need to disrupt the entire global market to get an edge. You can get to the leader
board by doing those small things that your competitors are doing but BETTER - just that little
bit better is often enough. Good for culture too. Then when they catch up - do it a better again -
and again. You will appear extra-ordinary. Keith Cunningham once said "Ordinary things
consistently done produce extraordinary results".
HIGH Performance Culture- every strategy, every plan, all the data, all the committee
meetings, collaborations, everything you have done to build a wonderful growth path will down
as an experiment if you didn't get a the culture right before you started anything. Forget about it.
You are wasting your time and maybe fooling yourself. DO this FIRST. And it is an ongoing
thing - good culture is like a Zen garden - it is the most beautiful of gardens but it needs
weeding - constantly - culture is like that too.
Culture is not Kumbaya thing. It means hard work, dedication, constructive teamwork, good
learned behaviors, discipline, accountability, honesty, integrity, willing to fail and willing to learn
from failing. Get it. Not a question. I mean get this happening in your business.
REAL-TIME Reporting - Management and operational reports - most businesses have them
coming from their primary core business applications but they are somewhere between mildly
useful ad completely useless. Most of the most important business reports are actually history
lessons on what happened. You need to know what IS happening now. Are the decision makers
in your company dependent on spreadsheets for the big decisions?
CUSTOMER EXPERIENCE - you have a visibility problem here and maybe a reporting issue. If
you are receiving loyalty rating reports each month from previous performance, then think of
running a marathon but you are only allowed to see through the rear view mirror strapped to
your headband. Do you really know?
RECRUITING - Your People - Do you have a solid relationship with your recruitment agency
that is your key trusted advisor. Are they telling you like it is or how it might be? Do you think
you can do this part all on your own? Is good talent being overlooked? Most companies that
have grown into corporations started by growing with talent from within for several years.
Promoting and developing upcoming stars not only accelerates productivity it builds strong
internal culture with staff wanting to give back so they see the success of the company as a
reflection of their success of their newly found abilities.
BRANDING - Your Message - This is a favorite of mine because it ALWAYS meets with debate
and arguments. Most people think they have their company message nailed. And from 30 years’
experience of asking many organizations (big, and small) I can safely say- you are mostly
wrong. The message may 'have been' exactly right on when you did the messaging way back
when - but I can tell you that it is now a 'has been'.
You don't believe me. Fine. Ask 10 of your staff what you stand for and what is your NUMBER 1
purpose as a company and why you exist? Or simply ask, "What is the tag line on our website
(without googling it) there an then.
Ask your salespeople next. Then ask your top 5 customer (in revenue order).
Consistent answers? Were they on the money? Did they all get it? Call me if you answered yes
to all three.
Why the passion on my part? It is the era of the SMALL Business to become whatever they
want. There is no lack of anything anymore, and access to everything. It is more exciting to see
a small company become a BIG one, than a BIG company become bigger.
Getting to BIG the small Way is a book of tips.

Executive Summary Report
AUDIENCE THEORIES
MACM 701
Submitted by:
IDA HAZEL M. BERNARDO
Submitted to:
DR. BERNARDO F. RAMOS

AUDIENCE THEORIES
A. TOPICS
฀ The Aggression Cue Theory

฀ The Catharsis Theory
฀ The Active Theory of Television Viewing
฀ The Third Person Effect
MACM students shall learn that audience theory has been defined by the elements
of thinking that developed through the years brought about by “academic literary
theories and cultural studies” by poets, psychologists, and sociologists.
Future communicators shall understand how the 4 theories were formulated by a

famous poet, professional psychologists, and credible sociologists of their era and
how studies relative to mass media channels and tools have influenced these
professionals to come up with these communication theories. And shall help the
classto realize how these theories continue to assimilate with mass media of today
influencing the target audiences and creating different impacts on them.
1. Discussion of topics guided by a power point presentation

2. Presentation of Extreme Violence in Grand Theft Auto video game to illustrate
the Aggression Cue Theory
3. Presentation of video on the Third Person Effect Theory
4. Guess the TV Series in just 5 Words
Binge-watching defined as a practice of watching multiple episodes in TV via live

streaming or DVDs has been included and discussed in the topic, The Active
Viewing of Television Theory. A game before the start of the report on the last 4
communication theories under the audience theories has been conducted. Its
primary objective is to introduce the 3rd theory out of the 4 even without starting the
discussion on the report. In this case, the class would immediately think of the
connection between the game and the report.
Game Mechanics: Class has been divided into 2 groups. Each member would
describe the TV series using only 5 words without the mentioning the TV network
and the main leads or casts.
D. REFERENCES
1) http://alevelphysicaleducation.co.uk/aggression/ - retrieved on July 24, 2017 –

Subject Support, May 1, 2013 (A Level Physical Education)
2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration%E2%80%93aggression_hypothesis –
retrieved on July 24, 2017
3) https://prezi.com/vut_kjci61qv/comm-306-aggressive-cue-theory/ - retrieved on
July 24, 2017
4) http://www.dictionary.com/browse/catharsis - retrieved on August 14, 2017 –
Dictionary.com
5) http://www.gradesaver.com/aristotles-poetics/study-guide/summary - Grade
Saver - retrieved on August 21, 2017
6) http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/aristotle/ - retrieved on August 21,
2017
7) https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=freud+and+catharsis+theory&rlz – May
27, 2015
8) https://books.google.com.ph – retrieved on July 24, 2017 – Media Violence and
Children edited by Douglas A. Gentile (Chapter 5, Theory in the Study of Media
Violence: The General Aggression Model by Nicholas L Carnagey& Craig A.
Anderson)
9) http://communicationtheory.org/catharsis-theory-of-mass-communication/ -
retrieved on August 14, 2017 – Communication Theory: All About Theories of
Communication
10) https://www.cram.com/essay/Active-Theory-Of-Television-
Viewing/F3JVVEUKXC - An Active Theory of Television Viewing Essay by
Simba Elijah Kiaje, May 19th, 2015. Retrieved on September 3, 2017
11) https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=third+person+effect&oq=third&aqs=chro
me.4.69i57j35i39j69i60j0l3.6758j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 – August 24,
2017
12) http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/009365099026005001 - August
24, 2017
The last four audience theories of communication has been discussed and integrated
with the different media channels (radio, TV, print, and internet) and its tools which are
considered significant factors of all communication theories have been illustrated in the
discussion.
AGRESSION CUE THEORY
The Audience Theory of Communication which was developed by social psychologist,

Leonard Berkowitz is demonstrated by the violent media contents, elements portrayed
in media violence usually depicted in TV shows and video games wherein violent
fictional characters are glorified towards real-life response.
It means that violent media contents increase the incident of violent behavior wherein
elements portrayed in media violence acts as cues for angry individuals. This theory
explains that a big possibility that children or minors are aroused, therefore, learn new
aggressive form of behaviors. And because of this, it is the children or the youth that
are usually influenced and affected by this theory. There had been studies that playing
violent video games, Grand Theft for example, has influenced the youth to express their
aggression which led to physical aggression. This is usually defined by an innate
character supported by the instinct theory or is suggested by frustration supported by
the frustration-aggression theory.
Aggression Cue theory has also proposed that media violence acts as catalyst for
aggressive thoughts that progress to aggressive actions such as moral justification,
intense feeling of anger, and even cues in the environment which relates to the program
used.
To simplify the definition of Aggression Cue theory, it is illustrated by, “seeing violence
leads to having aggressive thoughts that may result to aggressive behaviour.”
CATHARSIS THEORY
If Aggression Cue theory may be induced by repressed emotions that lead to

aggressive behaviour, the 2nd communication theory discussed in this reports is also
about repressed emotions but have been released through the influence of the tri-
media.
Catharsis theory was developed in the metaphor of Aristotle’s Poetics, a Greek tragedy
drama. The theory means purgation, cleansing, purification of emotions. It may be
illustrated in literatures as release of emotions such as pity, sadness, or even fear
through witnessing the art. Significance of watching tragedy is manifested by the
display of emotions which lessens the active and excessive outbursts of emotions.
Reading a literary piece such as Romeo and Juliet allows the reader to experience
intense emotion thus lets him/her “cleanse”. In this theory, nothing bad happens to the
reader/s and in fact, makes the reader identifies himself/herself with the main
character/s of the story. Therefore, the reader/s experience strong emotions safely from
any possible threat of harm.
Catharsis Theory stands as a vital mantle in the discourse on upshots with regard to the
severity of mass communication and its far-ranging roots over a time. Catharsis serves
a purifying factor to collective channel sources of information such as the TRI-MEDIA
and the internet. For the internet, unappealing visuals may not only be harmful to the
viewing public but it can also be destructive to the mindset of the audience specifically
the minors. Catharsis also serves as a purifying factor and a redeeming cleansing
sponge that acts as scouring element to a collective of dark world of mass
communication.
This theory is not only supported by tragedy drama of literature but it is also manifested
by other forms of art such as cinema or film, songs, and even dances.
THE ACTIVE THEORY OF TELEVISON VIEWING
This communication theory was formulated by Daniel Anderson and Elizabeth Lorch in
1983 initially presented it as a research paper in a symposium on children’s process of
information from the television in the September 1979 American Psychological
Association Annual Meeting held in New York, USA.
The Active Viewing of Television theory finds its roots or simply originated in Bandura’s
Social Learning theory which in turn was supported by Bobo Doll experiment in 1961. It
posits that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modelling
and serves as a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories since this
encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
During the formulation of this theory, Anderson and Lorch brought up some arguments
about reason for TV viewing by children: 1) children begin to watch television at the age
of 2 ½ years old when their cognitive ability is starting to develop; 2) young children
rather than being controlled by the dynamic features of TV, would try to understand it
instead; and 3) children would usually stop watching the television once they fail to
understand the show.However, findings from derived from other studies investigating
selected aspects children’s TV viewing are described and findings were used as basis
of a theoretical formulation in which the kids’ TV viewing is seen as transactional
process similar to other normal information processing activities.
Children’s TV viewing habit is manifested by the motivation to understand what he or

she is watching which is considered as the driving force of attention to television. It is
also manifested by a child’s ability to develop a sophisticated strategy that allows to
effectively divide the visual attention between TV and other activities. Therefore, this
strategy depends heavily on the children’s use of program attributes as cues to whether
the current content is or is not informative. If the attribute signals informative content,
the child pays full attention to the television and actively attempts to understand the
program.
THIRD PERSON EFFECT THEORY
Philips Davison developed this communication theory in 1983 with a prediction that
people tend to perceive that mass media has greater effect and influence on others
than themselves. “3rd Person Effect” depicts that people tend to take action to
counteract the influences the messages have.
The following are the components of the Third Person Effect theory: 1) social
distancewhich one compares the effect of media on oneself as compared to others.
This idea was derived from the concept of self-comparison – similarity ranging from
“people just like me” or “people not at all like me” and heterogeneity or size-ranging
from “my closest group” to “my largest group”; 2) perceived knowledge or also known
as subjective competence which is a perception of one’s own ability to understand
particular events; and 3) media exposure wherein researchers found out that there are
mixed results regarding the relationship between general media to the third person.
However, the Third Person Effect has its own consequences. Few examples of these
consequences are as follows: disregard of health messages, body dissatisfaction, belief
in censorship, involvement in the political process, among others.
Body dissatisfaction as illustrated by study conducted in 2008 by Choi, Leshner, and

Choi explained that that women do not feel their own attitudes towards different body
shapes is affected by media. However, they presume that attitude of male friends
towards different body shapes is shaped by media. That is, they assume that men will
become more likely to perceive slim bodies as attractive and prevalent.
Belief in censorship,as explained by Salwen and Dupagne in 1999, has exemplified

that when participants report a pronounced third person effect, they are more likely to
adopt censorship. Therefore, they tend to feel that other individuals are vulnerable and
credulous--and thus need to be protected.
Involvement in the political process on the other hand has been demonstrated by
Golan, Bunning, and Lundy in 2008 explaining that when the third person effect is
pronounced, individuals are sometimes more likely to become involved in the political
arena which they are more likely to vote.
Lastly, this theory of communication is amplified or intensified as well as inhibited or

restrained by two factors: self-construal and mood or the applicability of the message.
In the Third Person Effect theory, audiences usually deem that mass media never
affects their judgment. Mass media only affects other people’s pronouncements.
All of the 13 Audience Theories of Communication are characterized by the mass
media channels and tools from the eras these were developed up to today where tri-
media and the internet creates a big influence to its target audiences.
Harriet Demi C. Icay
MACM
Executive Summary
World Systems Theory
Origin
World System Theory was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974. The

theory states that countries belong to a world-system and can be divided into
three categories: Core, Periphery, and Semi-Periphery.
Proponent
Immanuel Wallerstein
Wallerstein was born in September 28, 1930 in New York City and is known as a
sociologist, scientist and a world system analyst.
Concepts
Core
The core refers to developed countries. Core countries are well equipped with
machines, tools, a stable capital to support their economy. They control and
benefit from the global market. Often times, they are the exploiter of the Semi
Peripheries and Peripheries. They are the countries on periphery and semi-
periphery countries depend because they are usually recognized as wealthy
nations with a wide variety of resources and are in favorable locations compared
to other states. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They
are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and
are in a favorable location compared to other states. They have strong state
institutions and powerful military and global political alliances. Examples are
United States, China, and Australia.
Periphery
Periphery countries are the ones exploited by the Cores and Semi-Peripheries.
They have cheap labor and low skilled workers and lacks technology and
infrastructure. They also have unstable economy, and poor education and health
systems. However, they rise out of the periphery category by stabilizing the
government, industrializing, and raising the literacy rate of its citizens. Examples
of countries that belong to the Periphery category includes the Philippines,
Bangladesh, Nepal, among others.
Semi-periphery
Semi periphery countries are those located between the core and periphery. The
Semi-Periphery may act as a mediator between the Core and the Periphery.
They have an ample amount of labor to do the job, average capital to support
their economy and may have some advanced tools to manufacture goods.
Countries in the Semi-Periphery category have organizational characteristics of
both core countries and periphery countries. Examples are Brazil, Mexico,
Indonesia, and Iran.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The World Systems Theory can be used in different scales, whether local, regional, and
global. It recognizes globalization and interdependency. The theory is also dynamic as
the countries can move from core to periphery and vice versa. For its weaknesses, the
theory overemphasizes on the economic factors on political development but no
consideration on internal factors like mismanagement and corruption in the government.
Also, its methodology is too vague and unscientific, “core”, “periphery”, and “semi-
periphery” can’t be clearly operationalised.
Harriet Demi C. Icay
MACM
Executive Summary
Dependency Theory
Origin
Dependency Theory came about during the 1950s and became popular in the 1960s.
The theory has the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense
of the former. It was a criticism to the modernization theory which states that in order for
countries to develop, they should change their traditional ways by engaging themselves
in new technologies, focusing production by means of machine and not by labour of
humans or animals. The modernization theory also states that countries who are still
focusing in agricultural sector would mean as a backward or a primitive country.
Key figures
Raul Prebisch – is an Argentine economist born in San Miguel de Tucuman, Argentina
in 1901 and died in 1986. He was an economist known for his contributions
to structuralist economics such as the Prebisch–Singer hypothesis, which formed the
basis of economic dependency theory.
Andre Gunder Frank - Frank was born in Berlin, Germany, 1929 and died last 2005.
He is one of the key figures under the Dependency Theory. Also, he is the first
dependency theorist who wrote in English.
Propositions
Dependency theory claims that the relation of imperialism and domination trapped poor
nations at the bottom of the global economy. It also states that the reason why LDCs
are getting poorer is because of the exploitation it experiences from the DCs such as
extracting raw materials from the LDCs while the DCs manufacture, deliver and sell the
final product to LDCs with a price hitting the ceiling.
Moreover, developed countries may have been undeveloped before but never
underdeveloped. Undeveloped areas are those which has not undergone any
development. An undeveloped area is in its “natural” state, or has fallen into a state of
neglect. On the other hand, underdeveloped areas are those that has undergone
development by humans, but the intensity and degree of development is lower than the
neighboring areas. For instance, it could be an area which has been partly developed,
but still needs more development.
The theory also claims that most, if not all of the underdeveloped countries were
colonies which was never a chapter to any developed countries.
Elements
Metropolitan - are countries that are considered as the colonizers or developed
countries.
Satellites - are t he colonies and considered underdeveloped countries.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The Dependency Theory is easy to understand; it is a worldwide theory and has
multiple applications. However, it promotes core dominance, and has a limited definition
of development. Development is not only measured through its economy. It should also
look at human development and involvement.
References:
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-differences-between-underdeveloped-area-
and-undeveloped-area
Dependency Theory and World System Theory by Kathleen Aquino
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES, ARTS, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
SUBMITTED BY:
DE GUZMAN, GIAN STEFAN L.
I. OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

A. TOPICS
i. STRUCTURAL IMPERIALISM THEORY
ii. CULTURAL IMPERIALISM THEORY
i. To understand the relevance of imperialism between the first world
countries/western world, and the third world countries.
ii. To decipher what cultural imperialism is, and how it works.
i. Lecture, and/or discussion about the topics using a PowerPoint
presentation.
ii. Guess the counterpart activity
D. REFERENCES
i. http://mas301group1.webs.com/documents/Structural%20Imperialism%2
0by%20Galtung.pdf
ii. https://www.jstor.org/stable/422946?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
iii. http://wecommunication.blogspot.com/2014/11/cultural-imperialism-
theory.html
iv. https://prezi.com/nu-mtvna0e_w/cultural-imperialism-theory-mass-
communication/
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES, ARTS, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
II. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper is a digest of my report on Structural Imperialism Theory (Structural Theory of

Imperialism), and Cultural Imperialism Theory. In Johan Gatlung’s journal article entitled “A
Structural Theory of Imperialism” which was published in 1971, he claimed that Imperialism
is a special type of dominance of a nation over another. He also stated that a dominant
nation forms a link between the center of the dominated nation, and tethering the two
nations by a manner of harmony of interest.
He also stated that imperialism has two principles, the Vertical Interaction, where the
dominant nation augments itself on the expense of the dominated nation, specifically by
exploiting the raw materials of these underdeveloped nations. The other is the Feudal
Interaction Structure, where the dominated nations are kept apart with little to no
communication, and trade amongst themselves.
In addition, the structure of imperialism has 5 types, namely economic, political, military,
communication, and cultural imperialisms with emphasis on the spill-over from one form to
the other.
Highlighting Cultural Imperialism, its context is that the Western World or the first world
countries dominate the media around the world, which in turn has a powerful effect on the
third world countries by imposing on them Western Values, and thereby destroying their
culture. Western civilization produces the majority of the media, film, news, comics, etc.,
because they have the capacity to do so.
The rest of the world purchases those productions because it is cheaper for them to do
so rather than to produce their own. Therefore, third world countries are watching media
filled with the western world’s way of living, believing, and thinking. The third world cultures
start to want, and do the same things in their countries, and destroy their own.
The three phases of imperialism were also indicated, the colonialist phase where the two
centers belong to the same nation, the present neo-colonialist phase where they are bound
together by a manner of international organizations, and the neo-neo-colonialist phase
where the ties are formed by means of rapid communication.
MACM701
Dr. Bernardo F. Ramos
Globalization and Hegemony
Cunningham, Renz Matthew I.
A. TOPICS
- Globalization
- Hegemony
B-1 LEARNING OUTCOMES (Globalization)
- Know the Key concepts of Globalization

- Discuss the different globalization theories
- Discuss the different globalization norms
- Know the effects of communication
- Discuss the relationship between Globalization and Communication
B-2 LEARNING OUTCOMES (Hegemony)
- Define Hegemony
- What is Hegemony
- Knowing Antonio Gramsci
- Discuss the Different Examples of Hegemony
C. REFERENCES
- prezi.com/globalization-communication-theories
- slideshare.net/jilaguardiamartinez
- slideshare.net/lbsun07
- un.org/en/development
- debis.deu.edu.tr/userweb/theories-globalization
- study.com/academy/lesson/modernization-theory
- study.com/academy/lesson/dependency-theory
Globalization is comprised of three different theories such as World systems,

Modernization, and Dependency theory these theories make up Globalization.
Globalization has different norms such as, Economic, Political, Technological and Cultural
Norms. Globalization has different effects in the society, these effects depends on the
norms and belief of a state. In communication, Globalization has become useful in
technological aspects such as virtual communication. Different culture in communication
greatly affects different beliefs, lastly the different time zones create further need in
improving communication skills through Globalization.
Hegemony is was derived from the greek word hegemon which means “leader,” it refers
to a socially determined category that describes mechanisms and dynamics associated
with power, and which is grounded in historically situated social practice. It was proposed
by Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), as a follower of Karl Marx, Gramsci understood the
predominant mode of rule as class rule and was interested in explaining the ways in which
concrete institutional forms and material relations of production came to prominence.
Submitted by:
Rivamonte,
A. TOPICS
i. Public Sphere
ii. Propaganda
i. Define the concept of public sphere and propaganda.
ii. Identify the influence of public sphere and propaganda to the target
audience.
iii. Provide example of activities or situations that exhibits the concept of
public sphere and propaganda.
i. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-
9780199756841/obo-9780199756841-0030.xmlLecture Discussion
about public sphere and propaganda using Power Point presentation.
ii. Activity/ game relevant to the topic
D. REFERENCES
http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756841/obo-
9780199756841-0030.xml
https://www.media-studies.ca/articles/habermas.htm
https://civic.mit.edu/blog/samuelbarros/civic-media-functions-inside-the-public-
sphere-model-0
http://communicationtheory.org/propaganda-model/
http://www.collective-evolution.com/2017/05/21/noam-chomskys-5-filters-of-
the-mass-media-machine-summarized-in-an-incredible-animation/
II.
This paper is a of my topic to the Sphere and

Propaganda.
sphere Öffentlichkeit is an area in where
can come together to discuss and identify and
through that discussion action. was coined by
Habermas who defined sphere as a
or imaginary community which does not in any
The sphere can be seen as theater in modern societies in which
participation is enacted through the medium of and of
in which opinion can be The of the sphere
theory is that the and be steered by the
sphere and that the governments are those that to the
sphere.
Habermas described the emergence of the sphere in the
century that the or was with
private sphere comprised society in the narrower
that is to the of commodity and of the
of with the or of the and the
or the authorities princes and the
in a arose at that time from within the private
in connection with the of
Habermas defined sphere as a engaged in
The conditions of the sphere are according to Habermas:
• The formation of opinion
• have access.
• in unrestricted fashion on the freedom of
the freedom of the freedom to and of
about matters of which freedom from
economic and
• Debate over the governing
On the otherhand, propaganda is information that is not objective and is used
primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts
selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded
language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that
is presented. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments,
but activist groups, companies and the media can also produce propaganda.
In the twentieth century, the term propaganda has been associated with
a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. A
wide range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda messages,
which changed as new technologies were invented, including paintings, cartoons,
posters, pamphlets, films, radio shows, TV shows, and websites.
The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam

Chomsky which argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them
in terms of structural economic causes. First presented in their 1988
book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda
model views the private media as businesses selling a product readers
and audiences than news to other businesses and
on government and corporate information and propaganda. The theory
five of that determine the type of news that is
presented in news media: Ownership of the the Sourcing
of the and anti-communist . The first three and
are regarded by the authors as being the most important.
the was based on the of United States
and Herman the theory is to any country that shares the basic
economic structure and the as the cause
of media bias.
Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit conceived

by Ross and in her 2002 for the Journal of Aesthetic
Education Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit and
to Ross the Epistemic Merit due to concern about
definitions of propaganda. She contrasted her with the ideas
of Pope Gregory the for Propaganda Lee
and Hans Speier. that each of their respective discussions of propaganda are
too Ross proposed her own definition.
Ross argues that one must consider a the Sender-
Message-Receiver which the message sender or the persuader
made the message out of his a the persuader
send the through the receiver is the target for such She
added that there are four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda.
Propaganda the intention to persuade. propaganda is sent on of a
or cause. the recipient of propaganda is a
significant group of propaganda is an epistemic to
thoughts.
Public Sphere
The public sphere (German ) is an area in social life where
individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and
through that discussion influence political action. The term was originally coined by
German philosopher Habermas who defined sphere as a or
imaginary community which does not exist in any
A. Hauser defines it as discursive space in which
and groups associate to discuss matters of interest where
to reach a common about The sphere can be seen as
theater in modern societies in which participation is enacted through the
medium of and of in which opinion can be
Describing the emergence of the sphere in the

Habermas noted that the or was with
private sphere comprised society in the narrower that
is to the of commodity exchange and of the of
with the or of the and the ]or the
authorities princes and the in a
arose at that time from within the private in
connection with the of This new sphere spanned
the and the private and the of opinion it put the
state in touch with the needs of area is distinct from the
state: it is a site for the production and of discourses that can in be
of the The sphere distinct from the economy; it is not
an arena of but rather one of the discursive a theater for
debating and rather than for buying and These distinctions
between economic and democratic associations...are
to democratic The came to see the sphere
as a institution against the authority of the state. The study of the
sphere centers on the idea of participatory democracy, and how public opinion becomes
political action.
The ideology of the public sphere theory is that the government's laws and
policies should be steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate
governments are those that listen to the public sphere. governance rests
on the capacity of and opportunity for to engage in Much
of the debate over the sphere what is the basic structure of
the how information is in the and what
the sphere has over society.
According to is when events and occasions

when they are open to in contrast to or notion of the
becomes evident in terms such as opinion
or ownership. They are opposed to the notions of private private
private and private ownership. The notion of the is
connected to the notion of the private. Habermas stresses that the notion of the is
to the notion of the common.
Habermas defines the sphere as a engaged in
of the sphere are according to Habermas:
• The formation of opinion
• have access.
• in unrestricted fashion on the freedom of the freedom
of the freedom to expression and of about matters
of which freedom from economic and
• Debate over the governing
his Habermas points out three
as preconditions for the emergence of the new sphere. The discursive
such as Britain's coffee France's and
have differed in the and compositions of their
the of their the of their and their
but discussion among that tended to be
ongoing; hence they had a number of criteria in
1. Disregard of Preservation of of intercourse far from
presupposing the of disregarded status ... Not that
this idea of the was in earnest in the coffee
and the societies; but as an it had become and
thereby stated as an not it was at
2. Domain of common discussion within such a presupposed

the of areas that then had not been questioned. The
domain of 'common concern' which was the of attention
remained a preserve in which church and state authorities had the of
interpretation. ... The private for whom the product became
as a commodity profaned it inasmuch as they had to determine its
meaning on their own way of communication with one
and thus state what in its for so
assert its
3. However the might be in any given it
never off and become as a for it
understood and found immersed within a more of private
persons who insofar as they were propertied and educated as
and spectators via the of the
that were to discussion. The issues discussed became
not in their but in their everyone had to be
to participate. ... the as a
group of it did not equate with the but at most
to act as its in its perhaps even as its educator the
new form of bourgeois .
Propaganda
Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence

an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a
particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional
rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. Propaganda is
often associated with prepared by but activist companies
and the media can produce propaganda.
the twentieth the term propaganda has been associated with
a but propaganda was a descriptive term. A
wide range of and media are used for conveying propaganda
which changed as new were
radio and websites.
a debate with Edward Bernays Everett Dean Martin argues
is puppets of us. are moved by hidden strings which the
propagandist
Herman and Chomsky

The propaganda is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam
which argues systemic biases in the mass media and to them
in terms of economic causes:
The 20th century has been by three of great
importance: the growth of the growth of corporate power and the growth of
corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against democracy.
First presented in their the
of the the propaganda views the private media as businesses
a product readers and audiences than news to other businesses
and on government and corporate information and
propaganda. The theory five of that determine the
type of news that is presented in news media: Ownership of the the medium's
Sourcing of the and anti-communist .
The first three and are regarded by the
authors as being the most important. the was based on the
characterization of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is
equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and
organizing principles the model postulates as the cause of media bias.
epistemic merit model
The epistemic merit model is a method for understanding propaganda conceived

by Sheryl Tuttle Ross and detailed in her 2002 article for the of Aesthetic
Education entitled Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit and
to Ross the Epistemic merit due to concern about
definitions of propaganda. She contrasted her with the ideas
of Pope the for Propaganda Lee
and Hans Speier. that each of their respective discussions of propaganda are
too Ross proposed her own definition.
To discuss Ross argues that one must consider a
communication that of Sender-Message-Receiver. is...
propaganda the one who is persuading is] doing so
target for such persuasion and means of reaching
that target There are four conditions for a message to be considered
propaganda. Propaganda the intention to persuade. As propaganda is
sent on of a or cause. the recipient of
propaganda is a significant group of propaganda is an epistemic
to others' thoughts.
Ross that it is to say that propaganda is or that it
is to a since often the propagandist in what is
other it is not a if the person who creates the
propaganda is trying to persuade you of a view that they aim of the
propagandist is to create the of This means that they to
an that is or defective.
bad commands as as inapt
metaphors other tropes are the sorts of things that are
defective. Not does epistemic defectiveness more describe how
propaganda endeavors to function... since many messages are in forms such as
commands that do not admit to truth-values, it] accounts for the context
in the of propaganda.
Throughout history those who have wished to persuade have used art to get their
message out. This can be by hiring artists for the express aim of
or by investing new meanings to a
Ross it is important to consider conditions of its the
conditions of its

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FORMAT OF THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF REPORT :

I. THE OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

Science And Human Behavior

Eras Of Media Theory

Mass Society Theory

Social Responsibility Theory

Students of Masters in Communication Management will be able to learn and

1. Reverse Charade Game Introduction for the Topic

II. THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Human behavior is exceedingly complex Mass communication is defined as a

฀ How do we control which forms of media people choose to use?

฀ the amount of attention they pay to specific types of news?

฀ Eras Of Media Theory

฀ Mass Society Theory

฀ Framing Theory And Media Literacy

Emergence of Communication Technologies that forces a rethinking of traditions about

฀ Magic Bullet Theory

฀ Harold Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory

฀ Walter Lippmann’s Theory Of Public Opinion

฀ Social Responsibility Theory

MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS THEORY

According to the Marketplace-of ideas theory, the laizzez-faire doctrine should be

Timeframe of the Session:

Communication is a continuous process of evolution from one concept to another.

According to Merriam-Webster, this concept of evolution is commonly referred to as

The term Paradigm Shift is popularized by American physicist, historian and

In his research, he referred it as a form of advancement where one conceptual view

Greek philosopher and scientist, Aristotle is the first person

Speake Subject Listene

Political scientist, Harold Lasswell in 1948 designed another

Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver

Communication theorist and consultant David Berlo expanded the

The source or sender might be one person, a group of people or a

Another communication theorist who developed a straightforward process of

Another model of communication is introduced by communication theorists Ray

Referred to as the HUB Model of

The basic premise of the transactional model of communication

This communication, referred to as the constitutive model or

Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from

SUMMARY OF REPORT IN THE NORMATIVE

I. I. OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

“Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an

Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm

Fred S. Siebert is Director of the School of Journalism and Communications

Theodore Peterson is Associate Professor of Journalism and

Wilbur Schramm, former Dean of the Communications Division of the

• Social responsibility is ethics that guide any action, be it in media or other

• Social Responsibility theory of mass media is relatively a new concept which

• It encourages total freedom to press and no censorship, but it should be

• Content is also filtered through public obligation and interference.

• The audience interpreted it the way they wanted to.

• This caused problems as interpretation was not based on reality and it

• Interpretative reporting and investigative reporting started to uncover the

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

• Private press ownership

EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

• Reporting on the performance of government institutions and unveil tyranny

STRENGTHS OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

• It helps in avoiding conflicts during wars and conflicts.

• It accepts public opinion and works for the citizens.

• The media publishes truth due to regulatory activities and their