Libya State

Misurata university
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Report about:

Prediction of performance
further topics

By:
Basem Mohamed Rajab Mohammed assadawi

Doctor:
Gibril Eljrushi

2018 -2017
1.1. Introduction:
Evaluation of the off-design performance of complex plant incorporating Inter_
cooling, heat-exchange and reheat is inevitably more complicated than for the
simple gas turbine, although the basic principles are still applicable. The
components of such gas turbines can be arranged in a wide variety of ways, about
40 different layouts being possible even with no more than two compressor
rotors, wherein use was made of stylized. Component characteristics. It is as a
result of such calculations that it was possible to dismiss certain arrangements as
impractical because the running line runs into the surge line under some
operating conditions. No attempt will be made to repeat this kind of survey here,
and we shall restrict our attention mainly to discussing the prediction of off-design
performance in the practical cases of
(a) High Pressure Ratio Twin-Spool Engines.

FIG. 1 Twin-Spool Engines

(b) Turbofans.

FIG. 2 : Turbofans
Before discussing the matching procedures for twin-spool engines and turbofans,
however, methods of improving the part-load performance of gas turbines will be
considered briefly.

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The chapter ends with an introduction to transient performance, including a brief
description of methods for predicting the acceleration or deceleration of rotor
systems.
1.2. Methods of improving part-load performance:
It was pointed out in the Introduction that the part-load performance of gas
turbines intended for vehicular or naval use was of great importance because of
the considerable portion of the running time spent at low power. Early studies for
both applications resulted in the consideration of complex arrangements
incorporating intercooling, heat-exchange and reheat. The sole justification for
the marked Increase in complexity was the great improvement in part-load
specific fuel consumption indicated in Fig. 3.

FIG. 3: Part-load SFC for simple and complex cycles.

Such complex arrangements did not prove successful for either of these
applications despite their undoubted thermodynamic merit, the main reason
being the mechanical complexity involved. As a result of the problems with the
complex cycle the navies of the world focused on simple-cycle gas turbines, using
machinery arrangements such as CODOG, COSAG and COGOG to overcome the
part-load problems. In recent years, however, the intercooled regenerative (ICR)
cycle has been revived, on the basis that a single engine with very good part-load
performance could replace both the cruise and boost gas turbines currently used.
The Rolls-Royce WR21 uses a twin-spool gas generator, with intercooling
between the two compressors, and a heat-exchanger. The projected performance
of the ICR engine was compared with that of a conventional simple-cycle gas
turbine used for naval propulsion. Figure 4 shows that the ICR engine
demonstrates a superior SFC at all power levels, with the most marked
improvement at low power. The SFC curve is essentially flat between 100 and 40
per cent of design power and the greatly improved low-power SFC could be used
to increase either range or time at sea before refueling.

3
 FIG. 4: Comparison of simple and ICR cycles
To improve the part-load efficiency of gas turbines, therefore, some means must
be found of raising the turbine inlet temperature at low powers. In the majority
of applications where good part-load economy is required, e.g. vehicular and
marine, a free turbine would be used. If we focus our attention first on the free
turbine engine, the turbine inlet temperature at part load can be increased by
using variable-area power-turbine stators.
❖Variable-area power-turbine stators:
Variation of area is accomplished by rotating the nozzle blades, and this permits
the effective throat area to be reduced or increased as shown in Fig. 5. and it was
emphasized that free turbine engines and turbojets were thermodynamically
similar because the flow characteristics of a free turbine and a propelling nozzle
impose the same operating restrictions on the gas generator; thus, variable
power-turbine stators will have the same effect as a variable-area propelling
nozzle.

FIG. 5: Variable-geometry power-turbine stators

And Fig. 6 shows that the latter will cause an increase in turbine inlet
temperature at low powers; it is also likely that the compressor efficiency will be

4
improved as the surge line is approached. Both of these effects will improve the
part-load SFC.

FIG. 6: Equilibrium running-tine for free turbine

Ideally, the area variation of the power-turbine stators can be controlled so that
the turbine inlet temperature is maintained at its maximum value as power is
reduced, as indicated in Fig. 7. If the running line at maximum temperature
moves to intersect the surge line as shown, it then becomes necessary to reopen
the power turbine nozzles for this part of the running range. It should be noted
that operation at constant gas-generator turbine inlet temperature with reducing
power will cause an increase in temperature at entry to the power turbine,
because of the reduced compressor power, and the temperature of the hot gases
entering the heat-exchanger will also be raised. Temperature limitations in either
of these components may restrict operation in this mode. The use of a variable
geometry power turbine is particularly advantageous when combined with a
heat-exchanger, because the increased turbine outlet temperature is utilized.

FIG. 7: Effect of variable power-turbine stators on running line

5
but the development problems associated with this do not appear to have been
too difficult. A facility for increasing the stator area is also advantageous with
respect to starting and accelerating the gas generator. if the stators are rotated
still further, the gas-generator flow can be directed against the direction of
rotation so that the flow impinges on the back of the power turbine blades. This
can result in a substantial degree of engine braking which is extremely important
for heavy vehicles.
❖ Reheat combustion:
The ABB reheat gas turbine is a single-shaft machine designed for electric power
generation, primarily used in combined cycle applications. Although normally
used at the base-load rating, the use of reheat provides considerable flexibility for
operation at reduced power. At the design point approximately 60 per cent of the
fuel is burned in the first combustor with 40 per cent in the reheat (or sequential)
combustor. Reduction in power can be achieved by maintaining the fuel flow in
the first combustor, keeping the maximum cycle temperature constant and
modulating flow to the reheat combustor, reducing the temperature at entry to
the LP turbine. Figure 8, shows the variation in both TIT and LP TIT over the
running range; this provides good efficiency down to 40 per cent load. This
turbine has VIGVs and three stages of variable stators, and these can be
modulated to vary the airflow and maintain constant exhaust temperature to 40
per cent load; this allows the steam turbine to continue to operate at high
efficiency as the gas turbine power is reduced.

FIG. 8: Part-load control of reheat turbine

1.3. Matching procedures for twin-spool engines:
The basic methods used for twin-spool matching are similar to those used in
simple gas turbine. They differ from those for single-spool engines only in that it
is also necessary to satisfy compatibility of flow between the spools. This

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compatibility requirement gives rise to the phenomenon of aerodynamic coupling
which determines the ratio of the rotor speeds even though the rotors are
mechanically independent of each other. The station numbering used for twin-
spool turbojets is shown in Fig. 9 and the rotational speeds will be referred to as
NL and NH for the LP and HP rotors respectively. The corresponding shaft power
unit would have a power turbine between 6 and 7 in place of the propelling
nozzle.

FIG. 9: Station numbering for twin-spoolturbojet

In outlining the procedures, we will assume single line turbine characteristics,
constant turbine efficiencies and constant percentage combustion pressure loss;
these are often close approximations in practice and their use makes it easier to
understand what is happening in physical terms. Considering work compatibility,
the equations for the LP and HP rotors are:

Flow compatibility must be satisfied between the compressors, between the

turbines and finally between the LP turbine and nozzle (or power turbine). Fig. 10
illustrates the further restriction in operating conditions resulting from the
introduction of a nozzle (or power turbine).

FIG. 10: Flow compatibility for twin-spool engine

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Calculations for a twin-spool engine can be lengthy, but they may be considerably
simplified once it is appreciated that the HP rotor of a twin spool engine is
equivalent to a single-spool turbojet with a fixed nozzle whose area is defined by
the throat area of the LP turbine stators. In a single-spool turbojet a unique
running line is defined when the nozzle is choked, and it follows that a similarly
unique running line will be defined on the HP compressor characteristic of a twin
spool engine when the LP turbine stators are choked. (It should be noted that in
practice the LP turbine of a twin-spool unit will be choked over most of the useful
running range, but may become unchoked at idle conditions.) The position of the
unique running line on the HP characteristic can be determined by considering
the HP rotor alone, for which compatibility of flow and work yields:

The importance of establishing the LP choking line is that it greatly facilitates

satisfying the requirement for compatibility of flow between the two
compressors as will be apparent in what follows.
Although much of the procedure to be described in this section is equally
applicable to turbojets and shaft power units with a separate power turbine, it is
most easily explained for the case of a turbojet with a fully variable propelling
nozzle. Any effect resulting from variation of nozzle area will directly influence
the LP turbine, and hence the LP compressor; the HP turbine, however, is
separated from the nozzle by the LP turbine and, if the LP turbine is choked, the
HP rotor will be shielded from disturbances caused by the variable nozzle. The
use of a fully variable nozzle permits operation over a wide area of the LP
compressor characteristic as in the case of a single-spool engine, even though the
operating region on the HP characteristic is a single line determined by choking of
the LP turbine. Thus, if we assume a fully variable nozzle we can start with any
point on the LP characteristic, and the final step in the calculations will be the
determination of the required nozzle area. No iteration is required in this
procedure, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) Determine the inlet conditions T01 and p01 from the ambient and flight
conditions; for a land-based unit To, = Ta and Poi = Pa·
(b) Select any point on a line of constant NL/√T01 on the LP compressor
characteristic, which will specify values of m √To1/ Poi, Po2/P01 and ŋcL· The
compressor temperature rise AT012 and temperature ratio T02/T01 can then be
calculated using equation:

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(c) The non-dimensional flow .at LP compressor exit, m √T02/p02 , is obtained from
the identity

and for compatibility of flow between the compressors this is the nondimensional
flow at entry to the HP compressor.
(d) With the operating line on the HP compressor characteristic determined by LP
turbine choking, the known value of m √T02/Po2 defines the operating point on
the HP compressor characteristic. This gives the values of Po3/Po2, Nn/√To2 and ŋcH,
and the values of ꙙT023 and T03/T02 can be found.
(e) The overall compressor pressure ratio is now given by:

(!) The turbine inlet pressure p04 can be found from:

where p04 /p03 is obtained from the combustion pressure loss.

(g) The value of m √T04/p04 is known, having been determined by flow
compatibility between the two turbines, and m can be found from m √Toi/ Po1, To1
and Poi,
(h) The turbine inlet temperature T 04 can now be found from

(i) The HP turbine is operating at a fixed non-dimensional point with p04/Pos and
ꙙT045/T04 determined by LP turbine choking. Thus conditions at entry to the LP
turbine, p05 and T05, can be obtained from

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(j) We must now satisfy the work requirement for the LP compressor. This is given
by

ꙙT012 is known, so ꙙT056 can be calculated.

(k) With ꙙT056 and T05 known, the temperature at exit from the LP turbine and
entry to the nozzle is given by

(l) The LP turbine pressure ratio p05 /p06 is found from

(m) m, T06 and p06 are now established. The overall nozzle pressure ratio p06 /pa is
then known, and the calculation of the nozzle area given the inlet conditions,
pressure ratio and mass flow are quite straightforward. Once the required nozzle
area has been calculated, the matching procedure is complete and an equilibrium
running point has been obtained for that particular nozzle area and initial value of
NL/√T01•
(n) The procedure can be repeated for points on other NL/√T01 lines. All the data
required for a complete performance calculation, e.g. of the thrust, fuel flow and
SFC at each running point, are now available.
1.4. Some notes on the behavior of twin-spool engines:
Complete off-design performance calculations for twin-spool engines are
obviously time consuming and in practice would be carried out using digital
computers. Some aspects of twin-spool behavior, however, can be deduced from
an understanding of the matching procedure and the more important of these
will be briefly described.
❖ Aerodynamic coupling of rotor speeds
From step (c) of the matching procedure described in the previous section it can
be seen that once an operating point on the LP characteristic has been chosen,
the corresponding operating point on the HP characteristic is fixed. Thus for a
fixed value of NL/√T01 and nozzle area, the value of NL/√T02 is determined by flow

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 compatibility between the compressors. The HP compressor non-dimensional
speed can be expressed in terms of ·the temperature at engine inlet by:

A typical variation of NL/√T01 with Nh/√T01 for a turbojet is shown in Fig. 11; note
that the relation between the speeds is dependent on nozzle area, and only for a
fixed nozzle will it be unique. At a fixed value of NH any increase in nozzle area
will cause an increase in NL, the physical reason being that opening the nozzle will
increase the pressure ratio across the LP turbine, so causing an increase in LP
rotor torque.

FIG. 11: Speed relationship for twin-spool engine

❖ Effect of variable-area propelling nozzle
We have seen that the use of a fully variable nozzle permits operation over a wide
range of the LP compressor characteristic, although the HP running line is not
affected by nozzle variation as long as the LP turbine is choked. Typical running
lines are shown in Fig. 12. It is important to note that increasing the nozzle area
moves the LP running line towards surge, which is the opposite effect to that
obtained on a single-spool engine. The reason for this is the increase in LP turbine
power resulting from the redistribution of pressure ratio between the LP turbine
and the nozzle. One of the major advantages of the variable nozzle is that it
permits selection of rotor speed and turbine inlet temperature independently; or,
in terms more relevant to an aircraft, of airflow and thrust. This is a valuable
feature for an engine that has to operate over a wide range of intake
temperature which produces significant changes in non-dimensional speed and
mass flow.

11
 FIG. 12: Running lines for twin-spool turbojet. (a) LP compressorcharacteristic, (b) HP
compressor characteristic

❖ Operation at fixed LP speed

The earlier aero-derivative engines such as the Olympus, FT-4 and RB-211 all
combined a twin-spool gas generator with a free power turbine driving the
electric generator. The latest large aero-derivatives, the GE LM 6000 and the
Rolls-Royce Trent, have the LP shaft directly connected to the generator, the
Trent actually has a triple-spool arrangement, with intermediate pressure (IP) and
HP compressors. These arrangements require that the LP rotor runs at constant
(synchronous) speed throughout the load range, and the other rotor speeds will
change with power. At synchronous speed and zero power, the LP compressor
provides substantially more flow than the HP (or IP in the Trent) can absorb at
low speed, and it is necessary to blow off significant quantities of air until the
downstream compressors achieve sufficient speed to accept all the air delivered
by the LP compressor. Blow-Off is required only during loading and not during
normal operation. Environmental considerations require the blow-off system to
be adequately silenced.
Some versions of the LM 6000 incorporate spray intercooling (SPRINT) between
the compressors. By reducing the HP compressor inlet temperature, and hence
the power required, the output power is increased. The SPRINT system is

12
primarily used to increase power on hot days, with as much as 29 per cent
increase available.
❖ Presentation of performance:
The performance of a twin-spool fixed geometry turbojet can be presented in
terms of either the LP or HP rotor speeds because of the fixed relation between
the speeds. For an engine with variable nozzle the performance would have to be
presented in terms of any two of NL, NH and A7. An example of a 'carpet' plot
showing the variation of thrust with NL and NH for a variable nozzle turbojet is
shown in Fig. 13; other quantities such as fuel flow and SFC could be presented in
a similar manner.
For fixed geometry engines the variation of turbine inlet temperature and fuel
flow could be plotted versus either NL or NH, but because of the rapid variation of
both with NH the latter may be more suitable as abscissa. It should be noted that
although the HP rotor speed will 'always be higher than the LP rotor speed and
the HP turbine blades are at the higher temperature, they may not be the critical
components because the LP turbine blades are usually substantially longer.

FIG. 13

1.5. Matching procedures for turbofan engines:

The approach described in section 1.3 is also applicable to turbofans, but in this
case we must take into account the division of flow between the bypass duct and
the gas generator, which will vary with off-design operating conditions. Only the
simplest case, will be considered here. The additional information required is the
bypass or 'cold' nozzle characteristic, as indicated in Fig. 14; the turbine
characteristics and the hot stream nozzle characteristics will be similar to those of
the twin-spool turbojet.

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 FIG. 14: Characteristics required for turbofan matching

consider a turbofan with both nozzles fixed. The running line corresponding to LP
turbine choking can be established on the HP characteristic in exactly the same
manner as for the twin-spool turbojet. The problem now is to establish the
proportion of the total flow (m) passing through the bypass duct (me) and the gas
generator (mh). Suffixes h and c refer to 'hot' and 'cold' streams respectively. One
possible procedure is as follows.
(a) Select ambient and flight conditions, giving values of p01 and T01 .
(b) Select a value of NL/√T01 and guess any point on this line. The value of m
entering the fan is then known, and the value of m √T02/p02 at exit from the fan
can be calculated.
(c) From the known value of p02, the pressure ratio across the bypass nozzle, Po2/
Pa, can be calculated and the value of m √T02/p02 can be found from the bypass
nozzle characteristic. The value of me can also be found, and mh = m - me.
(d) The gas-generator non-dimensional flow can then be found from

(e) Knowing the gas-generator non-dimensional flow we can enter the HP

characteristic, and establish the overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet
temperature as for the twin-spool turbojet (see steps (e) to (h) of section 1.3).
The HP turbine pressure ratio and temperature drop are known as a result of flow
compatibility between the two turbines, so that the pressure and temperature at
entry to the LP turbine, p05 and T05 , can be determined as before.
(f) The LP turbine temperature drop is given by

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(g) The LP turbine pressure ratio is then found from Tos, ꙙT056 and ŋiL· We now
know Po6 and To6-

(g) Knowing mh, Po6, To6 and Po6/Pa the hot stream nozzle area can be calculated;
in general, this will not agree with the specified value and it is necessary to return
to step (b), select a new point on the LP characteristic, and repeat the process
until agreement is reached.
The close similarity between the twin-spool' and turbofan matching
procedures can be seen. The method described may readily be extended to deal
with three-spool engines. The use of mixed exhausts presents a further
complication because it- is then necessary to include equations satisfying
conservations of energy and momentum for the mixing process. Neither of these
topics will be pursued further here.
1.6. Performance deterioration:
If follows that any in-service reduction in component efficiency will have a
considerable effect on the overall performance. Degradation of component
efficiency can result from build-up of deposits on the compressor blading,
increased tip-clearances resulting from rotor-casing rubs, and erosion or
corrosion of the blading. These effects will combine to reduce the maximum
power available, increase the turbine operating temperature with a consequent
reduction in life and increase the fuel consumption. When the deterioration in
performance reaches a predetermined level, the engine must be overhauled. It is
possible to predict performance deterioration using the methods for off-design
performance which have been developed; the prime requirement is to predict
changes in component performance for various defects. The analysis of field data
may be extended to the component level if adequate instrumentation is fitted,
and it is then possible to pinpoint faulty components. This would permit the
exchange of faulty modules in a, .. modular engine, without the requirement for a
complete overhaul. Transient behaviour will be affected by component
deterioration, and analysis of transient performance has proved to be very useful
in detecting component faults in fighter engines which spend very little time at
steady operating conditions.
The performance of all gas turbines will deteriorate over time, in some
applications gradually and in others very rapidly, depending on both the
atmospheric conditions and the manner in which the engine is used. Land-based
industrial gas turbines may operate in apparently benign locations, such as a rural

15
compressor satori on a pipeline, or in hostile locations such as a refinery complex.
Marine gas turbines face the problem of salt ingestion, with spray being entrained
into the compressor. Aircraft engines normally operate at high altitudes in a clean
atmosphere, except during short periods when taking off. and landing, but
helicopters operate continuously at low level in both salt water and desert
conditions where ingestion of salt and sand is a major problem. Even in the
benign environment of rural locations it has been found that pollen, tree-sap and
insects can form sticky deposits, resulting in. compressor fouling; in industrial
locations this may also be caused by oil vapors or chemical processes. The
ingestion of hard particles (e.g. sand) causes erosion of the blading, particularly in
the early stages of compression; this can result in changes both to the airfoil
shape and to the size of the flow passages. Operation in salt water atmospheres
can cause severe corrosion, especially of the high-temperature blading in the
turbine, resulting in a serious loss in blade life or even blade failure. It is obvious
that an efficient filtration system is necessary, but it will be remembered fr9m
Chapter 2 that any pressure loss in the intake will cause a loss in power. Inlet filter
systems are bulky and heavy and cannot be considered on airborne systems; in
any case it should be understood that filter systems cannot remove all of the
contaminants. Helicopters now make use of inertial separators upstream of the
compressor intake. These are plug-shaped devices that accelerate the inlet air
outward in a radial direction and then direct it inward tu the eye of the
compressor; solid particles are centrifuged to the outer radius where they are
collected and discharged overboard. Inertial separators introduce both
performance and weight penalties but are essential to provide adequate engine
life in the hostile environment of the military helicopter.
Rapid deterioration in performance can occur in applications where the engine is
subjected to many starts and short running times per start, such as in emergency
electric power generation. This application involves starting from cold metal and
achieving maximum power as quickly as possible. Aero-derivative engines were
originally used in this market because of their capability of reaching full power
from a 'black' start, i.e. with no external power available, in 120 seconds. This, of
course, results in high rates of change of temperature in the turbine, causing
repeated thermal stresses, leading to thermal fatigue and cracking in the turbine
nozzle and rotor blades. An early aero-derivative engine used in this manner
required overhaul every 500 hours, while the same engine in pipeline applications
achieved an overhaul life of 30000 hours. The electrical units typically ran for 10-
20 minutes per start, while the pipeline units could run for several thousand
hours per start. The start cycle for the electrical units was later modified to use a
slower increase of load for peaking duty, with the 120 second start used only for
emergencies. In aircraft applications the operating cycles of military and civil

16
aircraft are quite different: combat aircraft will be subject to rapid maneuvering
with frequent large changes in power, while civil aircraft will operate for long
periods (up to 12 hours) at constant cruise conditions. It should be noted,
however, that short-haul aircraft will be exposed to much shorter flight times and
will undergo 4-5 times more cycles than their long-haul counterparts, requiring
particular attention at the design stage to ensure adequate turbine life. This is
discussed in Ref. (6) of Chapter I. The most spectacular form of rapid performance
deterioration has been when civil aircraft unexpectedly flew through a cloud of
volcanic dust following a major eruption. There have been several cases of total
power loss at high altitude due to the flow passages becoming blocked, causing
engine flame-out. Fortunately, it was possible to relight one or more engines at
low altitude, permitting an emergency landing. In the event of volcanic eruptions,
it is now common for aircraft to be re-routed to give a wide berth to the plump.
Focusing on industrial applications, performance deterioration falls under two
main categories: (a) recoverable and (b) non-recoverable. Recoverable
performance loss is primarily the result of compressor fouling, and performance
recovery can be obtained by compressor cleaning. This may be done either by
abrasive cleaning or by compressor washing. Abrasive cleaning was done by
injecting relatively soft materials into the air stream with the engine operating at
normal speeds; materials used included walnut shells, apricot stones, rice husks
and spent catalyst. The materials broke up on impact and provided a scouring
action on the blade surfaces, removing the built-up deposits. Abrasive cleaning
eventually damaged the blading, particularly the thin leading edges, and was
likely to block internal cooling passages in engines with cooled blades. For these
reasons, abrasive cleaning is seldom used today. Compressor washing can be
carried out either on-line or off-line. On-line washing is done by spraying a
mixture of clean water and detergent into the compressor inlet with the engine
operating at normal load. This is often done in applications where power is
needed continuously and there are severe cost penalties associated with shutting
the engine down. Off-line (or soak) washing requires the engine to be shut down
and the water/detergent mixture sprayed in while the rotor is turned by the
starting system. This requires several applications and then rinsing with water
alone, but appears to give better cleaning. If washing is delayed too long, it is
difficult to recover the performance loss, but if done too frequently there are
economic penalties.
Non-recoverable performance loss results from mechanical problems such as
erosion, corrosion, and tip-clearance increases. If the aerodynamic shape of the
blading is altered by erosion or surface finish, the loss in efficiency can only be
recovered at overhaul. Increases in tip-clearance result from rotor/casing rubs,
which may occur during transients owing to differential growth rates in the rotor

17
and casing, resulting in both a loss in component efficiency and a lowering of the
surge line. In-service deterioration will lead to a gradual raising of the steady
running line in a jet engine/free turbine application, and this, combined with the
lowered surge line, can significantly reduce the amount of excess fuel that can be
provided for acceleration.
1.7. Principles of control systems:
Figure 15 shows the main features of a gas turbine control system. The
fundamental requirement is to maintain the safety of the engine, regardless of
how the operator moves the throttle lever or how the inlet conditions (e.g.
altitude) are changing. The control system must ensure that the critical operating
limits of rotational speed and turbine inlet temperature are never exceeded, and
that compressor surge is avoided. The sensing of rotational speed presents no
problems and a variety of frequency measuring devices are available. Turbine
temperature, on the other hand, is very difficult to measure. It is not normally
practicable to locate temperature probes at inlet to the turbine, where the
temperature is very high, and the temperature is measured at some downstream
location, typically, at inlet to the power turbine on shaft power units and in the
jet pipe on jet engines. Thus, the temperatures used to protect the turbines are
indirect measures of the critical temperatures. The temperatures are usually
measured by. thermocouples spaced around the annulus: typically, six to eight
probes are used. In the case of turbines with highly cooled blades, it is the actual
blade temperature which is important and this may be sensed by radiation
pyrometry in advanced engines.

FIG. 15: Control system components

A typical schedule for fuel flow for a simple jet engine is shown in Fig. 16.
Mathematical models for simulating the transient behavior are an essential tool
for optimization of fuel schedules, which must be experimentally verified during
the engine development program.

18
Figure 15 shows that the control system must incorporate both a computing
section and a fuel metering section. For many years both of these functions were
met by hydromechanical systems, in which fuel passing through the unit provided
the necessary hydraulic actuation of a variety of pistons, bellows and levers which
metered the required fuel to the combustion system. In recent years much
development of digital control systems has taken place; the increasing
computational capacity and rapidly decreasing cost of small digital computers has
made them quite feasible for use in control systems. It should be realized,
however, that a fuel metering system is still required; the function of the digital
computer is limited to computation and the control system must open and close
a tap to control fuel flow. Digital control systems with a comprehensive capability
for controlling all modes of engine operation, known as Full Authority Digital
Engine Controls (FADECs), are becoming widely used on large aero-engines.
Although the cost of the actual computer is small, the need for certification of the
software leads to very high software development costs. For this reason, FADECs
are seldom used on small engines of lower cost.

FIG. 16: Typical fuel schedule

Digital control systems will increasingly be used for data acquisition, using the
data measured by the sensors, and unusual changes may be used in diagnostic
systems for examining the mechanical condition of the engine. Engine Health
Monitoring (EHM) systems use thermodynamic measurements, vibration analysis
and chemical analysis of the lubricating oil to assess engine health. EHM systems
have demonstrated significant reductions in maintenance costs and savings due
to early detection of engine deterioration before severe damage occurs.
To close this section, two very simple examples of the use of the control system
for maintaining an engine within operating limits will be considered. Let us
consider a turboshaft engine with a free power turbine, used in a helicopter; the

19
gearbox will be very highly stressed to keep weight to a minimum and the
maximum power permissible will be strictly limited. The variation in power would
be as shown by the full line in Fig. 17. The maximum power limit is shown dotted,
and at high ambient temperatures it will also be necessary to limit turbine
temperature, causing an even more rapid decline in power, as previously
discussed with respect to jet engines. One method of achieving these limits would
be by controlling gas-generator speed as shown; the gas generator could only be
run at maximum speed where neither limit was exceeded and at both low and
high temperatures its value would be reduced.

FIG. 17: Power and temperature limiting

Aero-engine performance is often quoted on the basis of a thrust (or power) flat
rated to some temperature, typically 30 °C which is 15 °C above the ISA
temperature at sea level. This is done to ensure that the engine is capable of
producing adequate thrust on a hot day, while conserving engine life when the
ambient temperature is below the flat-rating temperature. The concept is
illustrated in Fig-18, where it can be seen that the thrust is constant (flat) at all
temperatures below the rated temperature; it is apparent that at the ISA
temperature the engine is thermodynamically capable of considerably higher
thrust, referred to as the thermodynamic rating. If the engine were controlled on
the basis of rotational speed, the maximum speed would only be used at the
rated temperature; on cooler days the required thrust could be obtained at a
reduced speed and turbine inlet temperature. The thermodynamic rating may be
15-20 per cent higher than the flat rating, one version of the PT-6 turboprop was
flat rated at 600 kW to 62-8 °C; this very high temperature was required to
provide an engine capable of 600kW at 12000m for a high-speed aircraft. The
engine had a thermodynamic rating of 1000 kW but the control system limited

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the power to 600 kW and the gearbox was designed to meet this lower rating,
saving on weight and cost. It can be seen that a high flat-rating temperature
implies a significant derating of the engine at ISA conditions.

FIG. 18: Flat-rating concept

Control system design is a specialized field which is changing rapidly and the
interested reader must turn to the current literature. The control designer, in
turn, must have a full understanding of the system to be controlled which
necessitates an appreciation of gas turbine performance.

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 References:
(1) MALLINSON, D. H. and LEWIS, W. G. E. The part-load performance of various gas-
turbine engine schemes, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 159, 1948, 198-
219.
(2) TREWBY, G. F. A British naval gas turbines, Transactions of the Institution of Marine
Engineers, 66, 1954, i25-67.
(3) SWATMAN, I. M. and MALOHN, D. A An advanced automotive gas turbine concept,
Transactions of the Society of Automotive Engineers, 69, 1961, 219-27.
(4) COX, J. C., HUTCHINSON, D. and OSWALD, J. L The Westinghouse/ Rolls-Royce WR-
21 gas turbine variable area power turbine design, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
paper 95-GT-54, 1995.
(5) KAYS, W. M. and LONDON, A. L Compact Heat Exchangers (McGrawHill, 1964).
(6) RAHNKE, C. J. The variable-geometry power turbine, Transactions of the Society of
Automotive Engineers, 78 [i), 1969, 213-23.
(7) MA YER, A and van der LINDEN, S. GT 24/26 advanced cycle system power plant progress
for the new millennium, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-GT-404, 1999.
(8) YOUNG, P. H. Propulsion controls on the Concorde, Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society, 70, 1966, 863-81.
(9) SARAVANAMUTTOO, H. L H. and FAWKE, A. J. Simulation of gas turbine dynamic
performance, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 70-GT-23, 1970.

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