Fian L Learning Material

Learning Material for Lateral Entry at the Upper Primary Stage
Classes VI - VIII
Learning Material
FOR LATERAL ENTRY
AT THE UPPER PRIMARY STAGE
Science
Classes VI-VIII
23080
NCERT
ISBN 978-93-5007-302-5
SCIENCE
Learning Material
for Lateral Entry
at the Upper Primary Stage
Science
Classes VI-VIII
First Edition ISBN 978-93-5007-302-5
March 2015 Chaitra 1937
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Foreword
The Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act) has
been promulgated by the Government of India. The act enables all
children to claim their fundamental right to receive education and to
contribute to society. In order to make it possible for all children from
different socio–economic backgrounds to claim their rights, education
must empower them to be at par with other children of their age and
be able to develop their capabilities of becoming equal citizens of this
country.
RTE aims to ensure schooling for a large number of children
who could not go to school, or leave school without completing even
elementary stage because of various reasons. However, offering quality
education to these out of school children is a major challenge for both
the teacher and teacher educator.
Keeping this in view, National Council of Educational Research and
Training has developed learning material in Science to address the need
of these children. The learning material is contextual and developed
in simple language supported with photographs and illustrations to
enable them to grow along with other children.
We appreciate the deep engagement of the Department of Education
in Science and Mathematics, NIE and hard work done by the committee
members in developing the useful learning material and welcome
comments and suggestions from all concerned.

B. K. Tripathi
New Delhi Director
November 2014 National Council of Educational
Research and Training

iii
iv
vi
Preface
The right to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 makes it compulsory
for every child to have elementary education. It recommends,“Provided
that where a child is directly admitted in a class appropriate to his/her
age, then, he or she shall, in order to be at par with others, have a right to
receive special training, in such manner, and within such time-limits, as
may be prescribed”.
Keeping this in view the National Council of Educational Research and
Training was entrusted with the task of developing learning material for
lateral entrants. The Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
undertook the development of Learning Material in Science for Lateral Entry
at the Upper Primary Stage based on the textbooks developed on the basis
of the National Curriculum Framework-2005. The chapters constituting
a bridge course are based on the contents of the Environmental Studies
(Classes III, IV and V) and Science (Classes VI, VII and VIII) textbooks
published by the NCERT.
The material has been developed keeping in view the interest, age
and cognitive level of learners. It will cater to the needs of the learner
taking lateral entry. These chapters will serve as a foundation for basic
knowledge which is required at the entry level. It is hoped that the
bridge course will bring such learners at par with children already in the
school system.
The chapters were developed in workshop mode organised by the
department, involving practising teachers, subject experts from colleges
and universities, whose names appear separately. I gratefully acknowledge
their efforts and thank them for their valuable contributions in the
endeavour to provide good quality material for the lateral entrants.
I especially thank the Director and Joint Director, NCERT for their
administrative support and keen interest in the development of the
material. I acknowledge with thanks the dedicated efforts and valuable
contribution of Dr. Anjni Koul, coordinator of this programme.
We look forward to feedback from learners, teachers and parents for
further improvement of the content of this learning material.
A.K. Wazalwar
Professor and Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics
NCERT, New Delhi
v
Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training is grateful

to the members of Development Committee, whose names are given
separately, for their contribution in the development of ‘Learning
material in Science for Lateral Entry at Upper Primary Stage’. NCERT
also gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the following members
for reviewing, refining and finalisation of the manuscript. K.K. Gupta,
Associate Professor (Retd.) Zakir Husain Delhi College, Delhi University,
Delhi; Amar Srivastava, Associate Professor, Chemistry Department,
DAV College, Kanpur; Anita Khetarpal, TGT Science, RSKV, Mandawali,
Delhi; Hari Om, PGT Chemistry, Govt. Boys Senior Secondary No. 1,
Ghonda, Delhi-53; Paragjyoti Gogoi, Science Teacher, Bishnapur, ME
School, Dhamaji, Assam; Promila Benjamin, TGT Science, Sadhna
Vaswani School, New Delhi; S.K. Paradkar, Associate Professor, RIE,
Ajmer; R. Joshi, Associate Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT; Sangeeta
Tyagi, TGT Science, RSKV-II, Shakarpur, Delhi; Vineet Kumar Sharma,
TGT Science, RPVV Gandhinagar, Delhi. NCERT acknowledges the
efforts of Rama Sudhakar for editing the language of this manuscript.
Special thanks are due to A.K.Wazalwar, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New
Delhi for providing all academic and administrative support.
NCERT also gratefully acknowledges Ajeet Kumar Dabodiya and
Puneet Bhola, DTP Operators and Kuldeep Kumar, Computer Typist
for typing the manuscript and preparing a press-ready copy, the
support provided by the APC Office of DESM and administrative staff
of DESM. The efforts of the Publicaiton Division, NCERT are also highly
appreciated.
vi
iv
Book Development Team
Members
Alka Mehrotra, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
B.K. Tripathi, Joint Director, NCERT, New Delhi
C.V. Shimray, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
Gagan Gupta, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi.
K.K. Arora, Associate Professor, Zakir Husain Delhi College, Delhi
University, Delhi.
K.K. Sharma, Principal (Retd.), College Education, Ajmer, Rajasthan.
Meenambika Menon, ShivNadar School, Sector 16, Noida.
Rachna Garg, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
R.K. Parashar, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
R.R. Koireng, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
Sarita Kumar, Associate Professor, Acharya Narendradev College,
Delhi University, Delhi.
Shashi Prabha, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
Sunita Varte, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
Surabhi Bhatnagar, PGT Chemistry, Kendriya Vidyalaya No-1, AFS
Hindan, Ghaziabad.
Vandana Saxena, TGT Science (Retd.), Kendriya Vidyalaya, Delhi.
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.), Physics Department, Delhi University,
Delhi.
V.V. Anand, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore.
Member Coordinator
Anjni Koul, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
vii
Introduction
The Government of India has passed the Right to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act, 2009) which empowers children between
the age of six and fourteen to get admission to school. The Act specifically
states that, “every child of the age of six to fourteen shall have a right to
free and compulsory education in a neighborhood school till completion
of elementary education” (Chapter II, Clause 3(1)). It further states that
“where a child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school
or though admitted, could not complete his or her elementary education,
then, he or she shall be admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age”
(Chapter II, Clause 4). An interpretation of the above two clauses, with
respect to the upper primary level, would mean that, children who are
11+ years of age are eligible for admission to Class VI; 12+ years of age
are eligible for admission to Class VII and 13+ years of age are eligible
for admission to Class VIII. Children without any previous formal school
experience should also be admitted in schools as per the Act. In other
words, ‘no child in that age group can be denied admission’ and seeking
admission to a school thus becomes the right of a child. The Act has
been the basis for developing the learning material in Science and the issues
emerging out of it have been addressed in the present exercise.
The learning material consists of a collection of chapters in Science
meant for children who seek entry to the upper primary classes (Classes VI,
VII or VIII). This material is intended to facilitate learning basic concepts
in Science and will also help children in acquiring the necessary skills
which will bring them to the same level of learning and preparedness
as the regular students in the class. The learning material may also
benefit students who are already in the formal system of schooling by
supplementing and reinforcing concepts which they have already learnt
in their regular classes.
Another aspect of the Act which one has to consider is that, “where
a child is directly admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age, then,
he or she shall, in order to be at par with others, have a right to receive
special training, in such manner, and within such time-limits, as may
be prescribed” (Chapter II, clause 4, paragraph 2). This places a huge
responsibility on the trainer and the school as they have to facilitate these
children to overcome their partially equipped or ill-equipped abilities
to learn Science formally. These students may not be familiar with the
concepts and competencies that are a pre-requisite for learning Science
at a particular class in the upper primary level. They have only an ‘age-
readiness’ and are not likely to have the requisite ‘academic readiness’
for learning Science.
ix
These children certainly have the qualification of age for entry to a class.
Although they may not have had formal schooling, they are reasonably
equipped with day-to-day life experiences which can be considered as an
advantage while working with these children.
What is Academic Readiness?

Training a child so as to facilitate him/her for learning concepts and
competencies planned for a particular class/level may be considered as
an operational definition for academic readiness. When this is applied
to learning Science, it refers to the acquisition of certain basic skills
like observation, making hypothesis, experimentation, classification,
communication, prediction, interpretation and drawing inference.
Students entering upper primary classes through lateral entry may be
deficient in these skills since they have not had formal schooling. This,
however, does not mean that they know nothing about Science or that
they are incapable of learning Science, although one has to consider the
fact that they are at a slight disadvantage when compared with students
who come through formal schooling. The chapters presented in this
volume will enable the lateral entrants to acquire the basic skills and
prepare them for effective Science learning.
There is also another benefit while working with the lateral entrants.
Take for instance a child admitted to Class VI. The child is aged 11+ years
and the chapters designed for him consists of concepts that are of a very
basic nature drawn from the Environmental Studies books of lower primary
classes. By virtue of their age, these students will possess higher mental
and cognitive abilities, and they should be able to learn the pre-requisites
and basic concepts at a fairly rapid pace. The same logic will also apply to
lateral entrants for Classes VII and VIII.
Children With Special Abilities — A Challenge

Children with special needs have been included in the mainstream of
our education system. We often come across children with learning
difficulties, hearing impairment, visual impairment, locomotor
difficulties, etc. For such children, teachers will have to design
alternate activities while keeping their learning objectives similar to
those of the others. The teacher should take into account the specific
problem of the child and plan alternate strategies for teaching learning
process. These children may or may not learn in the same manner
and pace as the other children. Only when this is realised and they
are learning-enabled, a healthy inclusive environment can be created
in the classroom where all the students, those with and those without
learning difficulties can learn together.
x
The task of bridging the academic gap among the lateral entrants
will be relatively easy if they have the basic skills of reading and writing.
If however, they are found deficient in these skills, they require special
training to develop these basic skills. In such a situation, the trainers
will have to proceed at a much slower pace. They may have to modify
their teaching-learning strategy, and if the situation demands, evolve
individualised techniques and methods with a view to bringing the
learning abilities of lateral entrants alongside the other children with
whom they are learning.
Scaffolding of Modules at Three Levels

The learning material is organised into three levels: Level I, Level II and
Level III, corresponding with their entry into any one of the three Classes
VI, VII or VIII. The chapters for Level I consist of subject matter and
concepts meant for entrants to Class VI. Entrants to Class VII will have
to gain competence over the subject matter and concepts given in both
Level I and Level II. Entrants to Class VIII will have to gain competence
over the subject matter and concepts given in the chapters prepared for
all three levels.
The textbooks prepared by NCERT for the elementary level have
followed an approach based on themes for organising the content matter.
The themes have been identified keeping in mind the child’s day-to-day
interaction with his/her immediate environment and the titles of most of
the themes have a general title related to the child’s environment rather
than conventional Science titles. As we are aware, an integrated approach
for teaching-learning Science in a holistic manner has been followed
in these textbooks. At the upper primary level, facts and concepts in
Science are dealt with in a slightly greater detail than in the lower primary
classes. There is an effort to promote learning the fundamental concepts
in Science and link them to the environment. This is because children at
this stage have greater exposure to the social and physical environment
and are aware of several changes that take place around them. This is
commensurate with their expanding cognitive domain and experiences.
The themes that have been identified in Science for transaction at the
Upper Primary Level are,
• Food
• Materials
• The World of the Living
• Moving Things, People and Ideas
• How things work
• Natural Phenomena and
• Natural Resources.
xi
All the themes have been retained while preparing the chapters. After
an extensive survey of syllabi and textbooks of elementary classes, the
content and competencies were filtered down and only the major and
absolutely essential concepts were retained for inclusion in these chapters.
For children entering Class VI, the learning material was planned by
selecting major concepts from the Environmental Studies textbooks of
the lower primary classes. For students entering Class VII, the chapters
contain major concepts of the Class VI textbook. For students entering
Class VIII, the major concepts contained in the Class VII textbook served
as the basis for writing the chapters.
In the learning materials, the titles of most of the chapters and
sub chapters of textbooks have been retained. The alternative titles
given in some chapters are due to the merger of certain related concepts.
Enough care has been taken to preserve the essence of all the themes as
envisaged in the National Curriculum Framework – 2005 (NCF – 2005).
Is the Learning Material Different From Textbooks?

As already mentioned, textbooks prepared by the NCERT have formed
the basis for the preparation of this learning material. So this may be
considered as “abridged and simplified” version of textbooks. This
is intended to help trainers so that they can help students attain the
desired academic readiness level in a short time. It may not be feasible
to devote much time for this purpose since they will also be learning
Science prescribed for the class in which they have entered. Trainers
also have the liberty of referring to the textbooks and plan or modify the
chapters according to the needs of individual students. In fact, constant
cross reference to the textbooks will also enable the students/trainers
to realise that they are learning the same subject matter that their peers
learnt earlier.
Most of the activities mentioned in textbooks have been retained in
the chapters also, as they were found to be feasible as well as essential.
A few new activities have been suggested in some chapters in order to
make the learning more exciting for students. It is important to note that
emphasis should be more on learning and experiencing Science rather
than memorising concepts in Science. Evaluation strategy must be subtle
and should not be intimidating to the lateral entrants. It should be more
a mechanism meant for assessing their strengths, encouraging them
to pursue Science actively, rather than portraying and projecting their
shortcomings which might prompt them to drop out of the school system
again. This will be against the tenets of the RTE Act and the NCF – 2005.
A suggestive time schedule has been given to transact this learning
material for special training as appendix.
xii
iix
Contents
Foreword iii
Preface v
Introduction ix
Level – I — for Entry to Class VI 1-32

Chapter 1 Food : Sources of Food and Cultivation of Crops 3
Chapter 2 Water Around Us 10
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Organisms 15
Chapter 4 Plants – Our Friends 21
Chapter 5 Light 29
Level – II — for Entry to Class VII 33-136

Chapter 1 Food 35
Chapter 2 Fibre to Fabric 46
Chapter 3 Sorting Materials into Groups 52
Chapter 4 Separation of Substances 55
Chapter 5 Changes Around Us 60
Chapter 6 Getting to Know Plants 64
Chapter 7 Habitat and Adaptation 74
Chapter 8 Motion and Measurement of Distance 84
Chapter 9 Light 94
Chapter 10 Electricity and Effect of Electric Current 107
Chapter 11 Fun with Magnets 111
Chapter 12 Water 116
Chapter 13 Air 123
Chapter 14 Garbage 130
xiii
Level – III — for Entry to Class VIII 137-248
Chapter 1 Nutrition 139

Chapter 2 Animal Fibres : Wool and Silk 150
Chapter 3 Acids, Bases and Salts 155
Chapter 4 Physical and Chemical Changes 162
Chapter 5 Habitat and Adaptation 168
Chapter 6 Wind, Storms and Cyclones 177
Chapter 7 Respiration in Organisms 183
Chapter 8 Transportation in Animals and Plants 194
Chapter 9 Reproduction in Plants 207
Chapter 10 Time and Speed 218
Chapter 11 Electric Current and its Effects 226
Chapter 12 Light 232
Chapter 13 Water 244
Appendix 249
xiv
vix
Level - I
for Entry to Class VI
Food: Sources of
Food and Cultivation
1
of Crops You must have observed several animals in your
neighbourhood and many more during a visit to the zoo.
Birds such as sparrows, crows, pigeons, mynahs and
animals such as dogs, cats, lizards, cockroaches and
rats are a common sight in our surroundings. Have you
also observed what they eat and where they get their food
from? Human beings eat food twice or thrice in a day.
Let us learn more about these aspects.
Why do animals eat food?
How do we feel when we skip a meal or do not eat
food for a day? Do we feel weak? We tend to be lazy,
inactive and reluctant to do any work, wanting to just
keep sitting or lying on the bed. If animals do not eat food
they may also become weak and may eventually die. Why
is food so important for their survival? Let us learn more
about food, what are its sources and its importance to
living animals?
Table 1.1 Food items and their sources 1.1 What are The Sources of
Food items Source (Plant/Animal) Food?
Potato Plant Look at Table 1.1. Several food items
Radish ............................ are listed in the first column. Fill in the
second column by writing whether they
Egg ............................
are obtained from a plant or an animal.
Tomato ............................
It is clear from Table 1.1 that plants
Milk ............................ and animals can be sources of food.
Brinjal ............................
Check your progress
Fish ............................ 1. Name five food items obtained from
Meat ............................ plants.
Butter ............................ 2. Name five food items obtained from

animals.
Curd ............................
1.2 Cultivation of Crops
Ours is a densely populated country and there are too
many people to feed. Hence, there is a huge demand
for food. People will starve if food is not available in
adequate quantities. To prevent shortage of food, we have
to cultivate large quantities of different crops. Cultivation
of crops is therefore, a very important occupation in our
country. Thousands of farmers in different parts of the
country, particularly in the rural areas, are engaged in
cultivating crops. Do you think the same crop plants are
grown throughout our country? Let us find out.
Each crop requires specific climate, suitable soil and
water availability. Hence, crop plants cannot be grown
anywhere and everywhere. In our country we can grow most
of the crops because of the diverse climatic conditions that
are prevalent in different parts. For example, the Himalayas
have cold climate, plains of Central and Western India have
hot summers and cold winters; the Deccan and Southern
part of India have moderate climate throughout the year.
Crops such as wheat, mustard, soya and arhar are suitably
cultivated in the colder regions, whereas paddy, Jowar,
sunflower and ragi are cultivated in southern India. Collect
information about the crops cultivated in different States
and complete Table1.2.
Table 1.2: Food crops grown in different States of India
Crop States where Climate Season of cultivation

cultivated cold/moderate/ winter/summer/all
hot seasons
Paddy Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Moderate All Seasons
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh
Wheat ................................... ............................. ....................................
Jowar ................................... ............................. ....................................
Mustard ................................... ............................. ....................................
Sugarcane ................................... ............................. ....................................
Rye ................................... ............................. ....................................
Bajra ................................... ............................. ....................................
Arhar ................................... ............................. ....................................
Soya ................................... ............................. ....................................
4 Learning Material Science for Lateral Entry at the Upper Primary Stage
Different States of our country grow different crops
specific to the local climatic conditions.
Check your progress
3. Name three basic requirements for the growth of
crops.
4. Why is cultivation of crops an important occupation
in our country?
1.3 How are Crops Cultivated?

Cultivation is the process of growing crops. People
engaged in cultivation are called farmers. Human beings
have been cultivating crops for thousands of years. In
our country, most of the rural population is engaged in
farming.
Cultivation of crops involves the following steps:
• Preparation of land for cultivation
• Sowing seeds
• Watering the plants
• Application of manure/fertiliser
• Harvesting
Preparation of land for cultivation
This is the first step in cultivation.
Digging up the soil is called tilling (Fig.1.1).
This is done by traditional instruments like
plough (Fig.1.2) or by modern machines like
tractor (Fig 1.3) or tillers. During tilling, soil
is loosened and clumps of soil are crushed.
The land is generally ploughed to a depth
of 6–10 inches. Sometimes the field is also
Fig. 1.1 Tilling the land
watered and manured before sowing.
Fig. 1.2 A plough Fig. 1.3 A tractor
Level I: Food: Sources of Food and Cultivation of Crops 5

Sowing the seeds
Seeds have to be sown in furrows. They are placed at a
uniform distance from each other and thereafter covered
with soil. Find out the various ways of sowing the seeds in
a field. After sowing, the field is watered to promote seed
germination. While cultivating some crops like paddy,
seedlings are first raised in a small patch of land called
‘nursery’ and later they are transplanted in the field.
Watering the field
Water is important for
germination of seeds and
growth of seedlings. Sufficient
supply of water is also essential
for the healthy growth of plants
(Fig.1.4). Different plants have
different water requirements.
Watering of crops in the field
is known as irrigation. Paddy
requires plenty of water
whereas pulses, rye, jowar and
several other crops require less
Fig. 1.4 Young Plants in a well watered land water for healthy growth.
Application of manure and fertiliser
Plants need several nutrients in order to grow. Roots
absorb nutrients from the soil. To ensure the availability
of nutrients, farmers provide manure or fertilisers to the
plants at regular intervals.
Harvesting
Removing the yield from
mature plants is called
harvesting (Fig.1.5). It may be
done either manually or with
the help of machines called
‘combine’.
The harvested produce
is separated from the husk
before it is used or sold in the
market.
Fig. 1.5 Harvesting of onions
Activity 1.1
Talk to a farmer/ your parents/grandparents and find
out the crops cultivated in your area. Get information
about the process of cultivation, time of sowing, method
of supplying water, time taken for the crop to mature,
time of application of manure, time of harvesting, etc.
So far you have learnt the various steps involved in the

cultivation of crops. Try to complete Table 1.3 to show
the cropping pattern of certain crop plants.
Table 1.3: Complete the table to show the cropping pattern of
some crop plants
Crop Month of sowing Month of harvesting

Wheat October February
Jowar ........................ ........................
Paddy ........................ ........................
Mustard ........................ ........................
Arhar ........................ ........................
Groundnut ........................ ........................
Rye ........................ ........................
Soya ........................ ........................
Sugarcane ........................ ........................
1.4 What Happens if Food is not Properly Stored?

It is very important that all kinds of foods like foodgrains,
vegetables, fruits, oil seeds and cooked food are stored
properly. If not, microorganisms, worms, insects and
other pests can spoil the food items and make them unfit
for human consumption. Eating contaminated food may
cause diseases in human beings. Find out from your
mother how she stores different kinds of food items.
Check your progress

5. What is the purpose of tilling?
6. Why do farmers provide manure and fertiliser to the
plants?

Mid-day Meal
Every Child’s Right
Many children in our country are not able to get even
one full meal every day. Many of them do not even
go to school. Those who go to school without eating
properly, cannot study properly. Some years ago, the
highest court of our country gave an important decision.
All children in primary school should be provided with
hot cooked food. This is the right of every child.
Exercises
1. Read the following statements, correct them and write
them in your notebook:
(a) If we do not eat food for two to three days, we will
What You Have remain normal and healthy.
Learnt (b) Animals never eat plants and plant products.
• Food is very (c) Wheat is cultivated in hot climate.
important for (d) Watering the cultivated land is called tilling.
all animals to 2. Fill up the blanks:
survive.
(a) The traditional agricultural instrument used for tilling
• Food can is a _______.
be obtained (b) Paddy seeds are first cultivated in a small patch of
from plants land called ______.
as well as (c) Fertilisers provide _______ to the plants.
animals.
(d) Improper storage of food items leads to food _______ .
• Climate, soil (e) Eating contaminated food may cause _______.
and water
3. What is meant by harvesting?
availability are
important for 4. Why do we feel weak if we are not provided with
cultivation of food?
crops. Answers to check your progress
• Crops cannot 1. Rice, wheat, jowar, mango, cucumber, tur dal, potato, onion or
be grown any other plant product.
anywhere and 2. Milk, egg, meat, curds, paneer, fish, prawn, pork, or any other
everywhere. animal food.
3. The three basic requirements for cultivation of plants are
• Cultivation of climate, soil and water availability.
crops involves 4. Cutivation of crops is an important occupation in our country
several steps. because India is a densely populated country and there are
• Proper storage too many people to feed.
5. Tilling loosens the soil and crushes lumps of soil.
of food prevents
6. Farmers provide manure to the plants because it provides
its spoilage and nutrients to the plants for growth.
wastage.
Answers to Exercises
1. (a) If we do not eat food for two to three days, we will become
weak and tired.
(b) Some animals like rabbit, cow, buffalo, giraffe eat only
plants and plant products.
(c) Wheat is cultivated in cold climate.
(d) Preparing the land for cultivation is called tilling.
2. (a) plough
(b) nursery
(c) nutrients
(d) spoilage/wastage
(e) diseases
3. Removing the yield from crop plants when it is mature is called
harvesting.
4. If organisms are not provided with food, their body will be
deprived of nutrients and energy. Hence, they will be weak
and unable to do any work.
Notes

Water
Around Us 2
We drink water. We use water for bathing, for washing
clothes and for many more activities. All the living beings
including plants and animals need water in one way or
the other for their survival. We cannot live without water
as we cannot live without food and air. But where do we
get this water from? What are the sources of water? Do
we have water in plenty for our use? How water exists in
nature? There are so many questions like these which
generally come to our mind. Let us try to answer these
questions and learn more about water.
2.1 Sources of Water

Do you get water from the tap (Fig.2.1) in your house or
some member of your family brings it from the public tap
or from a well (Fig.2.2) in your locality? River and well are
the two common sources of water. Likewise, there are
other sources of water such as handpump, tubewell,
pond, lake, spring, river, sea, ocean, etc. Do you think
that snow on the mountains and rain are also the sources
of water?

Fig. 2.1 A tap Fig. 2.2 A well
2.2 Which Water is Fit for Drinking?

Saguna feels bad that sometimes her mother has to go
to very far off place to fetch water. She is surprised that
when there is a lot of water in seas and oceans, why is
there always a shortage of water in her village? She
suddenly recalls about her trip when she had gone to a
beach with her parents. The water in the sea was very
salty. Her father told her that water from seas and oceans
cannot be drunk. She felt the shortage of water even
there, though there was plenty of water around.
She was lost in her thoughts when
suddenly she heard a noise in the back
lane of her house. There was a long
queue near the tap (Fig. 2.3). People were
carrying empty buckets and pots. Her
mother had also gone to fetch water but
she came back without water. Her mother
was worried as to how the daily demand
of water will be fulfilled because most of
the wells in their village have also dried
up and today they did not even get water
Fig.2.3. Long queue near the tap
supply from the taps.
Saguna recalled that once she was very thirsty and
drank water which was brought from a nearby pond.
In the evening she had stomachache. Her father took
her to the doctor. The doctor told her father that she
suffers from some stomach infection probably because of
drinking unclean water.
Usually if the water is not clean we might suffer from
diarrhoea and vomiting. Water which is available in
rivers, ponds, lakes etc, can be used by us for various
purposes but generally it is not fit for drinking. The river
flows through or near villages, towns and cities. People
use this water for washing clothes, bathing animals and
for many other purposes. Water in ponds and lakes can
also become dirty due to similar reasons. This water has
germs (disease-causing organisms) in it. To make water
fit for drinking, we must kill the germs present in it.
Can we see these germs through our eyes? No, germs
are so small that they cannot be seen through naked
eyes. Such water needs to be boiled before drinking to
kill these germs. Water which is fit for drinking is called
potable water.
During diarrhoea a lot of water is lost from our body.
This can be dangerous if we do not take care of ourselves.
We should drink plenty of water to which some salt and
sugar have been added. It is called ORS (Oral Rehydration
Level I: Water Around Us 11

Solution). During diarrhoea and vomiting, ORS must be
taken several times at regular intervals. Eat light food
like khichiri. If you do not feel better, go to the doctor.
Activity 2.1
Preparing ORS at home
Take a glass of boiled
water and cool it. Add one Salt
tablespoon of sugar and a
Sugar Water
pinch of salt to it
(Fig. 2.4). Stir it well. ORS
Fig. 2.4 Making Oral Rehydration
is ready to drink. Solution (ORS)
Check your progress

1. For what purposes is water used in our daily life?
2. What happens if drinking water contains germs?
2.3 How to Check Water Wastage?

In cities and towns there is a limited supply of drinking
water. There must be many houses in your village which
do not get sufficient water to use. Even then people waste
a lot of water in many ways.
Activity 2.2
Think about your daily activities where you use water.
Try to find out if water is wasted in them. Write some
ways by which you can avoid wasting water.
People waste a large amount

of water in washing their homes
and vehicles. It is advisable to
mop instead of using running
water, as it will save a lot
of water. Besides such daily
activities, people use water for
their pleasure. In cities people
enjoy in water parks (Fig. 2.5).
Do you think it is right to waste
water in water parks when many
people in villages and towns do
not get water even to drink? Fig. 2.5 Water park
2.4 How can we Save Water?
Every drop of water is precious. One
should not waste water. In our daily
routine, we must save water. Some
examples of saving or conserving
water are given here.
• Do not leave the tap running
while brushing your teeth,
shaving, bathing, washing
utensils etc.
• Check if there is any leakage in
the tap, water pipe or storage
tank.
• Adopt rain water harvesting.
We can collect the rain water
that falls on our roof top during Fig 2.6 Rain water harvesting
rain, in covered tanks. This is
called rain water harvesting (Fig 2.6). We can use
this water for bathing, washing, cleaning etc.
Check your progress

3. What is rain water harvesting?
4. What can you do to save water?
2.5 Ground Water

When it rains, water also seeps
into the ground. If you dig the soil
you will find that the soil is wet.
You might have seen a well in
your village. From where does the
water come in the well? It is the
rain water which seeps through
the ground and gets collected
there. This is called ground water.
At some places step wells (Fig.
2.7) are constructed instead of
wells. In stepwells people can go
Fig 2.7 Stepwell (Bawari)
down the steps and fetch water.
2.6 Customs Related to Water

Even today people get water from wells, lakes, springs
and stepwells. There are many customs related to water
Level I: Water Around Us 13

What You Have in India. At some places
Learnt people celebrate whenever
• We get water lakes are filled with rain
from different water. In many villages of
sources Uttarakhand when a bride
like taps, comes after marriage, she
handpumps, bows in front of the well
wells, ponds, (Fig. 2.8). In cities where
lakes, rivers, etc. wells are not there, brides
• There is scarcity bow to the tap itself.
of water Exercises Fig 2.8 Bride bows in front of the well
although there 1. Fill in the blanks:
is too much of
(a) The water which seeps into the ground is called
water in seas __________________.
and oceans .
(b) The taste of sea water is __________________.
• The water that
(c) If water is not potable we might suffer from vomiting
is fit for drinking and __________________.
is called potable (d) Boiling of water kills the __________________ in it.
water.
2. What is potable water?
• If water is not fit
3. What are the two substances we must add in water to
for drinking and
make ORS?
we drink it,we
4. What is the difference between a well and a step well?
might suffer
from diarrhoea 5. If there is a tap leaking in your house, what will you do?
and vomiting.
Answers to check your progress
• A person must
1. Water is used for drinking, cooking, washing, cleaning etc.
use ORS while 2. We will fall sick and might suffer from diarrhoea and vomiting.
suffering from 3. Rain water harvesting is a method of collecting water during
diarrhoea and the rain in some covered tank and use it afterwards.
vomiting. 4. We will not waste water during our daily activities like bathing,
brushing, washing etc. We will try to store rain water collected
• We must save from the roof of our house. We will check if there is any leakage
water while in the water supply system.
performing
daily activities Answers to Exercises
and also by 1. (a) Ground water
rain water (b) Salty
(c) Diarrhoea
harvesting. (d) Germs
• There are many 2. Water which is fit for drinking is called potable water.
festivals related 3. Sugar and salt.
to water where 4. Both well and stepwell are sources of water. From well people
pull out water using a bucket or any other container and in
people worship
stepwell people go down the steps and fetch water.
at the well, lake, 5. We will place a pot or a bucket under the tap and call someone
etc. to repair it.
Characteristics
of Organisms 3
Look around you and make a list of things that you
observe. Your list may include trees, dog, cat, table,
chair, television, etc. Can you categorise them into living
and non-living things? How did you differentiate between
them? Can you list those features which are observed in
living organisms?
Let us try to understand the characteristics which
distinguish the living from non-living.
Plants, animals including human beings are collectively
called organisms.
3.1 Organisms Need Food

You have already learnt that all organisms need food and
that food is essential for their survival. Food gives energy
to organisms which is needed for their activities and
growth. Energy is also essential for other life processes
necessary for the survival of organisms. How do different
organisms obtain their food? You will learn more about
this at a later stage.
3.2 Organisms Grow

Remember your favourite kurta you
had four years back. It does not fit you
now, as you have grown taller during
these years. You may not realise but
you are growing all the time. In a few
more years you will become an adult
(Fig. 3.1). Young ones of animals also
grow into adults. A chick hatched
from an eggs grows into a hen or a
cock (Fig. 3.2). You must have noticed
growth in other animals too. Give
examples of at least three animals that
you have seen growing. Like animals,
plants also grow. Sow a seed in the
Fig. 3.1 A baby grows soil and water it regularly. After some
into an adult
time you will observe a new plant growing out of a seed
(Fig.3.3). This gradually grows and becomes bigger to
form a plant.
Fig. 3.2 Chick grows into an Fig. 3.3 Seed growing into a
adult new plant
3.3 Organisms Respire

Sit still for a while and concentrate on your breathing.
You will notice that we breathe in and out alternately.
When we breathe in, air moves from outside to the inside
of the body. When we breathe out, air moves from the
body to outside. Animals like cows, buffaloes, dogs and
cats also breathe.
The process of breathing in animals is similar to
humans. Observe any one of these animals while they
are taking rest and notice the up and down movement
of their abdomen. Breathing is part of an important
process called respiration. Respiration is vital for survival
of all living organisms. It releases energy from the food
that we eat. Plants also respire. You will study the details
of respiration in plants and animals later.
3.4 Organisms Respond to Stimuli

How will you respond if you step on a sharp object?
How do you feel when you see or think about your
favourite food? What happens when you suddenly move
from a dark place to a place brightly lit? Your eyes shut
automatically for a moment and gradually adjust to the
bright surroundings. In all these situations our body
responds immediately. Can you list a few more similar
situations? The situations in our surroundings that make
us respond are called stimuli. Do animals also respond to
stimuli? Observe the behaviour of animals like dog, cow,
etc. when they see food. You will find that they suddenly
become active on seeing the food. Walk towards a bird,
it will fly away. Dogs run away the moment they see
you raising a stick towards them. Try to give some more
examples of responses in animals to stimuli. Do plants
also respond to stimuli? You may be aware that flowers
of some plants bloom only at night, while in most plants,
flowers bloom during day. In some plants like Mimosa,
commonly known as ‘touch-me-not’, leaves close or fold
when we touch them. These are some examples of plant
responses to external stimuli.
Activity 3.1
Place a potted plant in a
room, a little away from
a window through which
sunlight enters (Fig. 3.4).
Water the plant for a few
days. Do you find any
difference in the growth of
the plant? Do you think,
this may be in response to
some stimulus? Analyse
your observations. Fig. 3.4 Plants respond to light
3.5 Organisms Reproduce

All organisms give rise to young ones of their own
kind. This process of producing young ones is called
reproduction. Do all organisms reproduce in the same way?
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5 (a) Birds lay eggs (b) Eggs hatch to
produce young ones
Level I: Characteristics of Organisms 17

Fig. 3.6 Some animals which give birth to
young ones directly
You must have seen nests of some birds. Most of the

birds lay their eggs in the nest. The eggs hatch and chicks
come out of them (Fig. 3.5). Some animals produce young
ones through eggs, while others give birth to young ones
directly (Fig. 3.6). Can you recollect the names of such
animals? Plants may reproduce through seeds, cuttings
and other parts. You will learn about this at a later stage.
3.6 Organisms Show Movement

Animals move from one place to another. They can also
move parts of their body. We can move our hands, legs,
neck and other parts of the body. We can also bend or
rotate our elbow, shoulder, neck and knee.
Though plants are anchored in the soil and do not
move from one place to another, the parts of plants show
some kind of movement. For example, the sunflower
responds to the stimulus of light.
You must have observed animals moving from one
place to another. Do all animals move in a similar way?
Observe the movement of an earthworm and a snail.
Earthworm lives in the soil. When it comes out, it moves
very slowly on the soil by the contraction and expansion
of its body. A snail moves on the surface with the help
of its muscular foot. You must have seen cockroaches
which move with the help of their legs. Cockroaches
have wings and can also fly short distances in the air.
However, they are not strong fliers as birds. How do fish
move in water? Fish have fins on their body which help
them to swim easily in water.
Try to observe the movements in a few other animals
and record the differences in their movement.
From the above discussion, you must have understood
that organisms show certain features which are not seen
in non-living things.
Check your progress
Write the features of organisms in the boxes, by
studying the clues given below:
(c)
(b) (d)
Chick
(a) (e)
(f)
(a) Hen lays eggs which hatch into chicks. What You Have
(b) Chicks gradually develop into adult. Learnt
• Organisms
(c) Chicks need energy to grow into adult. exhibit certain
characteristics
(d) Energy is obtained from the food they eat.
which
(e) Chicks run away when light is flashed over them. distinguish
them from non-
(f) Chicks can go to different places in search of food. living things.
• All living
Exercises organisms
1. Why do we need food? need food to
2. Which characteristics of living organisms are indicated grow, respond
in the following statements? to stimuli,
(a) Young ones of organisms change into adults over a resproduce
period of time. and move.
Level I: Characteristics of Organisms 19

(b) You suddenly remove your hands when you touch a
hot object.
(c) Plants produce seeds.

(a) Reproduction
(b) Growth
(c) Food
(d) Respiration
(e) Response
(f) Movement
1. To get energy for growth and for carrying out other life
processes.
2. (a) Growth
(b) Response to stimuli
(c) Reproduction
Notes
Plants – Our Friends 4
One day while walking in the garden, Boojho and Paheli
noticed several kinds of plants– tall plants, short plants,
some plants with flowers and some without flowers.
Pictures of some of the plants they saw during their walk
are shown in Fig. 4.1.
a) Neem b) Bamboo
c) Hibiscus d) Rose e) Grass

Fig. 4.1 Pictures of some plants
You must have seen many other plants in your

neighbourhood. Isn’t it amazing to see so much of variety?
Can you name the plants? Seek the help of your teacher
and elders if you cannot name them.
Boojho and Paheli looked closely at a plant and began
identifying its parts. Let us help them.
3.1 Parts of Plants

Flower
Some parts of plants are
above the ground whereas Fruit
some are underground. Is
there any reason for this
type of arrangement? The
main part that is easily
visible above ground and Leaf
gives the plant a shape and
Stem
offers support is the stem
(Fig. 4.2). In trees the stem
is thick and strong; and in Root
smaller plants like sunflower
it is thin, soft and fleshy. Are
there other kinds of stems in
Fig. 4.2 Parts of a flower
plants?
Have you ever wondered
how plants are fixed to the
ground? Let us find out. If
we carefully pull out a small
plant like balsam, from
the moist soil, we notice a
branched brown coloured
part which is underground.
This is the root (Fig. 4.2)
which fixes plants to the soil.
Look at the picture of
a money plant (Fig. 4.3).
The stem is very weak and
cannot stand upright. It Fig. 4.3 Money plant –
needs support for climbing. a climber
Such plants are called
climbers. Some plants like
pumpkin, watermelon also
have weak stems. They
spread on the ground and
are called creepers. Try to
find out names of two more
plants which are climbers Fig. 4.4 Leaves of various
and creepers. colours
The stem gives rise to branches which bear leaves,
flowers and fruits. Leaves are generally green and many
in number. Leaves of some plants may be of different
colours (Fig. 4.4).
Different plants bear flowers of different colour and
size. The flowers look best and last longer when they are
on the plant. We must not pluck them.
Check your progress
1. Identify the parts in (a)
Fig. 4.5 and write them
against the numbers (a to (b)
e) given below. Colour the
different parts.
a) ____________________ (c)
b) ____________________ (d)
c) ____________________
(e)
d) ____________________
e) ____________________
Fig. 4.5
3.2 Variety in Leaves

Boojho and Paheli picked up a few fallen leaves of
different plants. They observed that the leaves were of
different shapes, sizes and colours (Fig. 4.6). Some were
round, some long and narrow and some were triangular
in shape. Paheli noticed that even the margins of leaves
were different.
Some had smooth and others
had wavy margin. Some leaves
had margins that looked like the
teeth of a saw. Did you notice
the size of leaves? Do they differ
or are they generally similar in
size? Have you seen a coconut
tree? What is the size of its leaf?
The colours of the leaves were
also different, although most of
them were green.
Fig. 4.6 Variety in leaves
Level I: Plants - Our Friends 23

If you observe carefully, you will notice that leaves of
different plants are different but leaves of plants of the
same kind are almost similar. All the leaves of a rose plant
look alike and leaves of all the mango trees are similar.
Fig. 4.7 Pictures of animals created by using dry leaves
Boojho and Paheli took the leaves and dried them to

make pictures of different animals (Fig. 4.7).
Activity 4.1
Create beautiful things with leaves.
• Place a fresh leaf upside down on a flat surface and
keep a paper on it. Gently rub a colour pencil or
crayon on the paper kept over the leaf. You will see
that you have created a beautiful picture of the leaf.
You can use this to make beautiful cards.
Note: You must be careful not to move the paper or the
leaf, while colouring.
• Collect leaves of different kinds. Dry them completely
by spreading them between sheets of newspaper/
books. Paste the dried leaves in a scrapbook or on
separate coloured papers. You can use coloured
paper or recycled paper as per your choice. A book
of leaves and different greeting cards are ready!
4.3 Plants Help Us in Many Ways

Plants make our surroundings green and refreshing. It is
always a beautiful sight to walk around in a garden with
beautiful blooming flowers. Besides this, plants provide
us many other things. Let us find out how the plants are
useful to us?
Food and Fodder
Most of the items that we eat right from breakfast to dinner
consist of foods obtained from plants. Be it wheat, rice,
fruits or vegetables all are obtained from plants. The food
that domestic animals such as cow, goat and buffalo eat
is called fodder, which is obtained from plants.
Check your progress

2. In the Table, Column I lists the parts of a plant. In
Column II, write the names of plants in which the
part mentioned in Column I is used as food. Write
as many names of plants as possible.
Column I Column II
1. Seeds ............................
2. Leaves ............................
3. Fruits ............................
4. Roots ............................
3. Read the names of plants in the box given below.
Ginger, Carrot, Mango, Amla, Jack fruit,

Gram, Lotus, French beans, Spinach, Onion,
Mustard, Cauliflower, Radish, Banana, Potato
Write the names of plants in front of the parts of that

plant which can be eaten.
Part of the plant that can Name of plants

be eaten
1. Flowers ............................................
2. Fruits ............................................
3. Leaves ............................................
4. Seeds ............................................
5. Stems ............................................
6. Roots ............................................

Fuel/Firewood
Have you seen people in
villages carrying bundles
of dry twigs (Fig 4.8) on
their way home. Why do
you think they take them
home? They use them as
firewood for cooking. In
colder regions, we see
people sitting around
Fig. 4.8 Villagers carrying
a burning fire to keep
bundles of dry twigs
themselves warm.
Decorations
During festivals and celebrations, people decorate their
houses and places of worship with beautiful flowers to
express their joy, happiness and devotion. Flowers are
an integral part of rituals in many cultures. Garlands are
used to greet guests in marriages and functions. Flowers
like jasmine and roses are used by women to adorn their
hair. You must also be using flowers for various occasions
at home. Write a paragraph about the different uses of
flowers in your house. If possible, collect the samples
and preserve them in an old note book.
Shade
On a warm sunny day, have you ever stood under a tree?
Does it give you any comfort? Trees provide us natural
shade where we can rest and relax for a while.
Medicines
Plants help us to cure many ailments. Elders like your
grandmother may have given you tulsi leaves or ginger
and honey whenever you had cold and cough. In villages,
plants and plant parts are extensively used to treat
many common ailments. Several ayurvedic and herbal
medicines are made from plants.
Furniture
Furniture such as cots, chairs, desks are usually made
of wood. Different kinds of woods are used for making
furniture. Try and find out the names of wood commonly
used in making furniture in your area.
Paper
Paper is also made from wood and bamboo. Trees have
to be cut to manufacture paper. Is it good to cut many
trees? What should we do to protect trees? Try to find out
about recycled paper and how it is made.
Check your progress
4. Have you ever been cured by taking medicines prepared
from plants? If yes, write down the local names of the
plants and their uses in the Table.
Name of the Plant Plant part Used for
1. ............................... ............................ ............................
2. ............................... ............................ ............................
3. ............................... ............................ ............................
4. ............................... ............................ ............................
5. The box given below has names of some items which we

use in our daily lives. Pick the items that are made from
plant parts. What You Have
tea leaves, gold bangles, jute bag, lemon juice, Learnt
books, silk kurta, rubber, leather bag, khadi • There are
dhoti, cheese, wooden table. different kinds
of plants
around us.
• Plants have
Exercises: different parts
1. Unscramble the following words to get names of plant like stem,
parts. root, leaves,
(a) EALF flowers and
(b) TEMS fruits.
(c) TORO • Leaves and
(d) LWFORE flowers of
2. State whether the following statements are true/false. plants are of
(a) Leaves of all plants are similar. varied shapes,
sizes and
(b) Roots anchor the plant to soil/ground.
colours.
(c) Stems of all plants are straight and upright.
• Plants are
3. Write a paragraph on how plants are useful to you.
useful in
4. How will you take care of plants growing in your house/
many ways.
school/neighbourhood?

1. (a) Root; (b) Stem; (c) Leaf; (d) Fruit; (e) Flower
2.
Column I Column II
1. Seeds Sunflower, sesame (Til)
2. Leaves Cabbage, coriander
3. Fruits Apple, tomato
4. Roots Beetroot, sweet potato
3. Flower- lotus, mustard, cauliflower, banana

Fruits- mango, amla, jack fruit, lotus, french beans,
banana.
Leaves- gram, spinach, onion, mustard, cauliflower,
radish, banana.
Seeds- jack fruit, gram, lotus, french beans, onion,
mustard.
Stem- ginger, lotus, mustard, banana, potato.
Roots- carrot, radish
4.
Name of the Plant Plant part Used for
1. Tulsi Leaves cold, cough
2. Ginger Stem sore throat, indigestion
3. Garlic Leaves indigestion, fungal infection
4. Turmeric Stem joint pains, cuts, bruises
5. Items made from plants – tea leaves, jute bag, lemon juice,
books, rubber, khadi dhoti, wooden table
1. a) LEAF b) STEM c) ROOT d) FLOWER
2. a) False
b) True
c) False
3. You can write how you use plants in your daily life. For
example.
– We get food from plants.
– We use paper, furniture, etc., which are made of wood.
– We use flowers to decorate our house.
– Sometimes we take medicines which are made from plants.
4. (a) We will water the plants regularly.
(b) We will provide nutrients to plants by adding manure/
fertiliser to the soil.
(c) We will remove weeds (unwanted plants) from time to time.
(d) We will take care that nobody plucks the leaves, flowers or
break branches of the plants.
Light
5
The world is a beautiful place. Look around. You see
trees of many kinds. Some trees have broad leaves, some
have needle-like leaves
(Fig. 5.1). Some of
them have coloured
flowers. You also see
flowers of various
shapes and colours
(Fig. 5.2). If you live
in the hills, you may
Fig. 5.1 Varieties of trees
see mountain peaks
covered with snow
(Fig. 5.3). Suppose
you live in a desert,
like the Thar desert,
you may see vast
areas covered with
sand (Fig. 5.3). If you
are living on a sea Fig. 5.2 Variety in colours and shape of flowers
shore, you see water
spread in front of
you. On a dark night,
you see many stars,
in the sky (Fig. 5.4).
The stars twinkle and
present a beautiful
sight.
Fig. 5.3 Snow-covered mountain and sand dunes
Fig. 5.4 Starry night

What makes it possible for us to see all these things? It
is light which makes these beautiful things visible to us.
It is for this reason that light plays such an important
role in our lives.
5.1 Seeing – How We See Things

To understand the process of seeing, recall some of your
common experiences.
Can you see the objects kept in a dark room? Light a
torch, or a candle or a bulb. Can you see the objects in
the room now?
What is the difference in the two situations described
above?
In one case there was no light in the rooms, and in the
other case there was light in the room.
Does your experience also suggest that light is
necessary to see things?
You do realise that light is necessary to see
things.But is the presence of light sufficient for
seeing things? To examine this, recall a few more
of your experiences.
You are standing in a well-lit room with a
table kept behind you. A book is placed on the
table, can you see the book (Fig. 5.5 a)?
No. But the light is there. So, what is missing?
Now stand behind the table. Can you now
Fig. 5.5 (a)
see the book? Yes. (Fig. 5.5 b).
Think of the difference in these two situations.
Why is it that you can see the book when placed
in front of you? Why can you not see it when it is
placed behind you? Think.
The light is falling on the book in both cases and
is bouncing off it. When the book is behind you
(Fig. 5.5 a), the light bouncing off does not
reach your eyes. When the book is in front of
you (Fig. 5.5 b), some part of the light bouncing
off the book reaches your eyes. It is this light
Fig. 5.5 (b) that enables you to see the book.
In ancient times, it was believed that eyes emit some
kind of rays which fall on the objects. These rays make
the objects visible.
Rays from the

eye fall on the
ball to be seen
Can you suggest an experiment/activity to show that

this belief is not correct? It is quite easy. Switch off the
light in the room. Now you cannot see the book, though
it is placed in front of you. If eyes were emitting rays,
you would be able to see the book even in the dark.
So, we find that

• the presence of light is necessary for seeing an object,
and
• at least a portion of the light bouncing off the object
must reach the eye.
But how are we able to see stars on a dark night?
The stars emit their own light. The light emitted by them
enters our eyes and we are able to see them. With closed
eyes you cannot see stars. This is also true for a lighted
candle or a bulb.
Objects which emit their own light are called luminous
objects. Stars are luminous objects. A lighted candle and
a lighted bulb are also examples of luminous objects.
The objects which do not emit their own light are called
non-luminous objects. Book and table are examples of
non-luminous objects.
At night you also see the moon in the sky. Is moon
luminous or non-luminous object? The moon does not
emit its own light. It merely bounces off the sunlight that
falls on it. When this light reaches our eyes,we can see
the moon.
Thus, seeing a luminous object is possible when light
from it enters our eyes. A non luminous object, however,
can be seen when light bouncing off it enters our eyes.
Level I: Light 31
Check your progress
1. Why are you not able to see any object when you
are blindfolded?
2. You are in a room at night. There is a lighted bulb in
the room at your back. There is a picture in front of
you. Would you be able to see the picture? Discuss.
3. In problem (2) suppose the bulb is switched off.
Would you still be able to see the picture? Discuss.
Exercises
1. State the conditions necessary to see an object which is
not luminous.
2. State conditions necessary for seeing a luminous object.
3. Fill in the blanks:
(a) An object which emits its own light is called a _________
object.
(b) We are able to see the moon because the light of the
sun falling on it gets_______________ towards us.
What You Have 4. Describe a situation when you are not able to see a
Learnt luminous object.
• Objects which
Answers to Check Your Progress
emit their own
1. When you are blindfolded the light from any of the objects is
light are called
not able to enter your eyes. So, you cannot see any object.
luminous 2. There are various possibilities. One possibility is that you are
objects. too close to the picture. You might block all the light that is
• We see coming from the bulb behind you. Then you would not be
luminous able to see the picture clearly. However, when you are not too
close, light from the bulb might fall on the picture. In that
objects when case you would be able to see the picture. You can think of
their light other possibilities.
enters our 3. If the bulb is switched off and there is no other light coming in
eyes. the room, you will not be able to see the picture. If some light
is coming from outside you might be able to see the picture,
• To see objects
but not clearly.
which are not
luminous it Answers to Exercises
is necessary 1. The two conditions for seeing a non-luminous object are:
that light falls (a) A light must fall on the object, and
(b) at least some of the light bouncing off the object must enter
on them and our eyes.
at least a part 2. At least some of the light emitted by a luminous object must
of the light enter our eyes. That will enable us to see the luminous object.
bouncing off 3. (a) luminous, (b) bounced off or reflected.
them enters 4. There are many possibilities. For example, there may be an
object between you and the luminous object that does not allow
our eyes. light to enter your eyes. You can think of other possibilities.
Level - II
for Entry to Class VII
Food
1
1.1 Feeding Habits of Organisms
Have you seen a tiger eating grass or an elephant hunting
down a cow to eat it? Would giraffe eat a rabbit or rabbit
eat a mouse? Such things do not happen in nature
because each animal has specific food habits. Even
among human beings, some
Table:1.1 Organisms and their food
of us eat only vegetarian food
and some eat both vegetarian Column I Column II
and non-vegetarian foods. Name of organism Food the organism eats
This is because like animals, Buffalo Grass, oilcake, hay, grains
we also have consistent and
regular food habits. Write Cat Small animals, birds, milk
the names of food eaten by Rat ........................................
organisms in Table 1.1
Lion ........................................
Look at the names of
organsims in Column I and Tiger ........................................
the food items they eat in Spider ........................................
Column II. It is seen that
animals such as cow and Lizard ........................................
buffalo eat only plants and Cow ........................................
plant parts comprising
oil cake, hay and grains. Human beings ........................................
Animals like lion and tiger eat Butterfly ........................................
only flesh of other animals.
Animals like dog, cat and crow Crow ........................................
eat foods obtained from both
Any others ........................................
plant and animal sources.
Let us perform another activity. In Table 1.1, carefully
observe the source of food items that each animal eats
and fill up Table 1.2. (While filling up Table 1.2 take care
that those animals which eat only plants and plant parts
are written in Column I; those that eat only flesh of
animals in Column II and those that eat both plant parts
and animal flesh in Column III). An example of each is
given in the first row. If you know names of more animals
and birds you can add them to the Table 1.2.
Animals listed in Column I are called herbivores; those
in Column II are called carnivores and those that are
listed in Column III are called omnivores.
Table 1.2 Grouping of animals based on their feeding habits
Column I Column II Column III
Names of animals Names of animals Names of animals
which eat only which eat only which eat both
plants and plant flesh of animals plant parts and
parts flesh of animals
Cow Lion Dog
Check your progress

Write definitions of the following three categories of
animals on the basis of their food habits.
1. Herbivores are animals that eat ………………..........
………………..
2. Carnivores are animals that eat ………………….......
…..................
3. Omnivores are animals that eat ..……………...........
………………..
1.2 Components of Food

Have you ever wondered why a ripe banana tastes sweet
but not a raw banana? Why fresh cucumber has a relishing
taste but not fresh bitter gourd? Don’t the cooked food
items that we eat taste different from their ingredients?
This is because we add different items while preparing
food and each item tastes different. For instance the
Arhar dal we prepare at home contains Arhar dal, water,
salt, and a combination of spices, like mustard, pepper,
turmeric, coriander, etc. The curries that we eat have
vegetables, oil and several other ingredients. Most of the
ingredients contain certain substances that are essential
for our body. These substances are called nutrients.
The major nutrients present in the different food items
are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals
(Fig 1.1). In addition to nutrients, foods also contain
water and dietary fibers or roughage that are essential
for our body.
Check your progress

4. What are nutrients?
5. Name five nutrients present in our food items.
6. Is water a nutrient?
Fill in Table 1.3 given below.

Table:1.3 List of food items and three major nutrients present in them.
Food item Rich in starch Rich in protein Rich in fat
Raw potato Yes - -
Milk - Yes -
Groundnut - - Yes
Rice
Sugarcane
Dry coconut
Arhar dal
Meat
Fish
Egg
Nuts
Wheat
Paneer
Sweet potato Potato Sugarcane

Papaya
Wheat
Melon
Rice Mango Nuts
Bajra Groundnuts Til
Maize
(a) Carbohydrate rich foods (b) Fat rich foods
Write ‘yes’ in that column which shows major nutrient

present in that food item
Level II: Food 37

Moong Arhar dal
Gram
Meat
Beans
Ghee
Milk Butter
Cream
Peas Soyabeans
(c) Protein and fat rich foods (d) Protein rich foods
Fig 1.1 Common sources of nutrients
You have learnt that all foods do not contain all

nutrients. You can easily test the presence of nutrients
by perfoming simple activities to test the presence of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Activity 1.1
To test the presence of carbohydrates in food
• Take a small quantity of a food item like boiled or
crushed rice in a plate
• Put 2-3 drops of dilute *iodine solution on it.
• Observe if there is any change in colour of the food
item.
• Did it turn blue-black?
A blue-black colour indicates that it contains starch.
Repeat this test with other food items to find out which
of these contain starch.
Activity 1.2
To test the presence of fat in a food.
• Take a small quantity of a food item like groundnut
or almond.
• Wrap it in a piece of clean white paper and carefully
crush it. Take care that the paper does not tear.
• Now, straighten the paper and observe it carefully.
• Does it have an oily patch?
• Hold the paper against light.
Are you able to see the light faintly, through this patch?
A transparent patch on paper shows that the food item
contains fat.
Activity 1.3
To test the presence of protein in food.
• Take a small quantity of egg white in a test tube.
• Add two drops of **copper sulphate solution using
a dropper.
• Add ten drops of ***caustic soda solution to the
test tube.
• Shake well and let the test tube stand for a few
minutes.
• What do you see? Did the contents of the test tube
turn violet?
• A violet colour indicates presence of proteins in the
food item.
Now, you can repeat this test on other food items.
* A dilute solution of iodine can be prepared by adding a few

drops of tincture iodine to a test tube half filled with water
** Copper sulphate solution can be prepared by dissolving
2 gram(g) of copper sulphate in 100 millilitre (mL) of water.
***Caustic soda solution can be prepared by dissolving 10g of
caustic soda in 100mL of water.
Orange
Guava
Tomato
Lemon
Liver Amla
Some sources of vitamins Some sources of vitamin C
Some sources of vitamin D Some sources of iodine
Level II: Food 39

Thus we learnt that no food item contains all the
nutrients. Food items are generally rich in one nutrient.
For example, pulses are protein-rich, wheat is
carbohydrate rich, whereas butter is fat-rich.
Some sources of minerals
Our body requires each nutrient in sufficient amount.

If we regularly eat only one type of food, on daily basis,
our body will not get some nutrients at all. In order to
ensure a good supply of all the nutrients, we eat different
combinations of food items. For instance, roti, dal and
mixed vegetable curry will provide nearly all the nutrients.
Roti provides carbohydrates, dal gives us protein, and
vegetable preparation provides minerals, vitamins and
fats. People in South India often eat rice, sambar with
ghee/oil, curries and curd. Can you analyse the nutrients
available in each of these items? People in all places eat
fresh fruits and salads because they are rich sources of
vitamins and minerals.
1.3 Role of Nutrients in our Body

Each nutrient has a specific role in
our body. Based on the functions
they perform in our body, foods may
be broadly categorised into three
groups;
(a) Energy giving foods–Items
like nuts, vegetable oils contain
fats. Wheat, rice, jowar, rye contain
carbohydrates. Foods rich in fats
Fig. 1.2 Energy - Giving Food and carbohydrates provide energy to
(Carbohydrates and fat) the body (Fig. 1.2).
(b) Body building foods–Proteins are very important for
body growth and repair of worn out body parts. Pulses,
milk, egg, meat and fish are rich in proteins (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Body - Buliding Foods

(Proteins)
(c) Protective foods - Food items containing vitamins and

minerals are included in this category. Many vegetables,
lettuce, salads and fruits provide us with vitamins and
minerals (Fig. 1.4). They protect our body from diseases.
Vitamins are of different kinds, such as Vitamin A, Vitamin
C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. Vitamin B is
made up of several compounds, hence, we refer to it as
Vitamin B complex.
Fig. 1.4 Protective Foods

(Minerals and Vitamins)
Minerals are chemical substances present in the soil.

They are absorbed in dissoved form by the roots for the
normal growth of plants. Our body also requires minerals
like iron, calcium, phosphorus and iodine. How does our
body meet its mineral requirement?
Minerals are present in the food that we eat. Fresh
vegetables, fruits, salads and green leafy vegetables are
rich sources of minerals.
Level II: Food 41

Activity 1.4
Examine a printed aluminum foil or a carton containing
multivitamin tablets or B-complex pills. Observe the
names of vitamins and the components of B-complex
printed on the foil/carton and write them in your
notebook.
Check your progress

7. Name any two food items that provide us energy.
8. Why should we eat fresh fruits and salads?
9. Name the protein-rich food that we normally drink.
1.4 Dietary Fibres and Water

Dietary fibres are also known as roughage. Plant products
such as whole grains, pulses, moong chilka, potatoes,
fresh fruits and vegetables are the chief sources of
roughage. They add volume to the food we eat and make
it bulky. Roughage mixes with other undigested food in
the digestive tract and is helpful in their easy removal.
Water helps our body to absorb nutrients from food.
It helps to maintain the consistency of blood and tones
up the tissues. It also helps in removing wastes from our
body in the form of sweat and urine. Our body gets water
from the liquids we drink such as tea, coffee, milk, fruit
juices, aerated water and water. In addition to these,
many food items like fruits, vegetables and cooked food
also contain water.
1.5 Balanced Diet

The different kinds of food that we eat constitutes our
diet. On a daily basis, our diet must have all the nutrients
in the required quantity. It should also contain a good
amount of roughage and water. Such a diet is called a
balanced diet.
It is important that food should be cooked in such
a way that all its nutrients are retained. For instance,
over-boiling of vegetables destroys most of the vitamins
and minerals. Eating such vegetables is of little use to
our body. Clean and fresh fruits and salads provide us
plenty of vitamins and minerals. They should always be
a part of our diet.
Check your progress
10. Will excessive washing and cleaning of cut vegetables
and fruits deplete the nutrients? Give reasons.
11. Why is eating over-boiled foods not beneficial?
Junk foods
Deep fried foods such as pakoras, vadas and samosas
and white-flour based foods such as noodles, burgers and
potato chips have only a taste value but little nutrient
value. These food items when eaten very frequently
instead of normal diet are considered as junk foods.
Junk foods generally have an over-dose of any one or two
nutrients, for instance, deep fried items have excess fat;
pizzas and burgers have excess fats and carbohydrates.
Both of them have very little proteins and roughage.
Regular intake of such junk foods is not a healthy habit
and may lead to obesity and other health disorders.
1.6 Deficiency Diseases

If we regularly eat only one kind of food for several days,
our body will not get certain nutrients at all. Prolonged
deficiency of nutrients leads to certain deficiency disorders
and diseases in humans. For example, carbohydrate
deficiency leads to poor growth and a weak body. Protein
deficiency also causes poor growth, unhealthy skin and
frequent illnesses. Deficiency of minerals and vitamins
causes several serious diseases.
Study the following Table to know about such diseases.
Table 1.4 Some diseases/disorders caused by deficiency of

vitamins and minerals
Vitamin/ Deficiency disease/ Symptoms
Mineral disorder
Vitamin A Night blindness Poor vision, loss of vision
in darkness (night),
sometimes complete loss of
vision
Vitamin B1 Beriberi Weak muscles and very
little energy to work
Vitamin C Scurvy Bleeding gums, wounds
take longer time to heal
Level II: Food 43

Vitamin Rickets Bones become soft and
D bent
Calcium Bone and tooth decay Weak bones, tooth
What You Have decay
Learnt Iodine Goiter Glands in the neck
appear swollen, mental
• Based on
disability in children
feeding habits,
Iron Anaemia Weakness
animals can
be categorised
into herbivores, Exercises
carnivores and 1. Read the names of animals given in the list and classify
omnivores. them into herbivores, carnivores and omnivores:
• Food items Wolf, parrot, fox, leopard, gaur (bison), peacock,
contain nutrition sparrow, snake, frog, crocodile, zebra, rabbit, squirrel,
pigeon, fish
substances called
nutrients.
• Carbohydrates, Herbivores : _______, _______,________,________.
proteins, fats,
vitamins and Carnivores : _______,_______,________,________.
minerals are
important Omnivores : ________,______,_________,________.
nutrients. 2. Name the five important nutrients required by our
• Based on body.
nutrients, 3. What is roughage and why should it be a part of our
food can be diet?
categorised into 4. What is the important function of water in our body?
energy giving,
5. Why does a doctor prescribe iron tonic or vitamin
body building and
pills to a weak person?
protective foods.
6. Name the diseases caused due to deficiencey of
• Water and vitamin B1.
roughage, though
7. Name any two food items which are rich sources of
not nutrients, are
vitamin D.
essential for our
8. Match the nutrients given in Column I whose
body.
deficiency cause the diseases given in Column II:
• A balanced diet
provides all the Column I Column II
nutrients that our Nutrients Diseases
body requires. a) Vitamin A (i) Anaemia
• Deficiency of b) Vitamin C (ii) Goiter
nutrients causes
c) Iodine (iii) Night blindness
certain deficiency
diseases and d) Iron (iv) Scurvy
disorders. Ans: a : _______; b : _______; c : _______; d : _______;
1. Herbivores are animals that eat plant products.
2. Carnivores are animals that eat other animals.
3. Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and animals.
4. Substances present in food items that are essential for our
body are called nutrients.
5. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals.
6. No, water is not a nutrient because it does not supply energy
or does not help in growth.
7. Carbohydrates and fats.
8. Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich sources of vitamins and
minerals.
9. Milk
10. Yes, many water soluble vitamins and minerals will be washed
away.
11. Over boiling depletes the water soluble minerals, vitamins and
other nutrients in food items.
1. Herbivore: Parrot, gaur (bison), zebra, rabbit, squirrel, pigeon
Carnivore : Wolf, fox, leopard, crocodile, snake
Omnivore: Peacock, sparrow, frog, fish
2. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals
3. Roughage consists of dietary fibres which are present in some
of our food items like whole grains, wheat, vegetables and
fruits. It adds volume to the food that we eat and helps in easy
removal of undigested food from our body.
4. Water helps in the absorption of nutrients from food.
5. When our body is deficient in iron, we become weak. Therefore,
the doctor prescribes iron tonic/pills.
6. Beriberi.
7. Fish, milk, butter, egg (any two)
8. a) iii (Night blindness); b) iv (scurvy); c) ii (goiter);
d) i (anaemia)
Notes
Level II: Food 45

Fibre to Fabric
2
You must have seen people wearing different types of
clothes like shirt, pant, saree, suit,etc. These clothes may
be of different colours and designs. But long back in the
history of mankind, it was not so. People used to cover
their bodies with bark and leaves
of plants or with animal skin
and furs. With the advancement
of knowledge, people learnt to
weave twigs and grass into mats
and baskets. Later they learnt to
make fabrics and stiched them
into various types of clothes.
Different kinds of fabrics are also
used for making other household
items like bedsheets, curtains,
towels, blankets, tablecloths,
Fig 2.1 A cloth shop dusters, etc (Fig. 2.1 ).
2.1 Yarns
When you look at any fabric, it seems like a continuous
piece. But when you look at it more closely – what do
you notice? You will see that it is made up of threads
(also called yarns) arranged in a systematic way. What
are these yarns made of ?
Activity 2.1
Take out a yarn from a piece of cotton fabric. Place
this piece of yarn on the table. Now, press one end of
the yarn with your thumb. Scratch the other end of
Fig 2.2(a) Scratching of yarn along Fig 2.2(b) Yarn splits up into thin
its length with nail. strands
the yarn along its length with your nail as shown in
Fig. 2.2 (a). You will find that at this end, the yarn splits
up into thin strands as seen in Fig. 2.2 (b).
From the above activity we see that fabrics are made

up of yarns and yarns are made up of many thin strands.
These thin strands themselves are made up of still thinner
strands called fibres.
The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute, silk
and wool are obtained from plants and animals. These
are called natural fibres. Cotton and jute are examples of
fibres obtained from plants. Wool and silk fibres are
obtained from animals. Wool is obtained from the fleece
(the upper thin layer of skin) of sheep or goat. It is also
obtained from the hair of rabbit, yak and camel. Silk
fibre is drawn from the cocoon of silkworm. For thousands
of years natural fibres were the only ones available for
making fabrics. In the last hundred years or so, fibres
are also made from chemical substances, which are not
obtained from plant or animal sources. These are called
synthetic fibres. Some examples of synthetic fibres are
polyester, nylon and acrylic.
Check your progress
1. Classify the following fibres as natural or synthetic:
nylon, wool, cotton, silk, polyester, jute.
2. State whether the following statements are true or
false.
(i) Silk fibre is obtained from the stem of a plant.
(ii) Yarns are made up of fibres.
2.2 Cotton
You know that cotton is used for
filling mattresses, quilts, pillows,
etc. It is also used for making cotton
fabric. You can observe the thin,
hair like structures by looking at
cotton wool which is obtained from
cotton plants (Fig. 2.3). These hair
like structures are called fibres. Fig. 2.3 Cotton plants
Level II: Fibre to Fabric 47

Cotton plants are usually grown at places having black
soil and warm climate. The fruits of the cotton plant
(cotton bolls) are about the size of a lemon. After maturing,
the bolls burst open and the seeds covered with fibres
are seen. These are collected and then, cotton fibres are
separated from the seeds by combing. This process is
called ginning of cotton. Traditionally, ginning was done
by hands (Fig. 2.4). These days machines are also used
for ginning.
Fig. 2.4 Ginning of cotton
2.3 Jute
Jute fibre is obtained from the stem of the jute plant
(Fig. 2.5). In India, jute
is mainly grown in
West Bengal, Bihar
and Assam. The stems
of the harvested plants
are immersed in water
for a few days. The
stems rot and fibres
Fig. 2.5 A jute plant and a bag
are separated by hand. made of jute
Check your progress
3. What type of climate is suitable for growing cotton?
4. From which parts of the plant are cotton and jute
obtained?
2.4 Fiber, Yarn and Fabric

Yarns are obtained from fibres by a process called
spinning. In this process, fibres of cotton are drawn and
twisted. This brings the fibres together to form a yarn.
You may be familiar with the hand spinning devices like
takli (Fig. 2.6) and charkha (Fig. 2.7). For a large scale
production of yarn, spinning machines are used.
What You Have
Learnt
• Fabric is made
up of threads
called yarns.
• Yarns are
obtained from
fibres.
• Fibres can
be natural
or synthetic.
Fig. 2.6 Takli Fig. 2.7 Charkha Natural fibres
The two main processes by which yarns are converted are of plant or
into fabric are weaving and knitting. In the process of animal origin.
weaving, two sets of yarns are arranged together. Weaving • Common
of fabric is done on looms which may be either hand animal fibres
operated called handlooms (Fig.2.8) or power (electricity) are silk and
operated called powerlooms (Fig. 2.9). Knitting (Fig. wool, whereas
2.10) is a process in which a single yarn is used to make two common
the fabric. Knitting is a type of weaving which can also be plant fibres are
done by hand or on machine. cotton and jute.
• Cotton fibres
are obtained
from fruits of
the cotton plant
called cotton
bolls.
• Jute fibres are
obtained from
stem of jute
plant.
• Yarns are
Fig. 2.8 Weaving with Handloom
converted
into cloth by
weaving or
knitting.
Fig. 2.9 Powerloom Fig. 2.10 Knitting

Check your progress
(i) Fabric is obtained from yarn by__________________
or _________________.
(ii) Charkha is a simple device for the process of
____________________ by hand.
6. What is the function of looms?
Exercises
1. State whether the following statements are True or False.
a) Spinning is a process of making fibres.
b) Jute is the outer covering of coconut.
c) The process of removing seeds from cotton is called
ginning.
d) Weaving of yarn makes a piece of fabric.
2. Name two items that are made from cotton fibres.
(a) Plant fibres are obtained from ________________ and
________________ plants.
(b) ______________________ and ___________________ are
animal fibres.
4. Name the methods used for converting yarn into fabric.

1. Natural fibres–wool, cotton, silk, jute
Synthetic fibres–nylon, polyester
2. (i) False (ii) True
3. Cotton grows well in warm climate.
4. Cotton is obtained from cotton bolls which are fruits of cotton
plant, whereas jute is obtained from the stem of jute plant.
5. (i) weaving, knitting
(ii) spinning
6. Looms are the devices used for weaving of fabric.
Answers to Exercise
1. (a) False
(b) False
(c) True
(d) True
2. (i) Cotton fabric
(ii) Cotton pillows
3. (a) Plant fibres are obtained from cotton and jute
plants.
(b) Silk and wool are animal fibres.
4. Weaving and knitting.
Notes

Sorting Materials
into Groups 3
We come across various objects in our daily life. The
list includes the clothes we wear, the food we eat, the
books we read, the stationery we use, the toys children
play with, the utensils in the kitchen, etc (Fig 3.1). Each
object differs from the other
in terms of colour, shape,
size, material by which
objects are made, texture,
transparency, solubility in
water and so on.
We frequently visit grocery
shops. There various items
are grouped at a place as
per their utility (Fig 3.2).
For example, all brands Fig. 3.1 Objects around us
of bathing soaps, tooth
pastes, shampoos are
placed separately in their
respective groups. The
medicines are placed
alphabetically in different
shelves in a chemist’s
shop. The process of
sorting out things on some
basis and grouping them
is called classification.
The classification of Fig. 3.2 Arrangement of materials
things helps us to identify in a shop
them easily and study their properties conveniently.
Activity 3.1
Make a list of objects you use daily and many other
things you know. Try to group these objects in different
ways/criteria. Some of the criteria and groups are given
as under:
Criteria Groups of Objects
1. Colour Red, yellow, green, etc.
2. Material Made of metals, wood, plastic, glass, etc.
3. Appearance Lustrous (shining) e.g., gold, copper,
aluminium etc., or non-lustrous (dull)
e.g., wood.
4. Hardness Hard (e.g., stone, nail etc.) or soft (e.g.,
cotton, sponge)
5. Touch Smooth (e.g., glass, soap ) or rough (e.g.,
handmade paper, sand) Fig. 3.3 Some objects float in
6. Solubility in Soluble (e.g., salt, sugar, etc.) or water while others sink
water insoluble (e.g., sand, chalk powder etc.)
7. Floatation in Floating (e.g., wood, plastic toy, dry leaf)
water (Fig 3.3) or sinking ( e.g., pebble, iron nail, key,
etc.)
Transparent
8. Transparency • Transparent materials, through
to light (Fig 3.4) which objects can be clearly seen
e.g., glass, water, air etc.
• Translucent materials, through

which objects can be seen but not
clearly e.g. butter paper. Translucent
Opaque
• Opaque materials, through which

objects cannot be seen, e.g. stone,
wood etc.
Opaque Opaque
Opaque
Check your progress
1. What properties generally form the basis for
grouping of various substances? Fig. 3.4 Looking through
transparent, translucent
2. State whether the statements given below are True or opaque material
or False:
(i) Glass is transparent, while stone is opaque.
(ii) Bird’s feather floats on water.
(iii) Vinegar mixes well in water.
(iv) Cardboard and wooden box are examples
of translucent material.
(v) Sawdust dissolves completely in water.
Exercises
1. Name any three objects which
(a) float in water.
Level II: Sorting Materials into Groups 53

(b) are soluble in water.
(c) are made up of plastic.
(d) are transparent.
2. Write True or False against the following statements:
(a) Chalk powder is soluble in water.
(b) Stones sink in water.
(c) Cotton is a hard substance.
(d) Aluminium has a lustrous surface.
(e) We can see through a glass sheet.
3. Amongst the following, select the substances which are
lustrous:
Iron, gold, jute, aluminium, stone, chalk
What You Have
Learnt Answers to check your progress
• Things are 1. The various properties are colour, size, shape, material used,
transparency, solubility in water, etc.
grouped
2. (i) True; (ii) True; (iii) True; (iv) False; (v) False
together for
convenience Answers to Exercises
and to 1. (a) wood, plastic toy, dry leaf
study their (b) common salt, sugar, baking soda
properties. (c) mug, bucket, toys
(d) glass, water, air
• Things are 2. (a) False
grouped (b) True
together on (c) False
the basis of (d) True
similarities (e) True
3. Iron, gold, aluminium
in their
properties.
Notes
• The criteria
for grouping
things may be
the material by
which they are
made, colour,
appearance,
hardness,
touch,
solubility
in water,
floatation
in water,
transparency
to light, etc.
Separation of
Substances 4
In our daily life we come across various types of mixtures
of materials. The need to separate components of a
mixture generally arises for the following purposes:
• To remove impurities from a substance. For example,
separating husk from rice or to clean water by
removing mud and other impurities.
• To obtain the desirable substance. For example,
separating tea from tea leaves or obtaining salt from
sea water.
• To separate useful components. For example,
separating cream from milk or kerosene from crude
petroleum oil.
The components of a mixture may differ in various
properties such as particle size, mass, tendency of
evaporation, solubility in water, attraction towards
magnet, etc. The process of separating the components
of a mixture will depend upon the difference in their
properties.
Let us take some examples of separation of component of
various types of mixtures.
4.1 Solid-Solid Mixtures

You must have seen
people removing
stone pieces from
food-grains like
rice or wheat. If
the shape or size
of impurity is
different from the
main material,
the impurities can
be removed by
handpicking
Fig. 4.1 Handpicking stones from grains
(Fig. 4.1).
Farmers separate foodgrains from stalks either by
beating or with the help of a machine. This process is
called threshing (Fig. 4.2).
Fig. 4.2 Threshing Fig. 4.3 Winnowing
If a mixture is allowed to fall from a raised platform in

wind, the lighter and heavier components make different
heaps. This method is know as winnowing (Fig. 4.3).
This is commonly used by farmers to separate lighter
husk particles from heavier seeds of grains.
Sometimes components of a solid mixture have
different particle size. Sieves of appropriate sizes are
used to separate them. This process is called sieving.
Smaller particles pass through the mesh of the sieve
while bigger particles are retained over the mesh. At
home, husk is separated from flour by sieving (Fig. 4.4
a). Pebbles and stones from sand are also separated by
this process (Fig.4.4 b).
Fig. 4.4 (a) Separating husk form Fig. 4.4 (b) Separating pebbles and
the flour stones form sand
4.2 Solid-Liquid Mixtures

Tea-leaves from tea can easily be separated by using a
strainer. This process is known as filtration (Fig. 4.5)
Sometimes we get muddy/sandy
water from our taps. If this water
is kept undisturbed for some
time, the heavier, insoluble
particles settle down at the
bottom. This process is called
sedimentation (Fig. 4.6 a). Clean
water is removed into different
container by tilting and the
process is called decantation Fig. 4.5 separating tea
(Fig. 4.6 b). The same principle leaves with a strainer
may be used for separating a mixture of two liquids that
do not mix with each other. e.g., oil and water.
(a) (b)
Fig:4.6 Separating two components of a mixture by
(a) sedimentation and (b) decantation
You might have heard or seen that

salt is obtained from sea water. Sea
water is allowed to stand in shallow
pits. Water gets heated by the sunlight
and slowly turns into water vapour,
leaving behind common salt (Fig. 4.7).
The process of conversion of water Fig. 4.7 Obtaining salt from
sea water
into its vapour is called evaporation
(Fig. 4.8). The reverse of evaporation,
that is conversion of water vapour into
its liquid form is called condensation
(Fig. 4.8). Sometimes we come
across the situation when two or
more methods are involved in the
separation.
The sequence of methods varies Fig. 4.8 Evaporation and
from case to case. condensation
Level II: Separation of Substances 57

Check your progress
1. How will you separate the components from a
mixture of
a) sand and salt.
b) sand, salt and iron nails.
2. Some wheat grains are mixed with wheat flour.
Name a method which can be used to separate
them.
4.3 Solubility of Substances in Water

Some of the substances, like salt or sugar, are soluble
in water. A substance when dissolved in water, forms a
solution. Can an unlimited amount of salt dissolve in a
fixed amount of water? Let us find out from the following
activity.
Activity 4.1
Take a tumbler, spoon, salt and water. Pour half a
cup of water in the tumbler. Add one teaspoon full
of salt and stir it well until
the salt dissolves completely.
Go on adding salt till some
salt remains undissolved and
settles at the bottom of the
container. If no more salt can
be dissolved in that amount of
water, which we have taken, it
is called a saturated solution
Fig. 4.9 Dissolving salt in water
(Fig. 4.9).
Activity 4.2
Repeat the activity 4.1 with hot water and compare the
amount of salt required to make a saturated solution.
What is your conclusion?
You will find that more salt is required to prepare a
saturated solution at a higher temperature. Thus, more
amount of a substance can be dissolved in a solution
by heating it.
Check your progress

3. Can you dissolve a little more salt in its saturated
solution? If yes, how?
Exercises What You Have
1. Why do we need to separate different components of Learnt
a mixture? Explain giving examples. • Stones can
2. How would you obtain clean water from muddy water? be separated
3. How will you separate husk from pulses? from grains by
handpicking.
Answers to Check Your Progress
• Lighter husk is
1. (a) First pour water into the mixture. The salt will dissolve
separated from
in water. The sand can be separated by decantation or
filteration. The salt can be separated by the evaporation heavier seeds
of decanted or filtered liquid. of grains by
(b) First iron nails can be separated by handpicking or winnowing.
magnet and then follow the procedure as given in • Difference in size
answer 1(a).
2. Sieving
of particles in a
3. By heating the saturated solution after adding a little salt. mixture is utilised
to separate them
Answers to Exercises by the process
1. We need to separate different components of a mixture for of sieving and
following purposes: filtration.
(a) To separate two different but useful components
(churning • Evaporation is the
milk to obtain butter). process in which
(b) To obtain desirable substance (salt from sea water). a liquid gets
(c) To remove impurities from a substance (handpicking of converted into its
stones from foodgrains).
vapour.
2. Clean water can be obtained from muddy water by the
process of sedimentation followed by decantation. • Evaporation
3. Husk is separated from pulses by the process of winnowing. can be used to
separate a solid
Notes dissolved in a
liquid.
• When more
amount of the
substance cannot
be dissolved
in a particular
amount of
solvent, at a given
temperature, it is
called saturated
solution.
• More amount of
a substance can
be dissolved in a
saturated solution
by heating it.
Level II: Separation of Substances 59

Changes Around Us 5
You might have observed that wind changes its direction,
water boils on heating, the shadow of a tree undergoes
changes, leaves fall from the trees, flowers bloom and
then wither away, cooked food gets spoiled and so on.
We can see many such changes going around us. Have
you ever noticed the changes happening in your body?
Your hair and nails grow, you grow taller, your weight
increases, etc. Do you think that some of the changes
given above can be grouped together?
Various changes can be grouped together if we can
find some similarities between them. Let us find out.
5.1 Can All Changes be Reversed ?

Perform the following activities to understand this
concept.
Activity 5.1
• Take a balloon and blow it
(Fig. 5.1). Take care that it
does not burst.
• Observe its shape and size.
• Now, let the air escape the
balloon.
• Observe it again. Fig. 5.1 A balloon changes
The balloon is reversed back its size and shape on
to its original form. blowing air into it.
Activity 5.2
• Take a piece of paper
and fold it as shown
in Figure 5.2
• You have changed
the sheet of paper
into a toy aeroplane.
• Now unfold the Fig. 5.2 A toy aeroplane made
paper again. by folding paper
Do you get the same paper back?
The paper is recovered back in the original shape and size.
Let us think about the changes, we observed in activities

5.1 and 5.2. Do you find anything common in these activities?
Is it possible to get the balloon and the paper back its
original form?
Yes, in both of these activities, it is possible to get back
the material in their original form. It means that the changes
occurring in the above two activities can be reversed.
Check your progress
1. You find that coconut oil in summer is in liquid
state and in winter it freezes as a white solid. Can
this change be reversed? If yes, how?
Activity 5.3
• Take the same balloon which you used in activity
5.1.
• Blow it again to its full size.
• Tie its mouth with a thread tightly.
• Prick it with the pointed tip of a pencil or any other
sharp thing.
• It will burst. Observe your balloon.
Activity 5.4
• To save the paper, take the same piece of paper,
which you have used in Activity 5.2.
• Draw an aeroplane
on this piece of paper
with a pen/pencil.
• Cut along its outline
as shown in Fig. 5.3
(be careful while
cutting) Fig. 5.3 An aeroplane cut out of paper
In the above activities 5.3 and 5.4, is it possible to get

back the materials with same size and shape with which
we started our activity?
The answer is no, that means the changes occurring
in these activities cannot be reversed.
Level II: Changes Around Us 61
Check your progress
2. If you roll out a roti form the ball of a dough and
bake it on a tawa, is it possible for you to get back
the original ball of the dough? Can this change be
reversed?
5.2 Can There be Other Ways to Bring a Change

Let us perform this activity and find out.
Activity 5.5
• Take a small candle and
measure its length with a
scale.
• Fix it on a suitable place
and light it.
• Let it burn for some time
(Fig 5.4 a).
• Blow out the candle
(Fig. 5.4 b). (a) (b)
• Measure its length again. Fig. 5.4 Burning of a candle
Can the change in the length of the candle be reversed?
On burning, the length of the candle will be reduced.

So, this change cannot be reversed.
Have you ever seen any of your family members adding
a small quantity of curd to warm milk to make curd?
Usually it takes a few hours for milk to change into curd.
Can this change be reversed? We cannot get back milk
from the curd. So, this change cannot be reversed.
Check your progress
3. If we take some wax in a pan and heat it, solid wax
melts on heating and is converted into liquid state.
Can this change be reversed?
Exercises
1. You accidentally dropped a glass tumbler and broke it.
Can this change be reversed? Explain.
2. If we dissolve some salt in water, is it possible to reverse
this change? Explain.
3. Wheat once converted into flour cannot be reconverted
back into wheat. Comment.
4. Can cutting a tree be considered as a reversible change? Explain.
5. Tick (P) the change that can be reversed and cross (O)
the change that cannot be reversed.
(a) Burning of agarbatti.
(b) Germination of seed.
(c) Drawing a picture on a paper using colour.
(d) Melting of ice.
6. Some processes are given in Column I. Write Yes or No
in Column II if the change brought about by the process
can be reversed or not. One example is given.
S. No. Column I Column II

1. Preparing of tea No
2. Growth of a plant
3 Heating of iron rod
4. Freezing of water
5. Cooking of food

1. Yes, the change can be reversed. If you heat the frozen coconut
oil, it will melt and turn into liquid state.
2. It is not possible to get back the original ball of the dough. This
change cannot be reversed.
3. Yes, this change can be reversed. The molten wax will come to
its original form on cooling.
1. This change cannot be reserved because we cannot get back What You Have
the original glass tumbler. Learnt
2. It is possible to reverse the change by evaporating followed by
• Some changes
condensation of water.
3. Wheat once converted into flour cannot be converted back into such as folding
wheat because this change cannot be reversed. of paper can be
4. Cutting a tree is a change which cannot be reversed. reversed and
5. a) Burning of agarbatti some changes
b) Germination of seed
such as cutting
c) Drawing a picture on a paper using colour
d) Melting of ice of paper cannot
6. be reversed.
S. No. Column I Column II • A change may
1. Preparing of tea No occur by heating
2. Growth of a plant No a substance
3 Heating of iron rod Yes or by mixing it
4. Freezing of water Yes with some other
5. Cooking of food No
substance or
by any other
means.
Level II: Changes Around Us 63

Getting to Know
Plants
6
There is a wide variety of plants around us. Some are
small and some very large. We classify them into herbs,
shrubs and trees depending on their height, type of
stem and origin of branches. Table 6.1 will help you
understand better. In the Table, characteristics of herbs,
shrubs and trees are indicated. Three plants have been
taken as examples. Observe three more plants and
fill the appropriate columns. At the end, with the
available, information, differentiate between herbs,
shrubs and trees.
One picture each of a herb, shrub and tree are shown
in Fig. 6.1.
Table 6.1 Categories of plants
Name Height Stem Branches Category
of plant Green Tender Thick Hard At the Higher of plant
base up on
of the the
stem stem
Tomato Shorter than Yes Yes Yes Herb
me
Mango Much taller Yes Yes Yes Tree
than me
Lemon Slightly taller Yes Yes Shrub
than me
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.1 (a) Herb, (b) Shrub and (c) Tree

You have learnt that plants with weak stems that
cannot stand upright are called creepers and climbers.
Search your neighbourhood for two climbers and two
creepers. Compare them with a plant having upright
stem.
6.1 Stem
Stem is the aerial part of most plants. Branches, leaves
and flowers arise from the stem and are supported
by it. Stem consists of vascular tissues that transport
materials from roots to aerial parts and from aerial parts
to other parts of the plant. Perform activity 6.1 to study
the function of the stem.
Activity 6.1
You will require a glass,

water, red ink, a herb, a
magnifying glass and a blade
for this activity.
• Fill one-third of the glass
with water. Add a few
drops of red ink to the
water.
• Cut a branch of the herb Fig. 6.2 Transport of water
through stem
and place it in the glass
as shown in Fig. 6.2. red colour
• Observe it the next day.

Does any part of the herb
appear to have red colour?
(a) (b)
If yes, how do you think the
colour reached there? Using Fig. 6.3
a blade, take a thin cross a. Taking a cross section of
stem
section of the stem and b. Red coloured regions in the
observe red coloured areas section of stem
inside the stem (Fig. 6.3).
We can say from this activity that water moves up the

stem. In other words, stem conducts water. Just as the
red ink moves up the stem, so do the minerals dissolved
in water. The water and minerals go to leaves and other
aerial plant parts, through narrow tubes inside the stem.
Level II: Getting to Know Plants 65

Check your progress
1. What do you observe in activity 6.1 after an hour?
2. Why did you use red ink in the activity you just
performed?
3. What moves with water through the stem?
Lamina 6.2 Leaf

Leaves are abundantly seen on each plant. Don’t they
make the plant look beautiful? They are of different
shapes, sizes and colours although in most plants they
are green.
Let us identify the parts of a leaf (Fig. 6.4). Petiole
is the stalk of leaf by which it is attached to the stem/
branch. The broad, flat part is the lamina. The petiole
Petiole extends into the lamina as midrib, from the midrib on
either side arises veins. The pattern of veins in a leaf is
Fig. 6.4 Parts of a Leaf
called venation.There are two types of venation, reticulate
(Fig.6.5a) and parallel venation (Fig. 6.5 b). Observe the
venation in as many leaves as you can without removing
leaves from the plant. Draw the
Veins
Veins pattern and write names of plants
having reticulate and parallel
venation.
Midrib
Midrib Shall we now find out some
of the functions of a leaf? The
main function of leaves is to
prepare their food. The process
of preparation of food is called
photosynthesis. Leaves are also
(a) (b) important for transpiration. Let
Fig. 6.5 Leaf venation (a) reticulate and (b) parallel us perform Activity 6.2.
Activity 6.2
Do this activity during day
time on a sunny day. You will
require a herb, two transparent
dry polythene bags and some
thread. Use a healthy, well
watered plant that has been
growing in the Sun. Fig 6.6 (a) Potted plant tied-
• Enclose a leafy branch of the up with polythene bag
plant in one of the polythene bags
and tie up its mouth as shown in
Fig. 6.6 a. Also tie up the mouth
of the other empty polythene bag
and keep it in the sun(Fig. 6.6 b).
• After a few hours, observe the
inner surface of both the bags.
What do you see? Are there
any droplets of water in any of
the bags? Which bag has the
droplets? How do you think they
got there?
Fig 6.6 (b) Tied up
• Don’t forget to remove the empty polythene bag
polythene bag after the activity.
Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapours by a

process called transpiration. These vapours form water
droplets on the polythene bag.
Check your progress
4. What comes out of leaves during transpiration and
in what form?
5. Draw veins in the leaves below in Fig 6.7 to show
parallel venation in (a) and reticulate venation in (b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.7
6.3 Root
Root is the underground part of plants. They are non-
green and branched. They fix the plant to the soil and
absorb water and minerals from the soil.
Activity 6.3
You would require two pots, some soil, trowel (khurpi
for digging), blade or a pair of scissors and water. This
activity is to be done in groups of 4-5 students.
• Select two small plants, like Balsam and dig them
out. Take care that their roots are not damaged.

• Fix one of the plants in pot
A (Fig. 6.8 a). Cut off the
roots from the other plant
and fix the plant in the soil
in pot B (Fig. 6.8 b). Water
both the plants regularly.
• Observe the plants after
a week. Are both plants
healthy?
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
• After 15 days, pull out Fig. 6.8
plant B and observe if (a) Plant with roots,
roots have developed. (b) Without roots
Both the plants are watered regularly, but one

is without roots, isn’t it? Does this activity help you
understand an important function of the root?
Go to a field where many plants are growing naturally.
Dig out a few plants, wash the soil off the roots and
observe them. Do you find that all the plants have the
same type of roots? Look at the roots shown in Fig. 6.9(a)
or Fig. 6.9(b). Roots shown in Fig. 6.9(a), has a main root
and many side roots. This type of root is called taproot.
Plants with roots as shown in Fig. 6.9(b) do not have any
main root. All roots seem similar and arise from the same
point. Such roots are called fibrous roots.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.9 (a) Taproot (b) Fibrous roots
Separate the plants you have collected into Group

(a) those with taproots and Group (b) those with fibrous
roots. Look at the leaves of the plants in Group (a).What
kind of venation do they have? What kind of venation
do you see in the leaves of plants of Group (b)? Do you
notice that leaf venation and type of root in a plant are
related in a very interesting way? In Table 6.2 fill in the
names of some plants that you have studied and their
type of venation and roots in the columns provided.
Check your progress
6. Complete the Table
Name of Plant Type of leaf Type of Root
venation
Peepal Tap
Grass Parallel
Rose Plant Reticulate
7. Would a plant with its roots cut off survive if

replanted? Explain.
8. Name one function of roots in plants.
6.4 Flower
Flowers are the most colourful parts of plants. Flowers
are the reproductive parts of plants. You must have seen
flowers of different colours, shapes and sizes. While some
flowers wither away in a day, others stay for several days.
Let us look at the parts of flowers.
Activity 6.4
We would require one bud and two fresh flowers each,
of any of the following–Datura, chinarose, mustard,
brinjal, lady’s finger, Petal
gulmohar, Petunia. We need a

blade, a glass slide or a sheet
of paper, a magnifying glass
and water. Stamens
Stamens Pistil
Pistil
Look at the prominent
coloured parts of the open Sepal
flower (Fig. 6.10). These are
Fig. 6.10 Parts of a flower
the petals. Different flowers
have petals of different
colours. Where do you think
the petals are in a closed
bud? Which is the visible part
in a bud?
Did you see that this part
is made of small leaf-like
structures? They are called
sepals. Take a flower and
observe its petals and sepals.
Now, answer the following Fig. 6.11 A bell shaped flower

questions: What are the colours of the petals and the
sepals? In Datura and other bell shaped flowers (Fig.
6.11), the petals have to be cut lengthwise and spread
out so that the inner parts can be
seen clearly (Fig. 6.10). Remove
Anther the sepals and petals to see the
other parts. Study the Fig. 6.10
carefully, compare your flower
Filament with the illustration and identify
the stamens and pistil in your
Fig. 6.12 Parts of a stamen flower.
What You Look at Fig. 6.12 carefully. It
Have Learnt shows the different kinds of stamens present in different
• Plants are flowers. Stamen has two parts, a long slender stalk called
usually the filament and a flat conical
classified into Stigma anther attached to its tip. Can you
herbs, shrubs, recognise both parts of the stamens
trees, climbers, Style in your flower? Draw one stamen
and creepers and label its parts. The innermost
depending on Ovary part of flower is called the pistil.
their height, If you cannot see it completely,
type of stems remove all the stamens. Identify
and origin of the parts of the pistil with the help
branches. of Fig. 6.13. It has three parts–a
• The stem bears Fig. 6.13 Parts of a pistil flattened cushion like stigma, a
branches, tubular style and a basal bulged
leaves, flowers ovary. The ovary has several ovules in it.
and fruits.
• The leaf has Draw a neat, labelled diagram of pistil of the flower
a petiole and you are studying.
lamina. The
pattern made Exercises
of veins in
leaves is called Check your progress
venation which 9. What is the outermost part of a flower?
can be either 10. Which is the innermost part of flower?
reticulate or
parallel. 1. Where are ovules located in a flower?
• Leaves perform 2. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.
the function of
(i) A plant with ___________ leaf venation will have fibrous
photosynthesis _________.
and (ii) ________ is a process through which plant loses water
transpiration. vapours.
(iii) The broad, green part of a leaf is called_____________.
(iv) _____________ is usually the most colourful part of a
flower.
3. Solve the riddles given below.
(a) I have a green tender stem and I am much shorter
than you. Who am I?
(b) I come out first from the seed when it is soaked in
water and I provide anchorage to plants. Who am I?
4. Observe the Fig. 6.14 and answer the questions that
follow it.
Fig. 6.14
(a) Label the parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the figure.

(b) What is the type of venation?
(c) How is the venation in this leaf different from that
seen in grass leaves?
5. State whether the following are True or False.
(a) Anther is a part of pistil. What You Have
(b) Sepal is the outermost part in a flower. Learnt
(c) Leaves perform the function of only transpiration. • Roots help
(d) Venation is the design formed by veins in leaves. the plants in
6. Observe the picture of an activity carried out with leaves anchorage and
of a plant and polythene bag as given in Fig. 6.15. absorption
Based on the above activity, answer the following of water and
questions: minerals from
(a) Which process is demonstrated in the the soil. They
activity? are mainly of
(b) When will this activity show better results two types–
on a bright sunny day or a cloudy day? tap root and
(c) What will you observe on the inner fibrous root.
surface of polythene bag after a few hours • The parts of
of setting up the activity? flowers are
Fig. 6.15
sepal, petal,
stamen and
1. We observe a column of red colour rise in the stem and the
leaves also appear red. pistil.

2. To trace the movement of water as water is colourless.
3. Minerals.
4. Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapours.
5.
6. Name of Plant Type of leaf Type of roots

venation
Peepal Reticulate Tap
Grass Parallel Fibrous
Rose Plant Reticulate Tap
7. No, because it cannot absorb water and minerals

8. Anchorage.
9. Sepals.
10. Pistil
1. Ovules are present in the ovary/pistil.
2. (i) A plant with parallel leaf venation will have fibrous
roots.
(ii) Transpiration is a process through which plant loses water
vapours.
(iii) The broad, green part of a leaf is called lamina.
(iv) Petals is usually the most colourful part of a flower.
3. a) herbs; b)root
4. a.
Vein
Lamina
Midrib
Petiole
b. Reticulate
c. Leaves of grass have parallel venation.
5. (a) False; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True
6. (a) Transpiration
(b) The activity will show better result if performed on
a bright sunny day.
(c) Droplets of water will deposit on the inner side of
the polythene bag.
Notes

Habitat and
Adaptation 7
We find that plants and animals live in different kinds
of surroundings. A camel for instance lives in a desert
(Fig. 7.1), elephants and tigers live in forests; lotus and lily
live in water along with fishes. The place where
organisms naturally live is called habitat. In
other words, habitat means a dwelling place
or the natural home of organisms. The habitat
provides food, water, air, shelter and other
needs for organisms. For surviving in their
habitats, organisms will modify their body
and their living habits. Such modifications of
organisms are called adaptations.
Plants and animals living in a habitat
constitute the biotic components. Various
non-living things such as rocks, soil, light,
air and water present in the habitat are its
Fig. 7.1 Camels in a desert abiotic components.
7.1 Types of Habitat

Habitats of plants and animals are broadly of two types:
(i) Terrestrial habitats and (ii) Aquatic habitats.
Land habitats are called terrestrial habitats. Some
examples of terrestrial habitats are forests, grasslands,
mountains and deserts. Water habitats are called aquatic
habitats. Ponds, swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans are
some examples of aquatic habitats.
Activity 7.1
Write the names of some plants and animals found in
terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
Terrestrial habitat Aquatic habitat
Plants Animals Plants Animals
7.2 A Journey through Terrestrial Habitats
Deserts
You know that deserts are very hot during day time. As
a result the sand also becomes very hot. There is also
scarcity of water. But certain features
in the body of a camel help it to adapt
to desert conditions. Camels have long
legs which help to keep their bodies
away from the heat of the sand. They
excrete concentrated and small quantity
of urine, they do not sweat and their
faeces is dry. Since camels lose very
little water from their body, they can
live for many days without water. It is
a common myth that camel possesses
Fig. 7.2 Rats and snakes live in
pockets in his body which contain burrows
water, and it is this water that he uses
during scarcity. You must have seen hump on the back
of camels, which contain lot of fat. This fat is metabolised
to form water. It is this water that is used by camel. Other
desert animals like rats and snakes avoid heat by staying
in deep burrows in the sand during day time (Fig. 7.2).
They come out during nights when it is cooler.
7.3 How are Plants Adapted to Desert Conditions?

Activity 7.2
Repeat the activity 6.2 of Chapter 6 with a potted cactus
and a leafy plant. What do you observe? Do you notice
a difference in the amount of water collected in the two
polythene bags?
Desert plants lose very little water by transpiration
(Fig 7.3 a). The leaves in desert plants are either absent,
Stem
Spines
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.3 Some plants that grow in deserts
Level II: Habitat and Adaptation 75

very small, or they are modified as spines. This helps
in reducing the surface area of leaves which in turn
reduces transpiration. The green leaf-like structure
that you see in a cactus is, in fact, its stem (Fig. 7.3b).
In these plants photosynthesis is carried out by the
green stems. The stem is also covered with a thick waxy
layer, which prevents evaporation and helps retain
water. Some plants have an extensive (well spread-out)
root system just below the surface of sand, for quick
absorption of rainwater.
Check your progress

1. Rats, lizards, snakes, etc. live in burrows in deserts
during day time in order to
a) hide from other animals
b) stay away from intense heat
c) stay away from intense cold
d) to play with other animals.
2. Which of the following is not an adaptive feature of
desert plants?
a) Lose lots of water through transpiration
b) Photosynthesis by stems
c) Thick, waxy stem
d) Leaves modified as spines
7.4 Mountain Regions

These habitats are normally very cold and windy. In some
areas, snowfall may occur in winters.
There is a large variety of plants and
animals living in mountain regions. Have
you seen the kind of trees shown in Fig. 7.4 ?
Have you ever noticed such trees growing
in other regions?
How are these trees adapted to the
conditions prevailing in their habitat? These
trees are normally cone shaped and have
Fig. 7.4 Trees of a mountain habitat sloping branches. The leaves of some of
these trees are needle-like. This helps the rainwater and
snow to slide off easily. Animals living in the mountain
regions are also adapted to the cold conditions (Fig. 7.5).
They have thick skin or fur for protection from cold. For
example, yaks have long hair to keep them warm. Snow
leopard has thick fur on its body, feet and paws which
protects it from cold. The thick and large padded paws
act like snow shoes and helps it to walk on snow (Fig.
7.6). Mountain goats have strong hooves for running up
the rocky slopes of mountains.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.5 (a) Snow leopard, (b) Yak and (c) Mountain goat
Fig. 7.6 Paws of a snow leopard
Check your progress

3. How does the long hair of yak help the animal?
4. Strong hooves in mountain goats help the animal
for which of the following activity?
a) Jumping b) Walking c) Running
5. How do needle like leaves help a tree in the mountain
region?

7.5 Grasslands
A lion lives in a forest or a grassland and is a strong
animal that can hunt and kill other animals like deer.
Look at the picture of a lion and that of a deer (Fig. 7.7).
Where are their eyes located? Are they in front or on the
sides of their faces? Which one has a heavier body? Lions
have long claws in their front legs that can be withdrawn
inside the paws. Claws help in causing injury to the prey.
Light brown colour of the body helps them to hide in dry
grasses when it hunts the prey (animal it eats). Eyes in
front of the face allow them to have an accurate idea of
their distance from the prey.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.7 (a) Lion and (b) Deer
Deer have strong teeth for chewing hard plant stems.

A deer needs to know about the presence of predators
(hunting animals like lion) in order to run away and
escape death. It has long and sensitive ears to hear even
the faintest movements. Eyes located on the side of its
head allow it to look in all directions. The light body and
running speed of the deer help them to run away from
predators.
Check your progress

6. Write the features of a lion that enables it to live in
grasslands?
7. Long ears, eyes on side and fast movement are
adaptations found in deer for which of the following?
(a) To escape from predators
(b) To escape from prey
7.6 Some Aquatic Habitats
Oceans
There are many kinds of fishes, but do you see that their
body has a common shape (Fig. 7.8)? All of them have
streamlined body. This helps them swim easily in water.
Fishes have slippery scales on their bodies which function
like a water-proof jacket and protects them from external
attacks by other fish eaters. The flat fins help them swim
and change directions quickly. Fins also help in balancing
them in water. Fishes are able to stay under water for a
long time because of the presence of unique structure
called gills (Fig. 7.9). Gills are the respiratory organs of
fishes. Some sea animals like squids and octopus live in
deep waters of oceans, near the seabed and catch the
prey that moves around them. However, when they move,
their body also becomes streamlined.
Gills
Fig. 7. 8 Different types of fishes Fig. 7.9 Gills of a fish
Some sea animals like dolphins and whales do not have

gills. They breathe in air through nostrils or blowholes
that are located on the upper parts of their heads. This
allows them to breathe in air when they swim near the
surface of water. They can stay in deep waters for a long
time without breathing. They come onto the surface from
time to time to breathe. Have you seen this interesting
activity of dolphins in television programmes or films on
ocean life?
Ponds and lakes
Have you seen plants growing in ponds, lakes, rivers and
drains? Go on a field trip to a nearby pond. Observe the
aquatic plants and draw their diagrams. Are the leaves,
stems and roots of these plants different from land plants?

Some of these plants have their roots fixed in the soil
at the bottom of the pond or lake (Fig. 7.10). Some aquatic
plants float on the surface. They have bunches of roots
which help them float.
What You Have

Learnt
• The place
where
organisms
naturally live is
called habitat.
• The presence
Fig. 7.10 Rooted and floating aquatic plants.
of specific
features or The stems of aquatic plants are hollow and have
certain habits several air cavities. Leaves and flowers float on the surface
which enable of water. The waxy cuticle on the upper surface of leaves
a plant or an repels water.
animal to live
in its habitat Let us preserve the natural habitats and allow all
are called organisms to live happily in their natural homes.
adaptations.
• Habitats of Check your progress
plants and
8. Name the adaptations of fish that helps it to move
animals are
easily in water.
broadly divided
into two (i) 9. With reference to aquatic plants, which of the
Terrestrial following pair is a mis-match?
habitats and (a) Stems– with air cavities
(ii) Aquatic (b) Leaves – floating
habitats.
(c) Waxy cuticle– repels water
• Desert,
mountain and (d) Fins– swimming
grassland
are some of
Exercises
the terrestrial
habitats. Column A Column B
• Ocean, pond a) Fins (i) To move through water
and lake b) Scales (ii) Breathing
are some of
the aquatic c) Streamlined body (iii) Body balance/change in direction
habitats. d) Gills (iv) Protection
1. Match the following:
2. Fill up the blanks.
(a) Habitats are broadly classified into _____________
and _____________________
(b) Desert, mountain and grassland are examples of
__________________ habitat.
(c) Ocean, pond and lake are examples of _________
habitat.
(d) The presence of specific features or certain habits,
which enable a plant or an animal to live in its habitat
are called _____________________________
3. Which of the following cannot be an adaptive feature of
desert animals?
(a) Long legs
(b) Burrows deep in the sand
(c) Excrete lots of urine
(d) Do not sweat
4. Which of the following is an adaptive feature of animals
living in grassland?
(a) Eyes placed on the sides of face
(b) Light brown colour
(c) Thick layer of fat in body
(d) Weak teeth
5. Thick skin, thick fur, long hair and padded paws are
adaptations to animals of which of the following habitats?
(a) Desert
(b) Grassland
(c) Mountain
(d) Coastal region
6. Which of the following pair is a mis-match?
(a) Mountain goat – strong hooves
(b) Snow leopard– small padded paws
(c) Yak– long hair
(d) Deer – long ears
7. A habitat is a place or house where you live. Why?
8. How do plants in the desert adapt to the hot and dry
conditions?
9. How is a deer adapted to protect itself from its predators?
10. Write down three features that are commonly found in
aquatic plants.
11. Is it necessary for all aquatic animals to have streamlined
body? Explain.
12. What is the function of blowhole in dolphins and whales?
1. (b)
2. (a)
3. The long hair of yak helps them to keep warm in the cold
mountains.
4. (c)
5. Needle - like leaves help the tree to slide off rain water and ice.
6. (i) Light brown colour of its body helps it to hide in the
grasslands while hunting.
(ii) Eyes in front of the face allow it to have a correct idea about
its distance from the prey.
7. (a)
8. Streamlined body
9. (d)
1. (a) - (iii)
(b) - (iv)
(c) - (i)
(d) - (ii)
2. (a) Habitats are broadly classified into terrestrial and aquatic.
(b) Desert, mountain and grassland are examples of terrestrial
habitat.
(c) Ocean, pond and lake are examples of aquatic habitat.
(d) The presence of specific features or certain habits, which
enable a plant or an animal to live in its habitat are called
adaptation.
3. (c)
4. (c)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. I will call the house where I live my habitat as it is my dwelling
place. It is my shelter and it is where I find all my needs.
8. Desert plants adapt to the hot and dry conditions by means of
the following features –
(i) They have no leaves or small spine-like leaves, which
reduce surface area for transpiration.
(ii) They have thick waxy layer on stem which helps retain
water.
(iii) They have deep and extensive root system which helps
absorb water.
9. The deer has long ears to hear movements of predators and
eyes on the side of the face to look for danger in all directions.
It also moves at a fast speed which helps them to run away
from the predators.
10. (i) Stem is hollow with several air cavities
(ii) Leaves or flowers float on the surface of water
(iii) Waxy cuticle on the surface of leaves
11. Yes, fishes and many other aquatic animals have streamlined
body to help them move easily in water. But it is not necessary
that all aquatic animals should have streamlined body. There
are certain aquatic animals like octopus and squids which do
not have a streamlined shape.
12. Blowholes help dolphins and whales to breathe in air when
they come near the surface of water to breathe.
Notes

Motion and
Measurement of 8
Distance
Reema and Salma were planning to go to their friend
Rashi’s house. Reema lives in the neighbourhood of Rashi
whereas Salma lives at a longer distance from Rashi (Fig.
8.1). Reema can go on foot to Rashi’s house but Salma
has to go on her bicycle. If they plan to go from the school
to Rashi’s house, they have to go by bus. How can you
explain the use of different ways of reaching the same
place? The reason is that Reema’s and Salma’s houses
are at a shorter distance from Rashi’s house whereas the
school is at a larger distance (Fig. 8.1). How do we say
that one place is closer while the other is farther away?
How do we compare distances? In this chapter we will
learn how we measure distances.
SAL RAS REE
MA HI MA
SCH
OOL
Fig 8.1
8.1 Distance and its Measurement

There are so many occasions when we need to measure
lengths or distances. A tailor needs to measure the length
of a piece of cloth to know whether a shirt can be made
out of it. A carpenter needs to measure the height and
width of a door to estimate the amount of wood required.
Suppose you are asked about your height or the width
of your desk or the distance between Delhi and Kanpur.
All these questions have one thing in common. They all
concern distance between two points/places. The two
points may be as close as the two ends of a table or as
far as Delhi from Kanpur. The distances could even be
shorter or larger than these.
Let us see how we can measure distances.
Activity 8.1
Collect a few of your friends. Each one of you measure
the length of your classroom by walking from one wall
to the opposite wall (Fig. 8.2).
Fig. 8.2 A student measuring the length of a room by walking from

one wall to the opposite wall.
Count the number of steps each one takes. Record

your observations in the table given below:
Name Length of the room (in
number of steps)
1. Seema
Are all the measurements of the length of the room

equal? You may find that the measurement is different in
each case. Why is it so? Remember, we chose the length
of a step as unit of measurement. Step-length may vary
from child to child. Hence this method of measurement
is not reliable.
We find, therefore, that some standard units of
measurement are needed. Standard units of measurement
should not change from person to person and place to
place.
8.2 Standard Units of Measurement

For the sake of uniformity, scientists all over the world
have accepted a set of standard units of measurement.
The accepted unit of length is metre. Its symbol is ‘m’.
Level II: Motion and Measurement of Distance 85

The height of a five-year old child is nearly one metre.
To measure shorter lengths, such as the length of
your index finger or the length of your pencil, we usually
use centimetre as unit. Its symbol is ‘cm’
When we want to measure somewhat longer lengths
or distances, we usually use the metre. Some examples
would be the height of a tree or the length of a playing
field.
For measuring still longer distances, such as the
distance between two cities and depth of oceans, we use
kilometre as unit.
Remember that
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metre (m)
1 metre (m) = 100 centimetre (cm)
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetre (mm)
Fig. 8.3 A measuring scale
To get an idea of how big a centimetre is, look at the

measuring scale provided in your geometry box. One
such scale is shown in Fig.8.3.
8.3 How to use a Scale Correctly ?

While using a scale to measure lengths we must keep the
following points in mind.
• Place the scale in contact with the object along its
length. Suppose you have to measure the length of a
table. The scale must be placed as shown in Fig. 8.4,
and not as in Fig. 8.5
Fig. 8.4 Correct method of Fig. 8.5 Incorrect method of

placing the scale along the placing the scale to measure
length to be measured length
• The measuring scale may be broken
or the zero mark may not be clearly
visible. In such cases, you should
avoid taking measurements from
the zero mark. You can use any
other full mark of the scale, say,
1.0 cm (Fig. 8.6). Then you must
subtract the reading of this mark Fig. 8.6 Correct method of placing
the scale with broken edge.
from the reading at the other end.
For example, in Fig. 8.6 the reading A B C
at one end is 1.0 cm and at the
other end it is 14.3 cm. Therefore,
the length of the object is (14.3-1.0)
cm = 13.3 cm.
• Your eye must be exactly above or
in front of the point at which scale
is to be read as shown in Fig. 8.7.
Position ‘B’ is the correct position
of the eye. Note that from position
‘B’ the reading is 7.5 cm. From
Fig. 8.7 Proper position of the eye for
positions ‘A’ and ‘C’ the readings reading of the scale is ‘B’
may be different.
Activity 8.2
You are given a curved line (Fig. 8.8). Devise a method to
measure its length.
Fig. 8.8
Check your progress

1. Why is a standard unit of measurement required?
2. Choose the correct answer
i. To measure the length of a plastic straw, it is
kept along a measuring scale. One end of the
straw is at 2.0 cm mark of the scale. The other
end is at 24.0 cm mark. The length of the straw
is
(a) 2.0 cm (b) 22.0 cm
(c) 24.0 cm (d) 26.0 cm

ii. Four units of length are given below.
I. m II. cm III. km IV. mm
The largest unit among them is
(a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV

(i) One metre is equal to ________ cm.
(ii) One km is equal to _______ m.
8.4 Moving Things Around Us

When we look around, we find that some objects are
moving and some are at rest. We say that a child is
running, a bird is flying, a fish is swimming (Fig. 8.9).
These are examples of objects which are moving. On the
other hand, a table, a chair, or a stone lying on ground
are not moving (Fig. 8.10). You also see some objects
move faster than others. In science, when do you say
that an object is moving or it is at rest? In this section we
consider this question.
Fig. 8.9 Objects in motion Fig. 8.10 Objects at rest
Let us consider the following examples.

Example (A). Fig. 8.11 (a), (b) and (c) show three positions
of a train. In position (a), the train is at rest with its
engine near the water tap on the platform. Then it starts
moving. After a while it reaches near the signboard of
the station [position (b)]. After a little more time the train
reaches the signal [position (c)]. This shows that the train
is changing its position with time.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8.11 (a), (b) and (c) show three positions of the train.
Example (B). After the school was over, Ravi was standing
near the gate of his school. Then he started pedalling his
cycle. He first reached the lamp post a few metres away
from the gate (Fig. 8.12). After some time he reached the
letter box, a little farther from the school. That means
Ravi changed his position from the school gate to the
lamp post and to the letter box with time.
SCHOOL
(a)

SCHOOL
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8.12 Ravi on his bicycle (a) near the school gate, (b) reaching
near the lamp post and (c) reaching near the letter box
You notice that in the above examples, the train and

Ravi are changing their positions from a fixed point with
time. In the case of the train the fixed point was the
position of the water tap on the platform. In the case of
Ravi, the fixed point was the school gate. Since the train
and Ravi are changing their positions with the passage of
time, we say that they are moving.
An object is said to be in motion when it changes its
position with time from a fixed point.
Check your progress

4. Give two examples of motion with which you are
familiar. Point out the fixed point in each case.
Do you know?
Since ancient times people have been moving around.
In those days people used to move only on foot or on
the back of some animals. Later they learnt to make
boats to move along water routes. With the invention
of wheel, vehicles were invented that moved on wheels.
Then trains driven by the steam engines have been
used. Then came automobiles, motorised ships and
motor boats. Aeroplanes, electric trains, space crafts
are 20th century contributions.
8.5 Types of Motion
Let us now look at some types of motion:
1. A cyclist moving on a straight road (Fig. 8.13).
Fig. 8.13 A cyclist moving on a straight road
2. A girl enjoying herself on a swing (Fig. 8.14).
Fig. 8.14 A girl on a swing
3. A few children on a merry-go-round (Fig. 8.15).
Fig. 8.15 A few children on a merry-go-round

The first case is an example of a motion in a straight
line. This type of motion is called rectilinear motion.
In the second case, the girl is moving to and fro. She
is repeating her position after a fixed interval of time. The
girl is said to be in a periodic motion.
The third case is an example of a circular motion,
which may also be periodic motion.
What You Have
Check your progress
Learnt
• For the sake 5. Give an example each of the following types of
of uniformity, motion:
scientists (i) Rectilinear
all over the (ii) Circular
world have
(iii) Periodic
accepted a set
of standard
units of Exercises
measurement. 1. How do we decide whether an object is in motion, or at
• The unit for rest?
measurement 2. Fill up the blanks:
of distance/
(a) If an object moves in a circle, its motion is called
length is metre
_______________ motion.
(m).
(b) Motion along a straight line is called _____________
• The change in motion.
the position of (c) An object repeats its motion after a fixed time. Such a
an object with motion is called ______________ motion.
time is called 3. State one more type of motion in addition to straight line
motion. motion which you observe in a bicycle moving along a
• Motion along straight road.
a straight 4. Consider following examples of motion and identify in
line is called each case the type of motion:
rectilinear (i) Motion of an athlete in a 100 metre race.
motion. (ii) Motion of a cricket ball along the ground.
• Motion along a (iii) Motion of second’s hand of a clock.
circle is called (iv) Motion of the string of an Ektara or Sitar.
circular motion.
5. Motion of the earth around the Sun is both circular and
• Motion that periodic. Explain.
repeats itself
after a fixed Answers to check your progress
period of 1. A standard unit of measurement is required for uniformity in
time is called measurement. It does not change from person to person or
periodic motion. place to place.
2. (i) (b) (ii) (c)
3. (i) 100
(ii) 1000
4. An example: A bus moving from its terminus, which could be
the fixed point. You can think of other examples.
5.
(i) Rectilinear motion: Train moving on a straight track.
(ii) Circular motion: A point on the blade of an electric fan,
wheel of a cycle.
(iii) Periodic motion: A rocking chair.
1. If there is a change in the position of an object with time from
a fixed point, we say that it is in motion. Otherwise the object
is at rest.
2. (a) If an object moves in a circle its motion is called circular
motion.
(b) Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.
(c) Motion that repeats itself after a fixed period of time is
called periodic motion.
3. The motion of the bicycle itself is rectilinear; the motion of its
wheel and pedal is circular.
4. (i) Rectilinear motion
(ii) Rectilinear motion
(iii) Circular and periodic motion
(iv) Periodic motion
5. Earth takes one year to revolve around the Sun and repeats its
motion after every one year. Therefore, its motion is periodic.
Since its path around the Sun is nearly circular, its motion is
circular.
Notes

Light
9
You must have seen shadows in the sunlight. The shade
of a tree under which you rest in summers is the shadow
of the tree. How are shadows formed and how do they
assume different shapes? You must have seen that the
shadow of an object formed by sunlight is not of the
same length throughout the day. They are longer in the
morning and in the evening, and shorter at noon. We
shall examine why shadows are not of the same length
during the day.
You must have also observed that there are some
objects which allow most of the light to pass through
them. Some other objects block most of the light, not
allowing it to pass through. We shall relate the passage
of light through an object to its ability to form shadows.
We will also investigate the conditions necessary for the
formation of shadows.
9.1 Transparent, Opaque and Translucent Objects

Activity 9.1
Collect as many objects around you as possible. Some
examples are given in Table 9.1. Look at a distant
object, such as a tree illuminated by the sun, through
each of these objects and record your observations as
shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Looking through objects
Object Could see through the object
(Clearly/Partially/Not at all)
Thin glass sheet Clearly
Notebook Not at all
Plastic scale Partially
Tracing Paper
Oiled Paper
Single sheet of paper
Glass tumbler
Objects through which we are

• able to see clearly are called transparent objects,
• able to see only partially are called translucent
objects, and
• not able to see at all are called opaque objects.
Modify Table 9.1 by adding another column (as shown
in Table 9.2). Write in the new column whether the object
in Column 1 is transparent/translucent/opaque. An
example is given in Table 9.2.
From your experience write down three examples each
of objects which are not in Table 9.2 but are transparent,
translucent and opaque.
Table 9.2
Object Could see through the Object is
object(clearly/Partially/ Transparent/
Not at all) Translucent/
opaque
Thin glass sheet Clearly Transparent
Notebook Not at all
Plastic scale Partially
Tracing Paper
Oiled Paper
Single sheet of
paper
Glass tumbler
Check your progress

1. Discuss the conditions under which air and water
may behave as transparent, translucent or opaque
materials.
2. A single thin sheet of plastic is transparent. Would
a bundle of such sheets be equally transparent?
Level II: Light 95

9.2 Formation of Shadows
You must be familiar with shadows. You must have often
played with them. Have you ever tried to step on the
shadow of your friend? Your friend might have moved
away to prevent you from doing so. Have you ever cast a
shadow of your hands which looks like an animal? If not,
try the following trick. Go to a room in which a bulb is
fixed on one wall. Stand near the opposite wall. Use only
one hand, arrange fingers in the way
shown in Fig. 9.1. Place it in the path
of light of the bulb. You can also use a
torch or a table lamp for this purpose.
Look at the shape of the shadow on the
wall. Can you recognise this animal? It
Fig. 9.1 The shadow looks like
looks like the head of a dog.
the head of a dog.
Now use both the hands, with fingers
arranged in the manner shown in Fig.
9.2. Place it in the path of the light as
before. Do you recognise this figure? It
is the familiar shape of a rabbit. You
can play many more tricks of this kind.
In fact, you can move your fingers
and make figures on the wall and do
a lot of things. For interesting video
clips of this kind, visit http://www.
Fig. 9.2 The shadow looks like
wimp.com/handshadows. But what are
a rabbit. shadows and how are they formed ? Let us
investigate.
Activity 9.2
Take a circular piece of wood, or any other opaque
object. Throw light on it with a torch as shown in Fig.
9.3. Place a screen on the other side of the object. The
screen could be a white wall, or a hanging piece of
white cloth. What do you find on the screen? There is a
dark circular patch on the screen where light has not
reached. This dark circular patch is the shadow of the
opaque object. How is the shadow formed? What does
the shadow represent? Shadow represents the absence
of light. The light does not reach the screen in a certain
region. This region is called the shadow. What could
have prevented the light from reaching the screen? The
only object that could have done this is the opaque piece
of wood. The circular shape of the shadow indicates
that the opaque wooden piece has not allowed light to
go through it and reach the screen. Fig. 9.3 explains
how the light is blocked by the opaque object.
Fig. 9.3 Shadow is the region on the screen from where the light has
been blocked
Now switch off the torch. Do you see any shadow

now? Switch on the torch once again, but now remove
the piece of wood. Do you see any shadow? Bring back
the wooden piece, but now remove the screen. Do you
still see the shadow? Does this activity tell you the
essential requirements for the formation of a shadow?
The essential requirements for obtaining a shadow

are:
1. a source of light,
2. an opaque object, and
3. the presence of a screen.
If any one of these conditions is not satisfied, then
shadow is not formed.
We have learnt that an opaque object, like the wooden
piece in Activity 9.2, does not allow us to see through
it. The reason that it does not allow us to see through
it is that it blocks the light falling on the object placed
on the other side. So, the presence of an opaque object
prevents the light to fall on the other object on its other
side (Fig. 9.4a). Or, if the light is falling on the other
object, the opaque object prevents the reflected light from
reaching our eyes (Fig. 9.4 b). The result in both cases is
that we cannot see anything through an opaque object.
Level II: Light 97

Fig. 9.4 (a) A ball placed on Fig. 9.4 (b) The light falling on
the other side of an opaque the ball and reflected by it is
object is not seen because the blocked by the opaque wooden
light of the torch is prevented piece. So we cannot see the
from falling on it ball.
Activity 9.3
In Activity 9.2, replace the piece of wood by a piece of
thin clear glass or plastic sheet (Fig. 9.5). Do you see any
clear shadow? If a clear shadow is absent, what could be
the reason? Is it the absence of an opaque object?
Replace the piece of glass with the piece of wood once
again. Does the shadow appear again? Yes, it does.
Shadow
Fig. 9.5 A transparent object allows the light to pass through it.
No light is blocked. Therefore, no clear shadow is formed.
Compare these observations with the observation of

Activity 9.2. Since a transparent object does not form a
shadow it means that a transparent object allows light
to pass through it. We said earlier that a transparent
object allows us to see through it. Therefore, we can
now say that a transparent object allows the light to
pass through it and, because of this reason, allows us
to see through it.
The most wonderful examples of shadows in nature are
the lunar and the solar eclipses (Figs. 9.6 and 9.7).
Before
eclipse
Total
solar
eclipse
Fig. 9.6 Series of photographs of the sun during a total solar eclipse.
Total
Eclipse
Moon
Eclipse
Fig. 9.7 Schematic diagram to show positions of sun, moon and earth at the
time of a solar eclipse. The shadow of the moon falling on the earth causes the
solar eclipse.(The sizes of the sun, moon and the earth and distances between
them are not to scale).
Check your progress

3. Suppose there is a lot of dust on the piece of glass
in Activity 9.3. Would a shadow be formed (you can
perform this activity and then answer). Discuss.
4. Suppose the screen in Activity 9.2 is removed.
Would you still see the shadow? Explain your
answer. Does the absence of the shadow imply that
the light is going through the opaque wooden piece?
9.3 Light Travels along Straight Lines

Does formation of shadows give any hint about how light
might be travelling (Figs. 9.3 to 9.5)? Let us investigate
the manner in which light travels.
When you switch on the light in a room, the light
appears to reach everywhere instantly, that is, without
Level II: Light 99

any delay. This could happen only if light travelled with
extremely high speed.
Activity 9.4
Take three identical pieces of cardboard. Make a hole
in each cardboard piece exactly at its centre. Fix the
pieces of cardboard on a flat surface like that of a table
with the help of plasticine or dough (Fig. 9.8). Make
sure that the three holes are at exactly the same height
from the table top.
Fig. 9.8 The path from the candle to the eye through the holes is a
straight line.
Adjust the three cardboard pieces by moving

sideways so that you can see the flame of a lighted
candle through the holes (Fig. 9. 8). What is the nature
of the path from your eye to the flame through the
holes? Is it a straight line? Since you can see the
flame it means that the light from the candle must be
travelling along this straight line path.
Fig. 9.9
Now move one of the cardboard pieces a little

upwards (Fig. 9.9). Can you see the flame now? Repeat
the same action with the remaining cardboards one by
one and try to see the flame. Can you see the flame?
You discover that you cannot see the flame if any

cardboard piece is disturbed. Can you think of a reason
why you cannot see the flame? Is there a straight line
path from the candle to your eye in this situation? No,
there is no such path. The straight line joining the flame
with the displaced hole ends at point P (Fig. 9.9). So, the
light travelling along this path does not reach your eye.
The light now stops at P. So, you cannot see the flame.
We conclude that only a straight line path up to the eye
allows us to see the flame. This means that light must be
travelling in straight lines. This is known as rectilinear
propagation of light.
To confirm that light travels in straight lines, let us
perform another simple activity.
Activity 9.5
Roll a sheet of paper to make a narrow tube. Through
the tube try to see a light bulb or the flame of a burning
candle (Fig. 9.10). When you see the flame, without
disturbing yourself or the candle, bend the paper
tube a little. Can you see the flame now?
Does the straight tube provide a straight path from
the flame to the eye? Yes. Does the bent tube provide
Fig. 9.10. When the paper tube is straight, you can see the flame.
When it is bent, you cannot see it.
a straight path from the flame to the eye? The flame

is not visible through the bent tube. Not being able to
see the flame through a bent tube should convince you
that light travels in straight lines.
Check your progress

5. In Activity 9.4, suppose one piece of the cardboard
is displaced sideways, rather than upwards. Would
you be able to see the flame? Give reason.
Level II: Light 101

6. Show the shadow of the cutout like sign on the
screen (Fig. 9.11).
Hint: Extend the rays falling at each point of the sign
to the screen.
Fig. 9.11
7. Suppose a friend of yours stands in the Sun. Join

the top of the head of shadow with head of the friend
with a straight stick (Fig. 9.12). In which direction
would the stick point?
Fig. 9.12. A straight stick joining the head of the shadow with the
head of the person.
9.4 Reflection of Light from

Plane Surfaces
When a ray of light falls on a
Reflected
Reflected Incident
Incident polished surface, part of it is sent
light light light back, but in a different direction.
Such a change in the path of
light caused by a surface is called
reflection. The light that falls on
Mirror
Mirror the surface is called incident light
and the light that gets reflected is
Fig. 9.13 Part of the light incident on a called the reflected light (Fig. 9.13).
surface gets reflected form it. When you look in a mirror or any
other polished surface, the image that you see is caused
by reflection. Let us explore it.
Activity 9.6
Ask a few of your friends to
stand at different positions in
a dark room. Ask one of them
to hold a mirror (Fig. 9.14).
Light a torch and direct its
beam on the mirror. Do you
see a patch of light reflected
from the mirror? Ask your
friend holding the mirror to
slightly turn it. You see that
the direction of the patch
of light also changes. By
adjusting the position of the
mirror you can let reflected
light to fall on your friends Fig. 9.14 A mirror reflects a beam of
one by one. light incident on it.
Activity 9.7
Take a large thermocol sheet
and cover it with a sheet of
black paper. Fix a comb on
one edge of the sheet and fix a
mirror on the sheet as shown
(Fig. 9.15). Send a beam of
light from a torch through the
comb. You will see a pattern
of dark and bright lines on the
sheet. Change the direction of
the torch and observe what
happens to the pattern. Does
Fig. 9.15 Light travelling in straight
it change? Move the torch to lines and getting reflected from a
either side and see how the mirror.
pattern changes.
Check your progress

8. In Activity 9.6, could you hold the mirror steady and
throw the spot of light on your friends by adjusting
the direction of the torch?
Level II: Light 103

9. In Activity 9.7, suppose you hold the torch steady
in one position. Could you bring about changes in
the pattern by other means? Explain.
What You Have
Learnt Exercises
• Objects through 1. A drop of oil falls accidentally on a sheet of paper. Will
which we can that part of the paper allow you to see through it? What
see are called are such objects called?
transparent 2. A cup contains a little water. A coin placed at the bottom
objects. They of the cup is clearly visible. If we add a little milk to
allow the light water, will the coin be visible? Discuss.
to pass through 3. State conditions necessary for obtaining a shadow.
them. 4. A bird sitting on an electric wire high above the ground
• Objects through does not cast a shadow on the ground, while a bird on
which we can the ground or flying low casts a shadow. Explain.
see partially (or 5. At what time of the day is your shadow in the Sun the
not very clearly) shortest? When is your shadow the longest? Explain.
are called 6. Apart from the plane mirror, give two examples of
translucent surfaces in which you can see your image.
objects. They 7. Fill in the blanks:
allow only a (i) An object which allows light to pass through it is
part of light to called __________.
pass through (ii) An object which prevents light from passing through
them. it is called __________.
• Objects through (iii) An object which allows part of the light to pass
which we through it is called _________.
cannot see at 8. Explain the terms incident light and reflected light with
all are called the help of a diagram.
opaque objects. 9. Choose the correct statements:
They do not (i) An opaque object allows us to see through it.
allow light to (ii) A screen is necessary for obtaining a shadow.
pass through (iii) Shadows formed by sunlight are the longest at noon.
them. (iv) The light falling on a surface is incident light.
• A shadow is (v) Luminous objects do not emit their own light.
formed when 10. Suppose the source of light and the screen are fixed.
light from What would happen to the size of the shadow if the
a source is opaque object moves towards the source of light?
blocked by an
opaque object. Answers to check your progress
• No shadow is 1. If air and water are clear, they are transparent. If air carries
formed by a moderate dust and water is moderately muddy, they are
transparent translucent. If air carries heavy amount of dust, as sometimes
during a dust storm, then it could be opaque. Similarly, if
object. water contains a lot of mud, it could also be opaque.
2. A single thin sheet of plastic is quite transparent. A few sheets
together could be translucent. However, a thick stack of sheets
containing a large number of sheets is opaque.
3. If there is a little dust on the piece of glass, then the shadow
will be formed but it would be faint. If, however, there is a lot
of dust on the piece of glass, then it would be nearly opaque
and a slightly darker shadow will be formed.
4. If there is no screen, no shadow is formed. Presence of a screen
is an essential condition for the formation of a shadow. The
absence of shadow in this case does not mean that the light is
going through the opaque wooden piece.
5. No. In Activity 9.4, if one of the cards is displaced sideways,
you would not be able to see the flame because path from your
eye to the flame will no longer be a straight line.
6. The shadow is shown in Fig. 9.16.
What You Have

Learnt
• The conditions
necessary for
a shadow to
Fig. 9.16 form are: (a)
There must be a
7. The stick will point towards the sun. source of light,
8. Yes. Adjusting the direction of the torch has the same effect as (b) There must
the adjustment of the direction of the mirror.
be an opaque
9 Yes, by moving about the comb or the mirror, or by moving the
thermocol piece on which the mirror is fixed. These have the object, and (c)
same effect as moving the torch. There must be a
screen on which
Answers to Exercises shadow is to be
1. The spot on the sheet of paper where the oil falls, can allow formed.
you to see things through, though not very clearly. Such an
object is called translucent. • In the absence
2. If you add just a few drops of milk, the coin will become less of any one
clearly visible. Water becomes translucent. If a few spoons of of these, the
milk is added, the water may become opaque and the coin may shadow cannot
not be seen. be formed.
3. The conditions necessary for obtaining a shadow are (i) the
presence of a source of light, (ii) the presence of an opaque Light travels in
object, and (iii) the presence of a screen. straight lines.
4. For the bird flying low, the ground acts as screen and a shadow • When light falls
can be seen. However, when the bird is sitting on electric on a surface, it
wires, the ground is too far to act as a screen. So, no shadow
gets reflected.
is seen.
Level II: Light 105

5. The shadow is shortest when the Sun is overhead. The shadows
are longer in the morning and evening.
Noonhigh
Noon sun, sun,inhigh in the
the sky, Morning(evening)
Morning (evening)sun,
sun,low
low
sky, shorter
shorter shadow shadow in the sky, longer shadow
in the sky, longer shadow
Shadows (a) at noon, and in (b) the morning (evening)
Shadows
6. Surface (a) at
of clear noon
water and
and anyinhighly
(b) the morning
polished (evening)
surface, and
such as at noon
that of table top or a marble floor.
7. (i) An object which allows light to pass through it is
called transparent.
(ii) An object which prevents light from passing through it is
called opaque.
(iii) An object which allows part of the light to pass through it
is called translucent.
8. Incident and reflected rays are shown in Fig. 9.17.
Reflected
Incident
light
light
Mirro
Fig. 9.17
9. Statements (ii) and (iv) are correct.

Statements (i), (iii) and (v) are incorrect.
10. The size of the shadow increases as the object comes nearer
the source of light (Fig. 9.18).
Fig. 9.18
Electricity and
Effect of Electric
Current
10
You get electricity at home. It comes through the electric
wires connected with electric poles on the street. Does
electricity need a path to flow? You might have used a
torch or a mobile phone. Where do they get electricity
from?
In this chapter we shall learn about making a simple
electric circuit using a torch bulb and an electric cell.
10.1 Making an Electric Circuit

Activity 10.1
Make a Switch
Insert a drawing pin into the ring of a safety pin and
fix it on a cardboard sheet as shown in Fig. 10.1 a.
Make sure that the sefety pin can be rotated freely.
Now fix another drawing pin on the cardboard sheet
in such a way that the free end of the safety pin can
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.1 (a) A simple switch (b) A switch in the ‘on’ position
touch it. This safety pin can be used to make or break

contact between the two drawing pins (Fig 10.1 b). This
arrangement can be used as a switch.
Activity 10.2
Connect a torch bulb with a cell and a switch as shown
in Fig. 10.2 (a). Touch the free end of the safety pin
with the drawing pin. Observe if the bulb glows. Now
remove the free end of the safety pin away from the
drawing pin. Observe if the bulb still glows. You will
find that the bulb glows when the free end of the safety
pin touches the drawing pin as shown in Fig. 10.2 a.
We say that the switch is closed.
Cell
Bulb
Connecting
Safety wire
pin
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.2(a) An electric circuit connecting a cell with a bulb and a
switch (b) An electric circuit with a switch in the off position
When the free end of the safety pin does not touch
the drawing pin, the bulb does not glow (Fig. 10.2 b). In
this position the switch is said to be open.
Switch is a simple device that is used to either break

the electric circuit or to complete it.
Where does the bulb get electricity from when it glows?
Is it from the electric cell? How does the electric cell
produce electricity? It produces electricity from the
chemicals stored inside it. When the chemicals in the
cell are used up the cell stops working.
Now observe the cell in Fig. 10.3 carefully. How many
terminals are there? Identify them. One is marked as
positive terminal and the other is marked as negative
terminal. In a circuit the current flows from the positive
terminal of the cell to its negative
terminal.
In an electric circuit the direction
of current is taken to be from the
Fig. 10.3: Terminals of an
positive to the negative terminal of
electric cell the electric cell.
10.2 An Electric Bulb
Activity 10.3
Observe the inside of Filament
an electric bulb when
it is glowing. You see a
coil of the wire which is
giving light. This coil is
known as the filament of
the bulb. Note that the
filament is fixed by two
thick wires. These thick
wires provide support Terminals
to the filament and are (a) (b)
connected to the two
Fig 10.4: (a) Torch bulb and
terminals of the bulb as
(b) its inside view
shown in Fig. 10.4.
10.3 Insulators and Conductors

Activity 10.4
Make again the circuit of Activity 10.2. Remove the
switch from this circuit. Now the two ends of the wires
are free. Place different materials like safety pin, eraser,
scale, pencil, glass bangle, matchstick, etc between the
two ends of the wires. The ends of the wires should be
touching the object.
Note down your observations in Table. 10.1. Does
the bulb glow in all the situations?
Table 10.1
Object used in Object is made of Bulb glows (Y/N)
place of switch
Safety pin Metal __________
Eraser Rubber N
__________ __________
__________ __________
When the bulb glows, it means that the material

between the free ends of the wire is allowing the
electicity to pass through it. Such a material is called a
conductor of electricity. When the bulb does not glow,
the material is not allowing electricity to pass through
it. Such materials are called insulators.
Level II: Electricity And Effect of Electric Current 109

We find that materials which allow electricity to pass
through them are conductors of electricity. Materials
which do not allow electricity to pass through them are
insulators. Electrical wires are made of conductors.
Coverings of wires and plug tops are made of insulators.
Exercises
1. What is the function of a switch in an electric circuit?
2. A student has made a circuit as shown in Fig. 10.2 but
the bulb does not glow. How can you help him to find the
What You Have possible reason for it?
Learnt 3. Observe Fig. 10.5. Will the bulb glow? Justify your
• We can make a answer.
simple switch
which can be
Cell
used either Bulb
to break the
electric circuit or
to complete it. Switch
• An electric
cell produces
electricity from Fig 10.5
the chemicals
4. Draw the circuit of Fig. 10.5 in your notebook and mark
stored inside it.
the direction of electric current in it.
• An electric
5. By performing Activity 10.4, identify two conductors and
bulb has two
two insulators in your kitchen.
terminals.
• We can make Answers to Exercises
an electric 1. The function of a switch is to either break a circuit or to
circuit using a complete it.
bulb, a cell and 2. (i) By checking that the cell, the bulb and the switch
a switch. are connected properly.
(ii) By changing the bulb. (The bulb might have fused).
• Materials that (iii) By changing the cell. (The cell might have weakened).
allow electric 3. Yes. The bulb and the cell are connected together and there is
current to pass a path for the flow of electricity.
through them 4. Direction of current is from the positive terminal of the cell to
the bulb, from bulb to switch and from switch to the negative
are called
terminal of the cell.
conductors.
• Materials that Cell
Bulb
do not allow
electric current Switch
to pass through
them are called
insulators.
5. Hint: Perform the activity and identify the suitable materials.
Fun with
Magnets 11
You might have seen people separating and collecting
things made of iron from a heap of junk. You might have
also seen shopkeepers testing the stainless steel utensils
with a certain object. Do you know what this object is?
This object is a magnet.
In this chapter we shall study about magnets and
their properties. A magnet attracts things made of iron. It
does not attract things made of materials such as plastic,
wood, stainless steel (Fig. 11.1).
Iron pins
Iron pins
Nail
Scissors (a)
Plastic
Wood
Stainless steel
spoon
(b)
Fig: 11.1 (a) Magnet attracts objects made of iron
(b) Magnet does not attract objects made of plastic, wood and
stainless steel.
11.1 Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials
Activity 11.1
Take a magnet and fix it at the end of a stick with the
help of a rubber band. Bring the stick near various
objects around you. Observe which objects get stuck to
the magnet. Record your observations in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1
Name of Attracted Material of which the object
the object by magnet is made of (cloth/plastic/
aluminium/wood/glass/iron
(Yes/No)
any other)
Scale No Plastic
Shoes
Nails
Paper
Pins
Soil
Pencil
Screw driver
Handkerchief
Socks
_________
_________
What did you observe? Do all objects get attracted to

the magnet? Identify the material of the objects which
are attracted to the magnet. Which materials were not
attracted to the magnet? The materials that are attracted
by the magnet are called magnetic materials. Materials
that are not attracted by the magnet are non-magnetic
materials. Make separate lists of magnetic and non
magnetic materials from the observations in Table 11.1.
Magnetic materials: _________
Non-magnetic materials: _________
11.2 Poles of a Magnet
Activity 11.2
Spread some iron filings (or iron
dust) on a sheet of paper. Bring a
bar magnet near it. Observe what
happens. Do you find that more iron
filings are attracted towards the
ends of the bar magnet (Fig.11.2)?
The regions where larger amounts Fig. 11.2 Iron filings sticking to
a bar magnet
of iron filings get stuck are called
the poles of the magnet.
11.3 A Freely Suspended Bar Magnet Always

Comes to Rest in the Same Direction
Activity 11.3
Make a mark on one end of
a bar magnet with a chalk.
Tie a thread at the middle
of the magnet. Hang the bar
magnet freely as shown (Fig.
11.3). Does the magnet come
to rest after some time? Mark
two points on the ground to
indicate the positions of the
ends of the magnet when it
comes to rest. Draw a line to
join these two points. Move
one end of the bar magnet to
one side and let it go. Allow Fig. 11.3 A freely suspended
the bar magnet to come to bar magnet always comes to
rest in the same direction
rest. In which direction does
the magnet point now? Repeat the activity once again
moving the end of the magnet to the other side. Do
you find that the magnet always comes to rest with the
marked end pointing in the same direction?
We observe that a freely suspended bar magnet
always comes to rest in a particular direction. This is
the North-South direction. The end of the magnet that
points towards North is called its North Pole(N). The
other end that points towards the South is called the
South Pole(S).
Level II: Fun with Magnets 113

We can make use of this Magnetic needle
property of a magnet. In older
days, travellers used to find
direction by suspending a
magnet. Later on, a device was
developed to find directions
using a magnet. It is called
the compass or magnetic
compass (Fig. 11.4). Magnetic
compass is essentially a
small magnetic needle which
can rotate freely. The needle
always points towards the Fig. 11.4 A magnetic
north-south direction. compass
Check your progress

1. Draw a line indicating north-south direction at your
place. How will you confirm it?
Let us now see what happens when a magnet is brought

near another magnet.
Activity 11.4
Take a pair of bar magnets. Place the longer side of one
of the magnets over three cylindrical pencils as shown in
Fig. 11.5. Call this magnet A. Now bring one end of the
other magnet, called B, near
the end of magnet A. Make
sure that the two magnets
do not touch each other.
Observe what happens.
Next, bring the other end of
the magnet B near the same
end of the magnet A. Note
what happens to the magnet
A every time magnet B is
brought near it.
You must have noticed Fig. 11.5 Observing attraction
that the North pole of a and repulsion between two
magnet repels the North pole magnets
of another magnet and attracts South pole of the other
magnet. Thus, like poles of a magnet repel each
other and unlike poles attract each other.
Check your progress What You Have
2. You are given a magnet with its poles marked. How Learnt
would you mark the poles of another magnet with • Materials that
its help? are attracted to
a magnet are
called magnetic
Exercises materials.
1. How will you distinguish a magnetic material from a • Materials
non-magnetic material? that are not
2. Fix bar magnets over two small plastic toy cars as attracted to
shown in Fig. 11.6. Bring them close and then let a magnet are
them go. Observe what happens. Repeat the activity by non-magnetic
bringing different poles close to each other. Explain your
materials.
observations.
• The regions
of a magnet
where large
amount of
filings are
attracted are
Fig. 11.6 called the poles
of the magnet.
3. How can you locate the poles of a bar magnet?
• A freely
Answers to check your progress suspended bar
1. This can be done by freely suspending a bar magnet at that magnet comes
place. The bar magnet would come to rest in north-south
direction. Compare this direction with the direction you have to rest always
drawn earlier. in the N-S
2. You can use the conclusion of Activity 11.4 that the like poles direction.
repel each other and unlike poles attract each other. • The needle of
Answers to Exercises a magnetic
1. We can distinguish a material by bringing it near or in contact compass
with a magnet. If it is attracted towards the magnet, it is a
magnetic material. If it is not attracted, it is non-magnetic
always
material. points in N-S
2. Cars will move towards each other if the opposite poles of direction.
the two magnets face each other. The cars will move away if • There can
similar poles of magnet face each other. be attraction
3. One way is to use Activity 11.2.
or repulsion
Notes between two
magnets
depending
on which two
poles of the
magnets face
each other.
Level II: Fun with Magnets 115

Water
12
From the space the earth
appears blue because 2/3
part of it is covered with
water (Fig. 12.1). Have you
ever thought that if so much
of water is present on the
earth then why do we face
shortage of water. Most of the
water on the earth is present
in the seas and oceans. Have
you ever tasted this water? Fig 12.1 This is how earth
We cannot drink this water appears from space
or use it for any other domestic purpose directly because
it is saline. We generally use water from rivers, ponds,
lakes and underground sources. The water available on
earth for our use is very less. Water is a precious resource
and we must conserve it and consume it judiciously.
12.1 How Much Water do we Use?

We use water in our daily life in various ways. Apart from
drinking, there are many other purposes for which we
need water. Perform the following activity to find out how
much water is used by you and your family members in
a day.
Activity 12.1
Purposes for which you use water in a day are given in
Table 12.1. Measure and write the amount of water used
by you and your family members. You may measure
this amount of water using a glass, mug, bucket or any
other container which is available to you.
Table 12.1–Water used by you and your family members in a day
Purposes Amount of water used
Drinking
Brushing
Bathing
Washing utensils
Washing clothes
Toilet
Cleaning floor
Any other
Total water used in a day by
the family
From this activity you can calculate the amount of

water consumed by you and your family. Do you think
that our requirement of water is limited to purposes
mentioned above in Table 12.1? A lot of water is also
used in agriculture and in industries.
You must be thinking that when we use so much of
water daily and it becomes unfit for further use, then
how the continuous supply of useable water is maintained.
You will be surprised to know that nature does this job
for us. It does so through water cycle. You will learn
about it in the next section.
Check your progress
1. Name two water bodies which contain most of the
water on earth.
2. How much water do you consume for drinking in a
day?
12.2 How does Water Change into Water

Vapour?
Due to the heat of the Sun and hot air, the water
evaporates from all water bodies. The water vapour so
formed becomes a part of the air. To understand this let
us perform the following activity.
Activity 12.2
Take two wet handkerchiefs. Put one of them under
Sun and another in the shade. Which of them dries off
faster? You will observe that the handkerchief in the
sunlight dries faster.
Level II: Water 117

Let us try to find out whether there is any other process
which contributes to water vapour in the air.
For this, let us perform the following activity.
Activity 12.3
Take a few fresh healthy green
leaves of a plant and put them
in a transparent polythene bag.
Tie the bag tightly as shown in
Fig.12.2. Observe this after 3-4
hours. What do you observe on
the inner wall of the polythene
bag?
You will observe water droplets Fig 12.2 Transpiration by
leaves
in the polythene bag.
Plants also contribute a lot in increasing the water vapour

in the air through a process called transpiration. In this
process water comes out of leaves in the form of vapour.
This water vapour condenses to form water droplets, as
observed in the polythene bag.
Check your progress
3. Name two important processes responsible for the
presence of water vapour in the air.
12.3 How does Water Vapour Change into Water?

Perform the following activity to get the answer to this
question.
Activity 12.4
Take a glass half filled with water and add few pieces
of ice into it (Fig. 12.3). Keep
it on the table for 10 to 15
minutes. Observe the outer
wall of the glass carefully. You
will find that water droplets
appear on outer surface of
the glass. From where have
these water droplets come?
The cold surface of the Fig. 12.3 Droplets of water
glass cools the air around it. appear on the outer surface of
The water vapour in the air the glass
also gets cooled and condenses on the outer wall of the
glass and appears as water droplets.
As the air moves up, it gets cooled and the water

vapour in the air condenses in the same manner as it
condenses on the cold surface
of the glass. This process is
called condensation. The
tiny water droplets, formed
due to condensation, remain
floating in the air and appear
to us as clouds (Fig. 12.4).
The processes of evaporation
Fig 12.4 Clouds
and condensation play an
important role in cloud formation. Some of the droplets of
water in the air combine to form water drops and become
so heavy that they fall down on the earth as rain. You
might have seen or heard that at very cold places like
Srinagar, sometimes the snow falls instead of rain. Can
you guess why?
At very cold places, the temperature is quite low and
as such water vapour is directly converted into solid
form, called snow. If the temperature is very low, then
rain drops solidify and fall on earth as hails.
12.4 Water Cycle

Most of the water from the rain flows into
the water bodies like seas and oceans.
Some of the water seeps into the ground.
This is called ground water. The water
from the seas, oceans and from the surface
of the earth goes into air as water vapour
and returns as rain, hail and snow and
finally goes back to the seas and oceans.
This circulation of water in nature is Fig 12.5 Water cycle
known as the water cycle (Fig. 12.5)
12.5 What Happens if it Rains Heavily or it does

not Rain for a Long Time?
Some times it rains very heavily(Fig. 12.6). The rain water
gushes into the nearby rivers and drains along with fertile
soil of the earth. The water, spreads over large area and
causes flood (Fig. 12.7).
Level II: Water 119

Fig 12.6 A scene from heavy rains
Fig 12.7 A scene of a flooded area
On the other
hand, in some of the
places it does not
rain at all for a long
time which causes
drought (Fig. 12.8).
The ground water
may become scarce.
It becomes difficult
to get food and
fodder. Both flood
and draught cause
Fig 12.8 A Scene of a drought extensive damage to
the human kind.
Check your progress
4. List out some problems caused by (a) flood and
(b) drought .
5. How do the clouds form?
12.6 Rain Water Harvesting
You must have felt the shortage of water in your village or
town especially during summer. With rising population,
the demand of water is increasing day by day. Due to
continuous use of water, the level of
ground water is decreasing. A lot of
water is wasted during rainy season
as it flows into drains, ponds and
other water bodies. We can harvest
this rain water. The rain water
falling on the roof top is collected
in a covered storage tank using a
pipe (Fig. 12.9). This water can be
used for certain purposes later. This
method of collecting rain water is
called Rain Water Harvesting. Fig 12.9 Rooftop rain water harvesting
Exercises
(a) The process of changing water into its vapour is called
____________.
(b) The process of changing water vapour into water is
called ____________.
(c) No rainfall for many years in a region will result in
___________.
(d) Excess rainfall may cause ___________.
2. Which of the following statements are true?
(a) The evaporation of water takes place faster in the
presence of sunlight.
(b) There is water vapour present in air.
(c) The water in rivers is saline.
(d) Till the water droplets are not heavy, it does not rain.
3. To clean the spectacles, people often breathe out on the
glasses to make it wet. Explain why glasses get wet.
4. How are clouds formed?
5. What is ground water?
6. How can water be conserved?

1. Seas and Oceans
2. The answer may differ from person to person.
3. Evaporation and transpiration
4. (a) Problems caused by flood:
(i) Villages, cities, etc. are submerged in water.
(ii) The crop is damaged.
Level II: Water 121

(iii) Humans and animals may die.
(b) Problems caused by drought:
(i) The ground water will be scarce and there will be no
water to drink and for other activities.
(ii) No food for human and no fodder for animals.
5. Due to evaporation and transpiration, there is plenty of water
vapour in the air. When the temperature is low these water
vapour condenses to form water droplets, which together form
clouds.
1. (a) The process of changing water into its vapour is called
evaporation.
(b) The process of changing water vapour into water is called
condensation.
(c) No rainfall for many years in a region will result in drought.
(d) Excess rainfall may cause flood.
2. (a) True
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True
3. The water vapour which come out of mouth get condensed on
the glasses of spectacles and make them wet.
What You Have 4. When water is evaporated from different water bodies and
also through transpiration from leaves, the water vapour are
Learnt formed. They rise up in air. At a height where temperature is
• Evaporation and low, the vapour are cooled and condense to form small water
transpiration are droplets. This is called cloud.
responsible for 5. The water which seeps into the ground during rain or from
the presence of water bodies is called ground water.
6. The water should not be wasted in various activities. We must
water vapour in preserve rain water by rain water harvesting. Water should
air. not be used for pleasure activities such as in water parks, in
• The water washing cars and houses, etc.
available under
the ground can Notes
also be used by
us.
• Too much
rainfall causes
flood.
• Too little rainfall
causes drought.
• We should
conserve water
and the rain
water harvesting
should be
encouraged.
Air
13
We see many things around us. There are people, animals,
birds, butterflies, insects, flowers, trees and many more
things. There are many things to eat like fruits, vegetables,
foodgrains etc. There are many things to drink like water,
milk, tea, butter-milk, sharbat, etc. All these are useful
for us, but there are few most essential things without
which the living beings, including humans, cannot
survive. These are food, water and air. We obtain many
food materials from various sources such as plants and
animals. There are many sources such as tap, well, pond,
lake, river, spring, etc., which provide water for our use.
But where is air?
We breathe in air for respiration. If we
stop breathing, we will not survive.
It is the air which we inhale during
respiration which keeps us alive. You
must have played with firki many a
times (Fig. 13.1). When you move it
a little back and forth, it rotates. It is
the moving air which makes it rotate.
A flag also waves or flutters due to Fig. 13.1 Firki
moving air called wind.
You must have seen or
heard about dust storms.
They are created due to
strong winds. These are
quite common in desert
areas, especially in summer
season. In the morning or
evening, outside the house,
in a garden or on a beach,
the slow moving air gives a Fig. 13.2 Sail boats
very soothing and pleasant
feeling to our body. This slow moving air is called breeze.
Wind moves the sail boats
(Fig. 13.2) in the lake, river or
sea. Wind moves the blades of a
windmill (Fig. 13.3), which can
be used to draw water from the
ground or produce electricity.
It has been observed that in
the absence of air things do not
catch fire. Thus, air is essential
for burning, e.g., burning of fuel
in motor vehicles, in kitchens, in
industries, etc. Now can you think
of a world without air? Fig. 13.3 Windmill
Like sunlight and water, air is also a natural resource.
It is available in huge amount in nature. Air is not going
to finish as some other natural resources like minerals,
coal and petroleum. In this chapter you will learn more
about air. You may be required to do some activities
yourself or with the help of your teacher to understand
various aspects of air.
13.1 We Cannot See Air but can Feel its

Presence
Let us observe the following :
1. While sitting in a room, switch on the fan. What do
you feel? Something is touching your face, your body,
but you cannot see it.
2. Go out of your room and see a tree. Do you find that
its leaves and branches are swaying? If the leaves
and branches are swaying, why is it so?
3. Look at the clothes on a
clothesline (Fig. 13.4). Are
they swaying?
It is the air around us
which moves fast when the fan
in the room is on and we feel it
on our body. It is the moving
air which makes the leaves,
branches and clothes sway.
Thus, we can feel the presence
Fig. 13.4: Clothes fluttering on clothes-line of air, though we cannot see it.
13.2 Is Air Present at Places which Look
Empty?
Let us perform an activity.
Activity 13.1
• Take an empty plastic or glass bottle. Is it really
empty or contains something in it?
• Let us find out whether it is true or false.
• Turn it upside down. Nothing comes out from it.
• Dip the open mouth of the bottle inside water placed
in a bucket, keeping the bottle in vertical position
(Fig. 13.5 a). Do you find any water entering the
bottle? No, water does not enter the bottle.
• Now tilt the bottle and observe (Fig.13.5 b). You will
see bubbles coming out of the bottle and water now
entering inside the bottle.
Fig. 13.5 (a) Empty bottle in Fig. 13.5 (b) Empty bottle in
vertical position inside water tilted position inside water
• Can you guess what formed the bubbles?
From this activity, we can infer that the bottle was not
empty. It contained air, which formed bubbles when it
came out from the bottle, thus making a place for water
to enter in the bottle. Therefore, we can say that all the
places which look empty, in fact, contain air.
Our earth is surrounded by a layer of air. This layer
extends up to many kilometres above the surface of the
earth and is called atmosphere.
Check your progress

1. What makes a flag sway or flutter?
2. A glass is half filled with water. Does it contain
anything in the other half? Name it.
3. What is atmosphere?
Level II: Air 125

13.3 Air is a Mixture of Gases
Let us do the following activities to understand it.
Activity 13.2
Take a glass of water and add few
pieces of ice into it (Fig. 13.6). Keep it
in air for 10 to 15 minutes. Observe
the outer wall of the glass carefully.
You will find that water droplets
appear on outer surface of the
glass. From where have these water
droplets come? The cold surface of
the glass cools the air around it. The
water vapour in the air also get cooled Fig. 13.6 Droplets of water
and condense on the outer wall of the appear on the outer surface
of the glass
glass and appear as water droplets.
Activity 13.3
Light a candle on a table. Now
cover it with a glass tumbler.
What do you observe? The
flame of the candle blows off
within seconds (Fig. 13.7). This
clearly shows that air helps in
burning of the substances. It
is further investigated that the
oxygen gas, which is present
in air, helps in the burning of
the substances. Major part of
air is the nitrogen gas. Fig. 13.7 Candle blows off
Activity 13.4
Visit a place in your locality where people often burn dry
leaves. How do you feel there? You feel suffocated from it.
This is because burning of substances produces gases,
mostly, carbon dioxide. This gas is also a component of
air which is continuously absorbed by plants to prepare
their food by the process of photosynthesis. In air the
amount of carbon dioxide (0.03%) is very less and it
does give the feeling of suffocation. Remember that
burning of dry leaves is not advisable as this creates
air pollution.
Activity 13.5
If sunlight is reaching
your classroom through
the door or window,
keep this open just a
little and close all the
other openings. What
do you observe in that
beam of light? You may
see a large number of
particles floating in air,
which are dust particles Fig. 13.8 Observing presence of dust
(Fig.13.8). particles in air with sunlight
Thus, we find air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen,

carbon dioxide, water vapour and a few other gases,
Often dust particles are also present in it.
13.4 Air is Present in Soil as Well as in Water

Let us do the following activities to understand this.
Activity 13.6
Take a lump of dry soil in a
beaker or a glass tumbler.
Pour some water, so that the
lump is completely submerged
in it (Fig.13.9). What do you
observe? Some bubbles appear
in water. These bubbles
indicate the presence of air
in the soil. The bubbles are
formed as the water replaces Fig. 13.9 Air present in soil.
air form the soil.
Activity 13.7
Heat water in a container for a
few minutes. You will observe
tiny bubbles of air formed on the
inner surface of the container
(Fig.13.10). This clearly shows
that there is dissolved air in Fig. 13.10 Air present
water. in water
Level II: Air 127

What You Have Thus, air is present in the pores of soil and is also
Learnt present in dissolved form in water. The organisms which
• Living beings live in soil, get oxygen for respiration from the air present
cannot survive in the pores of the soil. Similarly organisms which live in
without food, water take oxygen for respiration from the air dissolved
water and air. in water.
• We inhale
air during Check your progress
respiration 4. What will happen if no dissolved air is left in natural
which keeps us water?
alive. 5. What is the use of air present in soil?
• Like sunlight
and water,
air is also 13.5 Is Air Clean Everywhere?
a natural
• You may visit a place where people burn wood, coal
resource and
or dung-cake to cook food. The smoke and gases
is available in
huge amount in formed certainly pollute air.
nature. • If there is a factory in your area, you can observe
• We cannot smoke coming out of the chimney, day and night and
see air but we polluting air.
can feel its • You might have observed various types of vehicles
presence. emitting smoke and gases in the air. These gases
• Air is present contain carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of
at all places nitrogen, etc.
around us, even • You might have also observed at many places that
at those places garbage is burnt instead of disposing it at a proper
which look
place. This creates a serious air pollution in the
empty.
locality.
• The layer of air
surrounding There are large numbers of human activities which
earth forms are responsible for creating air pollution. Thus, at many
earth’s places we find that the air we breathe in, is not clean.
atmosphere. Such air is not good for our health.
• Air is a mixture Efforts should be made by all of us to reduce and
of gases.
control not only air pollution, but all kinds of pollution.
It contains
nitrogen,
Check your progress
oxygen, carbon
dioxide and 6. In winters, some people burn old rubber tyre to get
other gases heat. Do you think it will create air pollution? How?
including water 7. Suggest any two ways to reduce air pollution.
vapour.
Exercises
1. We will not survive if we stop :
(a) drinking milk (b) eating vegetables
(c) breathing (d) swimming
2. Out of the following, which natural resource is not likely
to finish in future?
(a) Petroleum (b) Coal
(c) Minerals (d) Air
3. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.
(i) _________________ makes the leaves of a plant sway.
(ii) An empty looking bottle, in fact, is not empty, it
contains a mixture of ________________
(iii) Burning of a rubber tyre produces _________________
pollution.
4. Find out the incorrect statements out of the following
and write them in their correct form.
(a) Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen.
(b) The envelope of air around the earth is called
atmosphere.
(c) Like water, air also flows from higher level to lower
level.
(d) Air occupies space.
Answers to check your progress What You Have

1. Moving air/wind makes a flag to sway or flutter. Learnt
2. Yes, it contains something in the other half. It is air. • Air is present
3. A layer of air around earth is known as atmosphere.
4. The life under water will be destroyed.
in soil and
5. It helps in the survival of small organisms present in soil as also in water.
well as in the respiration by the roots of the plants. This helps the
6. Yes, burning of old rubber tyre creates serious air pollution by organisms to
emitting harmful gases and bad smell. live in soil and
7. Air pollution can be reduced by
(i) reducing the use of automobiles.
water.
(ii) avoiding the burning of waste material, like dry leaves, • Air gets
polythene bags, etc. polluted due to
mixing of some
gases, smoke
1. (c)
particles, dust
2. (d)
3. (i) Wind makes the leaves of a plant sway. particles, etc.
(ii) An empty looking bottle, in fact, is not empty, it contains • Efforts should
a mixture of gases. be made to
(iii) Burning of a rubber tyre produces air pollution. reduce and
4. (a) Air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
water vapour and few other gases.
control air
(c) Unlike water, air can flow in any direction. pollution.
Level II: Air 129

Garbage
14
Where ever we live we find garbage around us. Earlier,
garbage was not a problem, may be due to its less
quantity. However, now it is increasing day by day.
Suppose you purchase a new pair of shoes or sandals.
After using them for certain period when they are worn
out or old, you simply throw them out as garbage.
In another case you purchase a chocolate. As long
as you do not consume it, its wrapper is a useful thing,
as it protects the chocolate inside. As soon as you eat
the chocolate, the wrapper has no use for you and it is
thrown as a waste material. It becomes the part of the
garbage. Same is the fate of a banana peel or vegetable
peels.
All the houses, offices, shops, industries, educational
institutes, etc. generate tons of garbage every day.
Various types of functions, celebrations, festivals, etc.
also produce a huge amount of garbage.
Now, you may have some questions in your mind.
• Where does the garbage go?
• Why do people keep their houses, shops, offices,
institutions clean, but throw the waste material
outside which gets scattered all around, sometimes
forming heaps of garbage?
• People also throw their wastes in water bodies. Why
do they do so?
• Do we have methods to reduce, reuse and recycle
waste?
There can be many more such questions. In this
chapter you will learn some basic things about garbage
and how to deal with problems created by its unsafe
disposal.
14.1 We are throwing a Lot of Materials as
Waste, Called Garbage
Things which we feel are not useful for us, we simply
throw away which become
a part of the heap of such
things already thrown out.
These waste materials
are collectively called as
garbage and create a lot of
environmental problems. A
garbage dump is shown in
Fig. 14.1, which is a common
Fig. 14.1 Neighbourhood
site for almost all human garbage dump
settlements.
Students may perform the following activity to
understand what is garbage.
Activity 14.1
• Students may go out and make a list of things people
throw out from their houses, shops, schools, offices,
etc.
• Make a list as given in Table 14.10.
Table 14.1
S. No. Name of the waste Where did you Can it be
material see it? reused
1. Dry leaves and Scattered in Can be used
vegetable peels front of a house for preparing
manure
2. Pieces of news In a school Can be recycled
paper and other dustbin
papers
3.
Two examples are given in Table 14.1 and many

more can be added.
Students can collect those articles from their homes and

schools which are not being used and lying as waste.
They can make useful articles from such materials. For
example, a slightly broken cup or glass may be used as
pen stand after decoration. Such activities will reduce
the amount of garbage.
Level II: Garbage 131

Check your progress
1. Which item among the following, is most harmful
part of the garbage?
(a) Vegetable peels (b) Egg shells
(c) Plastic bags (d) Old newspapers
2. Which of the following, do you think, will produce
largest amount of waste in a day?
(a) A classroom of your school.
(b) Kitchen of your home
(c) A tailor shop
(d) A hospital
14.2 The Problem of Garbage May be Controlled

by Reducing, Reusing and Recycling
Let us find out–How?
• Plastic bags thrown away
after use, create a lot of
environmental problems
like soil pollution,
choking drains, etc. It
may be fatal for domestic
animals if they swallow
plastic bags containing
rotten food materials. Use Fig. 14.2 Burning of leaves
produces harmful gases
of plastic bags should be
banned and instead cloth
bags or paper bags should
be used. This will reduce
the problem of pollution
due to plastic bags.
• Burning of dry leaves as
garbage creates a lot of air
pollution (Fig.14.2). These
leaves may be converted
into compost (khad). This
will reduce garbage at one
hand and also reduces Fig. 14.3 Cloth bags for
pollution. carrying goods
• Old clothes may be used for making mats. Clothes
may also be used for making bags to bring vegetables,
fruits and grocery from the market. On the one hand
it makes use of old clothes and on the other hand it
will reduce the use of polythene/plastic bags to carry
things (Fig.14.3).
• Used egg cases made up of papier mache may be
reused for starting a nursery at home or in the
school. The cavities of the cases may be filled with
fertile soil. Seeds may be grown into seedling and
then transplanted as such in the gardens or pots.
• After the use of all types of papers like used note
books, empty cardboard boxes, old newspapers and
even the railway or bus tickets should be collected
and given for recycling. This saves the life of many
trees. Do you know paper is made from the wood of
the tree?
Reduce, Reuse and Recycling may control the
problem of garbage.
Do you know about Vermicomposting?
All types of vegetable waste may be converted into useful
vermicompost. This compost is prepared in pits on small
scale with the help of redworms (Fig.14.4), which is a
type of earthworm.
This you can do in your school or in your own garden
or in a public garden of your locality. The vermicompost
(Fig.14.5) is obtained as soil like material in a period of
3-4 weeks. This can be used in your pots, gardens or
fields in place of chemical fertilisers.
Fig. 14.4 Redworms Fig. 14.5 Vermicompost

Similarly students can plan many more ways, by
discussing among themselves, with their teachers and
parents, to reduce garbage and reuse or recycle old or
waste materials.
14.3 Plastics — Uses and Problem

We cannot imagine our life without plastics. To name a
few, toys, shoes, bags, pens, combs, toothbrushes,
bottles, buckets, etc. are made up of plastics. Plastic is
very convenient to use but difficult to dispose off. Only
few plastics can be recycled. Most of the plastics cannot
be decomposed. They create a lot of environmental
problems. On burning all kinds of plastics give out
harmful gases. We should try to minimise the use of
plastic bags. Instead we should increase the use of cloth
What You Have bags or jute bags whenever we go out for shopping.
Learnt
• We are Check your progress
throwing a lot 3. Making bags from old clothes will
of material as
waste called a) reduce the waste only.
garbage. b) reuse the waste only.
• Garbage
may include c) reduce and reuse the waste.
discarded items d) recycle the waste only
from houses,
shops, offices, 4. Vermicompost is prepared with the help of
industries, a) red ants
hospitals,
educational b) red worms
institutions, etc. c) honey-bees
• The problem of d) roundworms
garbage may
be controlled
by : Exercises
- reducing the
1. What happens to the garbage thrown out of your house
use of certain daily? Where does it ultimately go?
things. -
2. Name any four articles thrown out as a garbage from a
reusing old or
hospital.
used materials.
3. A person always throws used polythene bags in a drain.
- recycling
Do you think this is the proper way to dispose them off?
waste Justify your answer.
materials.
4 What will happen to vegetable peels buried in a pit for
a month? Do you think you will get the same result for
plastic bags? Explain your answer.
5. Fill up the blanks using words from the box.
waste, useful, environmental, soil, air
(i) Plastic bags thrown as garbage may create serious

____________ problems.
(ii) Burning of dry leaves creates________________
pollution.
(iii) You can make ______________ things from ___________
materials.
6. Explain the following, giving one example in each case.
(a) Reducing waste (b) Reusing waste articles
(c) Recycling of waste material
7. Explain why it is advised to use paper bags or cloth bags
in place of polythene bags.

1. (c)
2. (d)
3. (c)
4. (b)
1. It is an open-ended question and different answers may be
written.
2. The garbage thrown out of a hospital may include, used cotton,
cotton bandages, syringes, needles, plaster, empty bottles,
etc.
3. It is not a proper way to dispose off used polythene bags,
because this will choke the drains creating environmental
problems.
4. The vegetable peels will be decayed and will be converted into
compost. The polythene bags will remain as such because
these are not decomposed.
5. (i) Plastic bags thrown as garbage may create serious
environmental problems.
(ii) Burning of dry leaves creates air pollution.
(iii) You can make useful things from waste materials.
6. Reduce, reuse and recycle.
(a) Reducing waste means that you organise your work/
activities in such a way that less amount of waste is
produced. For example, use a cloth bag for bringing things
from market. It will reduce the waste by saving paper or
plastic bags.
(b) Reusing waste articles means using those things which
you generally throw away as waste. These may be used for
making some useful things. For example, old clothes may

be used for making carry bags.
(c) Recycling waste material means you change form of the
waste material to convert it into a useful material. For
example, old newspapers are recycled to make thick paper
for making office files or greeting cards.
7. Polythene bags, when thrown away as garbage, are not
decomposed for a long time and thus create environmental
pollution. Therefore, paper bags or cloth bags are suggested in
their place, as these are decomposed easily.
Notes
Level - III
for Entry to Class VIII
Nutrition
1
All organisms including humans need food. The
components of food (like carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
etc.) are essential for our body and are called nutrients.
Nutrition is the process of obtaining food and utilising
it in our body. The way in which organisms obtain their
food is of two types:
1. Autotrophic (auto = self, trophos = nourishment)
nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic (heteros = other) in which organisms
get food from other sources.
All green plants are autotrophs, since they prepare
their own food by water and carbon dioxide in the presence
of sunlight, while animals are heterotrophs since they
obtain their food directly or indirectly from the plants.
Let us study in detail about the nutrition in plants
and animals.
Check your progress
1. What are the two modes of nutrition?
2. Why are green plants called autotrophs?
3. What is a heterotroph?
1.1 Nutrition in Plants

We see leaves in most plants. Leaves appear in the
young stages of a tree and are continuously formed till
the tree dies. What about flowers and fruits? Do trees
always bear flowers and fruits throughout the year, or do
they produce them only during some months in a year?
Explore and find out.
Leaves are the ‘food factories’ of plants. They prepare
food and keep the plants alive. The process by which food
is prepared in plants is called photosynthesis (photo =
light; synthesis = preparation).
1.2 Photosynthesis
The leaves of plants have a special green substance called
chlorophyll. It provides green colour to the leaves, see
Fig.1.1. Chlorophyll is very essential for the process of
photosynthesis. Other requirements for photosynthesis
are sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. All these
materials are available in nature (Fig.1.2). Let us find
out how plants obtain these materials.
Chlorophyll
Guard
Cells
(a) Leaf
Stomatal
opening
(c) Stomata
Guard cells Stoma
Fig. 1.1 Section of leaf and stoma
Sun is the primary source of energy for all living

organisms. The chlorophyll present in the leaves absorbs
light energy from the Sun and use it for synthesising
food material in the form of carbohydrates (starch). In
the process they release oxygen gas.
Light energy
Carbon
dioxide
Chlorophyll in
leaf
Oxygen
Water and
minerals
Fig. 1.2 Requirements for photosynthesis
Check your progress
4. Why are leaves of most plants green in colour?
5. What are the requirements for photosynthesis?
6. What is starch?
7. What happens to the oxygen released during
photosynthesis?
Activity 1.1
Will a plant die if all its leaves are plucked?
You can easily perform this activity on two plants grown
in your garden.
Take two potted plants of the same type and same
size. Pluck all the leaves of one plant and keep the leaves
of the other plant intact. Leave both the plants in an
open place for a week or ten days. Water both the plants
regularly. You will find that the plant without the leaves
dries, while the other plant with leaves remains quite
healthy.
1.3 How do Plants Absorb Water and Carbon

Dioxide?
We have learnt that water and carbon dioxide are also
essential requirements for photosynthesis. Do you know
which part of the plant absorbs water?
Activity 1.2
Select two tender plants. Keep the roots of one plant
intact and dip it in a tumbler with water. Cut the roots
of another plant, and dip it in another tumbler with
water. Observe daily for seven days to find out if the
plant survives or dies. Which one of the two plants is
healthier?
We observe that the plant with roots is healthy while the

other plant dies. Plants absorb water through their roots.
Water reaches each part of the plant and keeps it healthy.
If we observe a section of leaf Fig. 1.1, we notice small
openings, labelled as stomata. Each stoma is surrounded
by two bean-seed shaped cells called guard cells. Each
leaf has thousands of such stomata. Can you guess their
function? Stomata help in the entry of carbon dioxide in
Level III: Nutrition 141

the plants. The oxygen formed during photosynthesis is
also released through them.
We have also learnt that soil contains several minerals
that are essential for the life of plants. Most of these
minerals like nitrates, potassium, phosphorus, etc. are
present in soil and are absorbed by plants along with
water.
Check your progress
8. What is the function of stomata?
9. How do plants obtain water for photosynthesis?
10. Name the special substance in leaves without which
photosynthesis cannot occur.
11. Why is sunlight essential for photosynthesis?
The process of photosynthesis can be written as follows:
Chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + Water Carbohydrate + Oxygen
Sunlight (starch)
From the above equation we understand that oxygen
is also formed during photosynthesis. What happens to
the oxygen? Is it of any use to other organisms? What
do you think?
You learnt that photosynthesis is a process by which
green plants prepare their food using carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight.
Activity 1.3
You must have seen
some plants in which
leaves are not green in
colour (Fig 1.3). Find
out their names and
make a list of such
plants. Sketch their
leaves in your notebook Fig. 1.3 Leaves of various colours
and colour them.
Do these leaves have chlorophyll? Do they prepare

food? Leaves of these plants do not appear green because
they have less amount of chlorophyll than other leaves.
However, even a small quantity of chlorophyll is
sufficient for photosynthesis.
1.4 Nutrition in an Insectivorous Plant

Let us study one example of a very peculiar plant called
the pitcher plant.
In the pitcher plant (Fig. 1.4), the leaf gets modified
to form a jug like pitcher. It has an attached lid that
can open and close. When an insect is
attracted to the bright colour of the lid, Lid
it accidentally enters the pitcher. The
lid immediately closes and the insect is
trapped inside the pitcher. The pitcher
has special hairs which secrete certain
juices. These juices kill the insect and
the pitcher plant absorbs nitrogenous
compounds present in the insect body. Leaf modified
into pitcher
You will be surprised to know that
pitcher plant has green leaves and that
it is an autotroph. Then why do they Fig. 1.4 Pitcher plant showing lid and pitcher
feed on insects? As these plants do not
get sufficient nitrates from the soil, they obtain nitrogen
containing compounds from the insects but prepare their
own food. Try to collect information about one or two
more insectivorous plants.
1.5 Alternate Modes of Nutrition in Plants and

Fungi
Are all plants autotrophs? Are there plants which are
heterotrophs like animals? Have you ever consumed
mushrooms? These are heterotrophic.
There are three categories of heterotrophs :
(a) parasites; (b) saprotrophs and (c) symbionts
Parasites
Look at the picture (Fig.1.5). Observe yellow,
thread like structures covering the tree. This is a
Cuscuta plant (Amarbel). It does not have leaves
and cannot prepare its food. It absorbs (actually
steals) food from the tree on which it is growing.
The tree is called the host and Cuscuta plant
is called the parasite. When you visit a forest/ Fig. 1.5 Cuscuta (Amarbel) on
garden try to look for Cuscuta. host plant

Check your progress
12. What is the meaning of the term host?
13. What is the meaning of the term parasite?
14. Why does the pitcher plant obtain nitrogenous
compounds from insects?
Saprotrophs (Sapro = dead)

You must have seen white or greenish thread-like
structures growing on spoilt bread (Fig 1.6), pickles and
jams. Often, during rainy season such structures grow
on our leather shoes, bags, etc.
These are fungi or moulds. How do they survive and
obtain their nutrition? Do they have chlorophyll?
You must have heard
about mushroom. These
grow in shaded moist
soils during rainy season.
The soil where they grow
is rich in dead decaying
plant parts like leaves,
twigs and other plant and
animal remains. They
absorb nutrients directly
Fig. 1.6 Fungi growing on bread from the decaying organic
substances present in
the soil. Thus, they are saprotrophs. These fungi do
not have chlorophyll. They absorb nutrients from the
materials on which they grow. Such a mode of nutrition
where organisms absorb nutrients directly from dead and
decaying organic matter is called saprotrophic nutrition.
Can you now differentiate between a parasite and a
saprotroph?
Symbionts (Live together)
Nature has an interesting association of organism called
lichen. We can see them growing on old tree trunks as
whitish/yellowish circular scaly patches. Locate a tree
on which lichens are growing and try to remove the
lichen. You will find that it is very difficult to remove
them from tree trunks. Lichens are peculiar organisms
in the body of which two organisms live together as
friends. One organism is an alga (an autotroph) and
the other is a fungus (a heterotroph). The alga prepares
food and supplies it to the fungus. The fungus absorbs
moisture and minerals and provides it to the alga. This
type of association where both organisms live together
and help each other is called symbiosis. The organisms
living together are called symbionts.
1.6 Nutrition in Animals

We have learnt that animals including humans have a
heterotrophic type of nutrition. The animals ingest the
food, which gets digested within the body and the
nutrients are absorbed and transported to all the cells in
the body of an animal. Why should food be transported
to each and every cell? The food that reaches each cell is
broken down in the presence of oxygen during respiration
and energy is released. Energy is very vital for the life of
a cell as well as an organism. Does food release energy
instantaneously or is it a long process? Actually the food
we eat first goes through the complex process of digestion.
During this, food passes through stomach and small
intestine and is broken down into simpler substances.
The body absorbs all the nutrients. The undigested food
is removed as waste from the body. Let us understand
the human digestive system.
Check your progress
15. What is meant by heterotrophic nutrition?
16. Do living cells require food? Why?
17.
Name the process which releases energy for
sustaining life of organisms?
1.7 The Human Digestive System

All the organs that are associated with the process of
digestion constitute the digestive system. Digestive
system consists of two parts: (a) alimentary canal, and
(b) the digestive glands.
a) Alimentary canal: It is in the form of a tube that has

different parts. Let us list all the parts of the alimentary canal
(Fig. 1.7) in the order in which food passes through them:

1. mouth and buccal cavity
2. oesophagus or food pipe
3. stomach
4. small intestine
5. large intestine
6. rectum and anus
Mouth and Salivary glands

buccal cavity
Oesophagus
Liver Stomach
Pancreas
Large intestine
Small intestine
Rectum and anus

Fig. 1.7 Human digestive system
(b) Digestive glands: In addition to the above mentioned

organs, there are certain parts called glands that secrete
certain juices. These juices assist in digestion at various
stages. The salivary glands, pancreas and liver are
important glands that are considered as components of
the digestive system.
Study Table 1.1. Locate the organs and parts of the
digestive system in the diagram (Fig 1.7).
Table 1.1 Organs and parts of digestive system and their

functions.
Organs Parts What do they do?
Mouth and Teeth, tongue and Ingestion and grinding of food
buccal cavity salivary glands
Oesophagus __________________ Passage of food from mouth to
stomach
Stomach __________________ Digestion of food assisted by
gastric juices
Small __________________ Complete breakdown of food by
intestine action of bile (ecreted from the
liver), pancreatic juices (secreted
from the pancreas), absorption
of nutrients by villi (finger like
projections in the lining)
Large intestine _________________ Absorption of water
Rectum and _________________ Removal of undigested food
anus (egestion)

1. Read the names of organisms below and classify them Learnt
into autotrophs and heterotrophs:
Nutrition in
Grass, squirrel, pigeon, lizard, rat, tomato plant, alga,
bread mould, mushroom.
plants.
2. Why sunlight and chlorophyll are necessary for • Food is
photosynthesis? essential for all
3. What is the by product of photosynthesis and how is it organisms.
utilised? • Based on the
4. Name the structure in plants which helps in absorption type of nutrition,
of carbon dioxide. organisms are
5. Draw the diagram of stomata and label the guard cells. classified into
autotrophs and
6. Why are heterotrophs nutritionally dependent on other
heterotrophs.
organisms?
• All green plants
7. Although pitcher plant is an autotroph, it still feeds on
insects. Give reasons.
are autotrophs.
• Plants have
8. Distinguish between a parasite and a saprophyte.
chlorophyll and
9. Read the following statements and write whether they
can prepare their
are True or False. Correct the False statements.
own food by a
(a) Oxygen is necessary for photosynthesis.
process called
(b) Starch is formed during photosynthesis. photosynthesis.
(c) Non-green leaves do not have chlorophyll. • Photosynthesis
(d) Pitcher plant is an autotroph. requires
(e) Symbiosis refers to an association of two organisms chlorophyll,
where one organism helps the other. water, carbon
(f) Organisms that absorb nutrients directly from dioxide and
organic matter, or dead and decaying matter are sunlight.
called parasites.
• The food
10. Name the most common nutrients present in the foods
prepared by
we eat.
plants is starch.
11. What are digestive glands? Name the three digestive
• Leaves have
glands in humans.
thousands of
12. Distinguish between ingestion and egestion.
small openings
13. Match the parts of the digestive system given in Column called stomata
I with their functions in Column II.
through which
Column I Column II they get carbon
1. Teeth a. Secretion of bile dioxide from the
2. Oesophagus b. Egestion of undigested food environment.

What You Have 3. Small intestine c. Grinding food
Learnt 4. Anus d. Passage of food
• Insectivorous 5. Liver e. Absorption of nutrients
plants trap
and digest Answers to check your progress
insects to 1. The two modes of nutrition are autotrophic and heterotrophic.
absorb nitrogen 2. Green plants are called autotrophs because they can prepare
food for themselves.
containing 3. An organism that obtains food from other organisms is called
compounds a heterotroph.
because 4. Leaves of most plants are green in colour because they contain
they grow chlorophyll.
in nitrogen 5. Requirements for photosynthesis are chlorophyll, sunlight,
water and carbon dioxide.
deficient soils. 6. Starch is a type of carbohydrate synthesised during
• Heterotrophic photosynthesis.
mode of 7. Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and is utilised for
nutrition is respiration by animals.
8. Stomata help in the entry of carbon dioxide and release of
seen in some
oxygen.
plants, fungi 9. Plants absorb water through their roots.
and most of 10. Chlorophyll.
animals. 11. Sunlight provides the energy for synthesis of food.
• There are 12. Host is a plant on which another plant lives for food.
13. Parasite is a plant which grows on a host and absorbs food
three types of from it.
heterotrophs: 14. A few green plants feed on insects to fulfil their nitrogen
parasites, requirement.
saprotrophs 15. A type of nutrition wherein organisms cannot synthesise their
and symbionts. food but obtain food from an external source.
16. Yes, cells require energy to perform activities which will keep
• Parasites the organism alive.
absorb food 17. Respiration
from the host
plant. Answers to Exercises
• Saprotrophs 1. Autotrophs: Grass, tomato plant, alga
absorb Heterotrophs: Squirrel, pigeon, lizard, rat, bread mould,
nutrients mushroom.
2. Sunlight provides energy for the process of photosynthesis.
directly from Chlorophyll has the ability of absorbing light energy.
the dead 3. Oxygen is the by product of photosynthesis. It escapes into
organic matter. the atmosphere.
• Symbionts are 4. Stomata in leaves.
two organisms 5.
that live
together like Guard cells
friends and are
dependent on
each other. Stomatal opening
6. Heterotrophs cannot prepare their food for themselves hence
they are dependent on other organisms for food.
7. Pitcher plant traps the insect and absorbs only nitrogeneous
compounds from its body. The plant possesses chlorophyll
and can prepare its food. Hence, it is not a heterotroph.
8. A parasite absorbs nutrients from a living host whereas a
saprophyte absorbs nutrients from non-living organic matter
(bread), or dead and decaying organic matter.
9. (a) False. Oxygen is formed during photosynthesis.
(b) True
(c) False. Non-green leaves also have a small quantity of
chlorophyll.
(d) True
(e) True
(f) False; they are called saprotrophs
10. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.
11. Digestive glands are components of the digestive system. They
secrete juices that assist in digestion. What You Have
Salivary glands, liver and pancreas are digestive glands. Learnt
12. Intake of food is ingestion and throwing out of undigested food Nutrition in
is egestion. animals
13. 1 - c; 2 – d; 3 – e; 4 – b; 5 – a. • All animals
including
Notes humans are
heterotrophs.
• Animal
digestive
system
consists of an
alimentary
canal and
digestive
glands.
• Digestive
glands such
as salivary
glands, liver
and pancreas
secrete juices
that help in
digestion.

Animal Fibres:
Wool and Silk 2
We wear a variety of clothes during various seasons.
Usually people wear cotton clothes in summer season
whereas woollen and silk clothes in winter season. The
fibres of wool and silk are of animal origin.
2.1 Wool
Wool is commonly used for making sweaters, shawls,
blankets etc.,(Fig. 2.1) which protect us from cold. It is
obtained from sheep, goat, camel, yak and some other
animals. These wool yielding animals bear hair on their
body. Hair trap a lot of air which is a poor conductor of
heat and protects the animal against cold.
Fig. 2.1
The hairy skin of the sheep has two types of fibres

that form its fleece –
i) The coarse beard hair and
ii) The fine soft under-hair close to the skin.
The fine hair provide the fibres for making wool. The
wool commonly available in the market is sheep wool.
Wool obtained from Yak is common in Tibet and Ladakh.
Angora wool is obtained from angora goats, found in hilly
regions such as Jammu and Kashmir. Wool obtained
from under fur of Kashmiri goat is soft and is used for
making fine shawls called Pashmina Shawls. The fur on
the body of camels is also used as wool.
2.2 From Fiber to Wool
For obtaining wool from animals such as sheep, the
following steps are involved :
(i) Shearing: The fleece
of the sheep along
with a thin layer of
skin is removed from
its body. This process
is called shearing (Fig.
2.2). This is done by
machines similar to
those used by barbers Fig. 2.2 Shearing a sheep
to shear off hair.
(ii) Scouring: The sheared skin with hair is
thoroughly washed in tanks to remove grease,
dust and dirt. This process is called scouring
and is done by using machines.
(iii) Sorting: After scouring, hairy skin is sent to the
factory where hair (fibres) of different textures
are separated.
(iv) Dyeing: These fibres are dyed into various
colours.
(v) Making Yarns: The dyed fibres are straightened,
combed and then rolled into yarn. The longer
fibres are made into wool for sweaters and the
short fibres are spun and woven into woollen
cloth.
Check your progress
1. Which of the following does not yield wool?
(a) Yak (b) Camel (c) Goat (d) Woolly dog
i. Process of removing the fleece from the animal
body is known as __________.
ii. The longer fibres of yak/sheep are made into
__________.
2.3 Silk
Silk fibres are also animal fibres which are obtained from
silkworm. The rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk
is called sericulture. Before we discuss the process of
obtaining silk, let us know the life history of a silk moth.
Level III: Animal Fibres: Wool and Silk 151

The female silk moth(Fig. 2.3 a) lays eggs(Fig. 2.3 b).
The eggs hatch into larvae which are called caterpillars
or silkworms (Fig. 2.3 c). They grow in size and when the
caterpillar is ready to enter the next stage of its life history
called pupa (Fig. 2.3 d), it first weaves a net to hold itself.
Then caterpillar secretes fibre, made of protein, which
hardens on exposure to air and becomes silk fibre. Soon
the caterpillar completely covers itself by silk fibres and
becomes pupa. This covering is known as cocoon (Fig.
2.3 e). The further development of the moth continues
inside the cocoon.
(b) Eggs (c) Caterpillar
(a) Female silk moth (d) Pupa
(e) Cocoon
Fig. 2.3 Life cycle of silk moth
The most common silk moth is the mulberry silk moth

which uses mulberry leaves as food. The silk fibre from
the cocoon of this moth is soft, lustrous and elastic and
can be dyed in beautiful colours.
2.4 From Cocoon to Silk

For obtaining silk, moths are reared and their cocoons
are collected to get silk threads. The cocoons are kept
under the Sun or boiled in water or exposed to steam.
In this process the silkworm inside the cocoon is killed.
Then the silk fibres are separated out.
The process of taking out fibres from the cocoon for What You Have
use as silk is called reeling the silk. Reeling is done in Learnt
special machines, which unwind the fibres of silk from • Wool is obtained
the cocoon. Silk fibres are then spun into silk threads, from hair of
which are woven into silk cloth by weavers. some animals.
These days many synthetic fibres have been developed • Commonly used
which look like silk and are commonly known as artificial wool is obtained
silk. You can differentiate between the artificial silk and from sheep
the pure silk by performing the following activity. although wool
is also obtained
Activity 2.1 from goat, yak,
Take an artificial (synthetic) silk thread and a pure silk camel, etc.
thread. Burn these threads seperately and carefully. • Hair obtained
Notice the difference in the smell while burning. Now, from animals
burn a woollen fibre carefully. Did it smell like burning are washed to
of artificial silk or that of pure silk? You will find that remove grease,
the smell of burning wool is similar to the smell of dirt and dust.
burning pure silk since both are obtained form animal Then they are
fibres. Both on burning give smell of burning hair. The dyed and used
smell of burning artificial silk is different from that of for making wool.
burning natural silk. • Silk is a soft,
lustrous and
Check your progress elastic fibre.
• Silk is obtained
3. What do you mean by the term sericulture?
from silk worms
4. What is reeling the silk? and the rearing
of silkworms
Exercises is called
1. Match the words of Column I with those given in sericulture.
Column II. • Silk is produced
Column I Column II from cocoons
(i) Scouring (a) Yields silk fibres which are
(ii) Mulberry leaves (b) Wool yielding animal formed by the
(iii) Yak (c) Food of silk worm larvae of silk
(iv) Cocoon (d) Cleaning sheared moth.
hairy skin • The process
2. State whether the following statements are True or False. of obtaining
(i) For obtaining pure silk fibre, silkworms are killed silk fibres from
before they reach moth stage. cocoon is known
(ii) Process of drawing silk fibre by unwinding the cocoon as reeling the
is called rearing. silk.
(iii) Wool and silk fibres produce different types of smell
on burning.
Level III: Animal Fibres: Wool and Silk 153

(iv) Angora wool is obtained from goats found in Jammu
and Kashmir.
(i) The wool obtained from the under fur of Kashmiri
goats is used for making ___________________shawls.
(ii) Silkworm feeds on ___________________ leaves.
(iii) Inside the cocoon the silkworm grows into the
_________.
(iv) The process called _______________involves the
washing of fleece to remove grease, dust and dirt.

1. (d)
2. (i) Shearing
(ii) Wool
3. Sericulture involves the rearing of silkworms for producing
silk.
4. The process of taking out fibres from the cocoon is called
reeling the silk.
1. (i) - (d)
(ii) - (c)
(iii) - (b)
(iv) - (a)
2. (i) True
(ii) False
(iii) False
(iv) True
3. (i) The wool obtained from the under fur of Kashmiri goats
is used for making Pashmina shawls.
(ii) Silkworm feeds on mulberry leaves.
(iii) Inside the cocoon the silkworm grows into the moth.
(iv) The process called scouring involves the washing of fleece
to remove grease, dust and dirt.
Notes
Acids, Bases
and Salts 3
You eat and drink a variety of things daily. They differ
from each other in many ways, including their taste.
Some are sweet, some are salty, some are sour, while
some are bitter in taste. In this chapter you will learn
that the sour taste and bitter taste of substances are due
to the presence of certain types of chemicals in them,
known as acids and bases, respectively. You will also
learn about the salt, which is obtained when an acid
reacts with a base.
3.1 Acids are Sour and Bases are Bitter in

Taste
To understand this concept, let us do the following activity.
Before you do this activity note that you are not
supposed to touch or taste any thing unless asked
to do so by your teacher.
Activity 3.1
Recall the taste of the edible substances given in
Table 3.1. If you have not tasted any of these substances
or you just want to confirm the taste, you can do it now
by tasting them in the presence of your teacher or an
elderly person.
Table 3.1
Substance Taste (sour, bitter, sweet, salty
or any other)
Sugar
Common salt salty
Vinegar (sirka) sour
Orange juice
Curd
Lemon juice
Baking soda bitter
Unripe mango
Glucose sweet
Amla
Tamarind (imli)
Jaggery (gur)
For your help, taste of four substances are given.

Complete Table 3.1 by writing the taste of other
substances.
Substances like vinegar, curd, lemon juice, unripe
mango, amla, tamarind are sour in taste and they contain
some kind of acid in them as one of the component. On
the other hand, baking soda is bitter in taste and it is
basic in nature.
3.2 Base Gives a Feeling of Soapy Touch

Activity 3.2
Take the following substances, just touch them with
your fingers and note if any of these gives a soapy touch.
• Soap solution
• Solution of washing soda
• Solution of baking soda
• Lemon juice
• Vinegar
You will find that the soap solution, solutions of
washing soda and baking soda give a soapy touch.
Basic substances give a soapy touch, whereas acidic
substances do not give such feeling.
3.3 Natural and Synthetic Indicators

Special type of substances are used to test whether a
substance is acidic or basic. These substances are known
as indicators.
Litmus solution is most
commonly used natural indicator.
It is extracted from lichens (Fig.
3.1a). The extract has a purple
colour in distilled water. When
some drops of this litmus solution
is added to the solution of acidic
substance, its colour changes
to red. When some drops of this
Fig. 3.1(a) Lichens
litmus solution are added to the
solution of a basic substance,
its colour changes to blue. Blue
and red litmus paper strips are
also available (Fig. 3.1b). Moist
litmus strips can be used
to check the acidic or basic
nature of a substance.
Fig. 3.1(b) Red and blue
The solutions which do not
litmus paper
change the colour of either
blue or red litmus are called neutral solutions. These
substances are neither acidic nor basic in nature. You can
also use litmus as an indicator for testing acidic or basic
nature of the chemicals used in the laboratory. Hydrochloric
acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid and acetic acid are some
examples of acids used in the laboratory. Sodium
hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide
(lime water) are some basic substances which are used in
the laboratory. Phenolphthalein solution is another
example of indicators used in the laboratory. It is not
found naturally. It is prepared by a chemical process. It
turns pink when added to a basic substance and remains
colourless when added to an acidic substance.
Like litmus, there are other naturally occurring

substances which are used as acid-base indicators.
Turmeric (Haldi) solution turns yellow to red in basic
solution. Similarly, the extracts of certain coloured
flowers such as China rose (Gudhal) are also used as
indicators.
Check your progress

1. You have two test tubes ‘A’ and ‘B’. One of them
contains colourless acidic solution and the other
contains colourless basic solution. How will you
find out which test tube has acidic solution and
which one has basic solution?
3.4 Neutralisation
You have learnt that acids turn blue litmus red and bases
turn red litmus blue. Let us see what happens when
an acid is mixed with a base. To find out this you can
perform the Activity 3.3, with the help of your teacher.
Level III: Acids Bases and Salts 157

Activity 3.3
Fill one fourth of the test tube with dilute hydrochloric
acid (Fig. 3.2). Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator to the acidic solution and gently shake the
test tube to mix the contents thoroughly.
Do you observe any
change in colour of
the solution? To this
solution add sodium
hydroxide solution Base
drop by drop and mix
the solution thoroughly
by gently shaking the
test tube. What do you
observe? You will find
that after adding some
sodium hydroxide
Acid+Indicator
solution, the colour of
the solution in the test Fig. 3.2
tube changes to pink.
Now add dilute hydrochloric acid solution in the
above test tube dropwise. The colour of the solution
in the test tube fades and finally disappears. Again if
one drop of sodium hydroxide solution is added, the
colour turns pink. When the acidic and basic solutions
are mixed, both of them neutralise the effect of each
other. The resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic
in nature. This is called neutralisation reaction.
Touch and feel the test tube immediately after
neutralisation. What do you observe? You will find that
it is slightly hot. In the neutralisation reaction, heat is
always produced or evolved. The evolved heat raises the
temperature of the reaction mixture. In neutralisation
reaction salt and water are formed.
Acid + Base Salt + Water (Heat is evolved)
Following reaction is an example of neutralisation

reaction.
Hydrochloric acid+Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride+Water
(HCl) ( NaOH ) (NaCl) (H2O)
Check your progress
2. Vinegar contains an acid called acetic acid. Which of
the following substances can you use to neutralise it?
(i) Baking soda
(ii) Washing soda
(iii) Lime juice
(iv) Soap
(v) Lime water
(vi) Milk of magnesia.
3.5 Neutralisation in Everyday Life

Indigestion
Hydrochloric acid is released in the stomach, which
helps in the digestion of food. Some times the amount of
hydrochloric acid released in the stomach is more than
the amount required to digest the food. The person feels
uncomfortable when too much acid is released in the
stomach. Under these circumstances a harmless base is
required to neutralise excess of acid. Such a substance
which neutralises acid is called antacid. Milk of magnesia
is one of the examples of such a base. It is magnesium
hydroxide. It neutralises excess acid and thus helps in
relieving stomach pain.
Ant bite
You must have noticed that when ant bites, that portion
of the skin becomes red, swells and one feels burning
sensation and pain. This is because of the formic acid,
which the ant injects during the bite. The effect of the
acid can be neutralised by a mild base like baking soda
(sodium hydrogencarbonate) solution. Calamine lotion
is also useful in this case. It also contains a mild base
called zinc carbonate.
Soil treatment
Excessive use of chemical fertilisers makes the soil
acidic. Too acidic or too basic soil is not suitable for
plant growth. To remove the excess acid from the soil, it
should be treated with a base. Quick lime (calcium oxide)
and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are the examples

of bases which are used for neutralising excess acid. If
the soil is basic in nature, organic matter is added to it.
When organic matter decomposes, acids are produced
which neutralise the excess base in the soil.
Factory wastes
The waste material thrown away by some factories
contain acidic substances. If such a waste is allowed to
flow into water bodies, water becomes unsuitable for
aquatic organisms like fishes, which may get killed. The
What You Have
acid present in the factory waste should be neutralised
Learnt
by adding some harmless basic substances before
• Acids are sour
disposal.
in taste, bases
are bitter in Check your progress
taste and 3. How will you help a person suffering from
soapy to touch. indigestion?
• Indicators
show different Exercises
colour with 1. What is the difference between an acid and a base on the
acidic and basis of taste?
basic solutions. 2. Which of the following substances show colour change
• Acids turn blue with base only and which one shows colour change in an
litmus red and acid only?
bases turn red (i) Turmeric (ii) Phenolphthalein (iii) Blue litmus solution
litmus blue. 3. Explain the process of neutralisation with the help of an
• Substances example.
which are 4. Which of the following substances are acid-base
neither acidic indicators? Why are they called indicators?
in nature (i) Turmeric
nor basic in
(ii) Common salt
nature are
(iii) Hydrochloric acid
called neutral
(iv) Acetic acid
substances.
(v) Baking soda
• When an acid
(vi) Washing soda
is mixed with
a base, they (vii) Phenolphthalein
neutralise the 5. An insect bites your friend. An elderly person tells you
effect of each that the insect injects an acid during the bite. Which of
the following substances will you choose to neutralise
other and salt
the effect of insect bite?
and water
(i) Milk
are produced.
This is called (ii) Baking soda
neutralisation. (iii) Lime juice.
(iv) Vinegar
1. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein in both the test tubes.
Colour of the basic solution will become pink. Other solution
will remain colourless.
The nature of solutions can also be tested with the help of
litmus paper. In acidic solution blue litmus paper turns red
and in basic solution red litmus paper turns blue.
2. (i) Baking soda (ii) Washing soda (iii) Soap (iv) Lime water
(v) Milk of magnesia
3. By giving a dose of some antacid, like milk of magnesia.
1. An acid is sour in taste, while a base is bitter.
2. Turmeric and phenolphthalein show colour change with base
only and blue litmus solution shows colour change with an
acid only.
3. When an acid reacts with a base, it forms salt and water.
The process is known as neutralisation. For example sodium
hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid to form
sodium chloride (salt) and water.
4. Turmeric and phenolphthalein are indicators because
indicators give different colour in acidic and basic medium.
Turmeric changes from yellow to red and phenolphthalein
from colourless to red in basic solutions only.
5. Baking soda; because it is basic in nature and will neutralise
the acid present in insect bite.
Notes

Physical and
Chemical Changes 4
In the chapter “Changes Around Us” of Level II, we have
classified changes as reversible changes and changes
which cannot be reversed. In this classification, we
have not considered whether the nature of substances
undergoes a change or remains same. In this chapter
we will perform some activities and study the nature of
these changes.
4.1 Physical Changes

Activity 4.1
Caution: Be careful while
working with scissors or blade.
• Take a sheet of paper and cut
it into four square pieces.
• Cut each square piece further
into four square pieces. as
shown for one in Fig. 4.1
• Arrange these pieces on the
floor or on a table so that the
pieces acquire the shape of
the original piece of paper Fig. 4.1 Pieces of paper
(Fig. 4.1)
Do you get back the original piece of paper ? We cannot
join the pieces back to make the original sheet of paper.
Do we see any change in the properties of the paper? No,
there is no change in its properties, only change in the
size of the paper is observed.
Activity 4.2
Caution: Be careful while holding the metal plate over
the steam.
• Boil some water in a kettle or any other container.
You will see steam coming out.
• Hold an inverted metal plate by its handle over the
steam at some distance from the boiling water (Fig.4.2).
You will observe droplets
of water on the inner surface
of the metal plate.
In this activity, water
changes its state from liquid
to steam (water vapour) and
then back to liquid.
Similarly, if we take some
ice and melt it partially, we Fig. 4.2 Change of state from
liquid to steam and then back
will get mixture of ice and to liquid
water. We can easily get back
ice, if we freeze this mixture in a freezing mixture (ice
and common salt) or by keeping it in a refrigerator for
some time. There is no difference in the properties of
water when its state changes from steam (water vapour)
into liquid (water) and solid (ice).
Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a

substance are called its physical properties. When a
substance undergoes a change in its physical properties
it is called a physical change. A physical change is
generally reversible. In such a change no new substance
is formed.
Check your progress
1. Boiling of water and melting of wax are physical
changes. Comment.
4.2. Chemical Changes

Have you ever observed iron tawa (pan), iron spades,
iron gates etc. They often get rusted. Rust is not iron.
It is different from iron on which it gets deposited. You
must have noticed that a slice of an apple, brinjal, or
potato acquires a brown colour if left open for sometime.
One can also feel a change in taste between a raw and a
ripe mango. In all these examples, new substance(s) is
(are) formed. Let us look for other examples where new
substances are formed.
Note: To perform activities 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 take
the help of your teacher or request your teacher to
demonstrate these.
Level III: Physical and Chemical Changes 163

Activity 4.3
Caution: Do not stare at
the burning ribbon. It may
harm your eyes.
• Take a small piece of
magnesium ribbon.
• Clean it by rubbing
with sand paper and
burn it (Fig.4.3).
• It will burn with a
dazzling flame and
changes into white
powder. The change Fig. 4.3 Burning of magnesium
can be represented by ribbon
the following equation.
Magnesium + Oxygen (from air) Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide (white powder) looks quite
different from magnesium ribbon (grey metallic strip),
so, magnesium oxide is a new substance formed.
During this change, heat and light are also produced.
Activity 4.4
• Take a teaspoon of
vinegar (acetic acid) in
a test tube.
• Add a pinch of
baking soda (sodium Carbon dioxide
hydrogencarbonate).
• You will hear a hissing
sound and bubbles of
a gas (carbon dioxide)
are seen. Lime water
• Pass this gas through Vinegar + Baking
freshly prepared soda
lime water (calcium
hydroxide solution in Fig. 4.4 Set up to pass gas through
water) as shown in lime water
Fig. 4.4.
When the evolved gas, carbon dioxide is passed
through lime water, it turns lime water milky due to the
formation of white coloured calcium carbonate. In this
activity, new substances are formed including a gas.
This is represented by following equations.
(a) Acetic acid + Sodium hydrogen Carbon dioxide + Water + Sodium acetate
(Vinegar) carbonate (Baking soda)
(b) Carbon dioxide + Calcium hydroxide Calcium carbonate + Water

(Lime water) (White)
Activity 4.5
• Take about a table spoon of quick lime in a container.
• Add water to cover the quick lime.
Observe the changes that take place. You will notice
that as the quick lime mixes with water, it gets heated
up and a new substance
is formed. You can feel the
Container
heat by touching the walls
of the container (Fig. 4.5).
You might have observed Water
this happening when a
painter mixes lime and
water for white washing Fig. 4.5 Calcium oxide in water
the house. The change
can be represented by the following equation.
Quick lime + Water Slaked lime + Heat
In the above given activities, we observed that in each

change, one or more new substances are formed.
A change in which one or more new substances are
formed is called a chemical change.
Check your progress
2. Is burning of paper a physical change or a chemical
change? Explain.
3. What kind of change is involved when iron gets
rusted?
4.3 Why Iron Rusts?

Rusting of iron is a chemical change. Rusting destroys
the iron articles. The presence of both oxygen and water
(or water vapour) is essential for rusting.The rusting can
be represented by the following equation.

Iron + Oxygen (from air) + Water Rust (Iron oxide)
Iron is used in making cars, trucks, bridges, ships,
etc. Rusting weakens their bodies and ultimately destroys
them. To prevent them from rusting, one way is to apply
a coat of paint or grease. Another way is to deposit a layer
of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. The process of
depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation.
4.4 Crystallisation
In the chapter “Separation of Substances” of Level II we
have learnt that salt can be obtained by the evaporation
of sea water. The salt obtained in this manner is not
pure. We can get the pure form of salt from its solution.
This process is called crystallisation. Crystals of different
substances have regular and well defined shapes. For
example, crystals of common salt, sugar, blue vitriol
(neela thotha, copper sulphate) have distinct shapes.
What You Have Check your progress

Learnt 4. Is crystallisation a physical change or a chemical
• Changes are change?
of two types–
physical
Exercises
changes and
chemical 1. State whether the following statements are True or False
changes. (a) Burning of wood is a chemical change.
• In a physical (b) Drying of wet clothes is a chemical change.
change, (c) Condensation of steam is a physical change.
no new (d) Melting of wax is not a chemical change.
substances (e) Breaking of brick with a hammer is not a physical
are produced. change.
• In a chemical 2. Classify the following as physical or chemical change?
change, new (a) Freezing of water
substances (b) Cooking of food
are produced. (c) Burning of magnesium ribbon
• Some (d) Rusting of iron
substances (e) Ripening of fruit
can be 3. Which gas will evolve if baking soda is added to vinegar?
obtained in Do you think it is the same gas which is obtained by
pure state burning paper or candle?
from their 4. We neutralise acid with base. Is neutralisation, a chemical
solution by change or a physical change? Justify your answer.
crystallisation.
5. Magnesium burns with a dazzling white flame and
changes into a white powder. Write the word equation
involved?
6. Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
(a) Changes in which no new substances are formed are
called_________________.
(b) The chemical name of main component of vinegar is
_______________.
(c) Digestion of food is a ___________________change.
(d) Formation of biogas from cow dung is a ______________
change.
7. How does painting of an iron article prevent it from
rusting? Explain.

1. Boiling of water and melting of wax are physical changes
because no new substances are formed in these changes.
2. Burning of paper is a chemical change because new substances
are formed.
3. Chemical change.
4. Crystallisation is a physical change.
1. (a) True
(b) False
(c) True
(d) True
(e) False
2. (a) Physical change
(b) Chemical change
(c) Chemical change
(d) Chemical change
(e) Chemical change
3. Carbon dioxide gas will be evolved when baking soda is added
to vinegar. Carbon dioxide gas is also produced by burning
paper or candle.
4. Neutralisation is a chemical change. Because on neutralising
an acid with a base, salt is formed, which is a new substance.
5. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide (White powder)
6. (a) Changes in which no new substances are formed are
called physical changes.
(b) The chemical name of the main componet of vinegar is
acetic acid.
(c) Digestion of food is a chemical change.
(d) Formation of biogas from cow dung is a chemical change.
7. On painting, iron articles do not come in direct contact with
air and water, thus rusting is prevented.

Habitat and
Adaptation 5
We have learnt that organisms live in different habitats.
The conditions like temperature, availability of light,
water and soil vary in each habitat. What is meant
by climate? How is it different from weather? Let us
familarise ourselves with these terms.
Two climatically interesting habitats are the tropical
and polar habitats. What kinds of organisms live in these
habitats? How are they adapted to conditions prevalent
here? Let us learn.
5.1 Weather and Climate

You know that it can be very sunny and hot on some
day and the next day can be cloudy and cool. These
day-to-day changes are due to changes in the temperature,
humidity, rainfall, and wind of that area and constitute
the weather of that place. We often say that weather
is better today or that the weather was bad yesterday.
Whenever we make such statements we are making a
reference to the conditions only for that day.
The average weather pattern taken over a long time
(several years) is referred to as the climate of that place.
If we find that the temperature at a place is high most of
the time, then we say that the place has ‘hot climate’. If a
place receives heavy rainfall on most of the days then we
say that the place has ‘wet climate’.
While weather changes day to day, the climate of
a place remains more or less constant. Thus, we have
the polar regions with extreme cold climate and the
deserts with extreme hot climate. Climate of the tropical
rainforests is hot and humid.
Check your progress
1. Which of the following describes the term weather?
a) sudden rain after a sunny day.
b) severe cold condition in polar region.
c) migration of birds.
d) dry condition in deserts.
2. If you feel that the previous week was hotter than
the current week, then will you say that the climate
of this week is different from last week? Give reason.
5.2 Polar Regions

Polar regions are covered with snow and it is very cold
for most months of the year. Winters are very long and
temperature can be as low as -37°C. How do animals
living here adapt to the extreme cold conditions? Let us
study a few examples of animals living in these regions.
Polar bears
Polar bears have a beautiful white fur which enables them
to move about in the snow, catch prey and also prevents
detection from their predators like snow tigers and leopards.
Predator
and prey It helps the
are unable to bear to locate
sse it and catch its
prey
The white fur
not easily visible It has a very
in the snowy white strong sense
background of smell
It has
thick layers It has wide
of fur It has a layer of and large
To fat under the paws
keep it skin Easy to
warm walk on
snow
Keeps the body
warm
Fig 5.1 Adaptations of polar bear
Level III: Habitat and Adaptation 169

They also have a layer of fat under their skin which keeps
the body warm and well insulated. In fact, they move
slowly and often rest for long periods to prevent their
body from being overheated. Their paws are wide and
large, which help them not only to swim well but also
walk with ease on snow. While swimming under water,
they close their nostrils and can remain under water for
long duration. They have a strong sense of smell. The
adaptations of polar bears are represented in Fig. 5.1
Penguins
Another well-known organism
living in the polar region is
the penguin (Fig. 5.2). It is
predominantly white with small
lateral patches of grey/black
colour. The white colour merges
with the surroundings and
helps them to escape from their
predators. It has a thick skin
and layers of fat below the skin
to protect it from cold. Penguins Fig. 5.2 Penguins huddled
together
often huddle together (Fig. 5.2)
to keep themselves warm.
Like polar bears, penguins

are also good swimmers
because of their streamlined
body, paddle-like wings and
webbed feet (Fig. 5.3).
Fig. 5.3. Feet of penguin
Other animals
Other animals living in the polar regions include many
types of fishes, musk oxen, reindeer, fox, seals, whale
and birds. Fish can remain under cold water for long
but birds need warm climate to survive. So they migrate
to warmer regions during winters. They come back
when winter ends. You probably know that India is a
destination for many migratory birds. You must have
seen or heard about the Siberian crane that comes from
Siberia to places like Bharatpur in Rajasthan, Sultanpur
in Haryana and some wetlands of north east and other
parts of India, (Fig. 5.4).
Some animals are adapted to obtain food which is not
easily reachable. A striking example is the crane
(Fig. 5.4) which possesses long beak. This helps it to
catch fish swimming in deep water.
Fig. 5.4. Migratory birds in their habitat
Check your progress

3. Which of the following is not true about polar bears?
(a) White fur
(b) Thick layers of fur and fat
(c) Strong sense of smell
(d) Huddle together
4. Which features of polar bears help them to find
food?
5. Which of the following does not help the penguins
to swim?
(a) Paddle-like wings
(b) Webbed feet
(c) Thick skin
(d) Streamlined body
5.3. Tropical Rainforests

The tropical region generally has a hot climate because
of its location around the equator. The temperature is
moderate throughout the year ranging from 15°C in

winters to about 40°C in summers. Days and nights are
almost of equal length throughout the year.
These regions get plenty of rainfall. An important
feature of this region is the tropical rainforests with
dense vegetation and tall trees. Western Ghats and
north-east states in India, south-east Asia, Central
America and Central Africa have rainforests with a wide
variety of plants and animals. Animals commonly found
in rainforests are monkey, ape, gorilla, tiger, elephant,
leopard, lizard, snake, variety of birds and thousands of
insects.
Since the number of animals is quite large, there is an
intense competition for food and shelter.
Animals living here exhibit different types of
adaptations. Monkeys and birds live on the trees. The
red-eyed frog (Fig. 5.5) has sticky pads on its feet to help
it climb trees. It is green and the colour helps it to escape
from its enemies. Monkeys (Fig. 5.6) have long tails for
grasping branches. Their hands and feet are such that
they can easily hold on to the branches and jump
instinctively.
Fig. 5.6. A monkey

Fig. 5.5 Red-eyed frog
sitting on a tree
Check your progress
6. List the factors which determine the climate of a
tropical rainforest.
7. Long beak in cranes is an adaptation to
(a) attack enemies (d) carry young ones
(b) catch food
(c) attract friends
The lion-tailed macaque
(also called ‘Beard ape’)
lives in the forests of
Western Ghats (Fig. 5.7).
It is a good climber and
spends a major part of its
life on the trees. It feeds
mainly on fruits. It also
eats seeds, young leaves,
stems, flowers and buds.
This ape with silvery- Fig. 5.7 Lion-tailed macaque
white beard also searches
for insects beneath the
bark of trees. Since it is
able to get sufficient food
on the trees, it is rarely
seen on the ground.
Elephant is a majestic
animal in the Indian
forests. It (Fig. 5.8) has
adapted to the conditions
of forests in many
remarkable ways. Look at
its trunk. It is used not
only as a nose, but also
Fig. 5.8 An elephant
for picking up food. It has
strong and pointed tusks of ivory which can tear the barks
of trees that elephant loves to eat. It attacks the enemies
with tusks and causes injury. Large ears of the elephant
helps to hear even very feeble sounds. Elephants also
flap their ear-like fans and keep themselves cool in the
hot and humid climate of the rainforest.
Rainforests have the maximum number of wild
organisms. What will happen if we destroy the rainforests?
Will the world be the same? If we do not conserve these
habitats, majority of organisms will perish. Each one of
us must pledge to conserve this natural weather.
Check your progress

8. Why do lion-tailed macaques spend most of their
lifetime on trees?

9. Which of the following is not associated with
elephants?
(a) Strong sense of smell
(b) Sensitive to sound
(c) Strong sharp teeth for chewing meat
What You Have (d) Strong modified teeth for tearing barks
Learnt 10. Elephants live in rainforests. Given below are their
• The day-to-day adaptations. Explain how each adaptation helps
changes in the elephants to survive.
temperature, (vi)
humidity, (i)
rainfall and
wind of an area ar
s Str
on
e gl
is called the rge egs
La
weather of that
place.
• The average
weather pattern
taken over
several years Long trunk Thick skin (v)
is called the (ii)
climate of that
place.
• The polar
regions have
an extreme cold Tusks Short tail
climate and
remain very
cold throughout (iv)
the year. (iii)
• Animals
commonly found
in the polar Exercises
regions are 1. Which of the following is most appropriate to describe
polar bears and climate?
penguins. (a) Constant throughout the year
• Animals adapt (b) Fluctuates year after year
in different (c) Weather pattern over many years
ways to the (d) Constant throughout the month
severe cold 2. Which of the following best describes a tropical region?
conditions of the
(a) Extremely cold and humid
polar regions.
(b) Hot and humid
(c) Cold and rainy
(d) Dry and hot
3. Penguins huddle together to
(a) escape from enemies
(b) love each other
(c) keep themselves warm
(d) avoid sinking in water
4. Which of the following is not true about penguins?
(a) Good swimmers
(b) Huddle together
(c) Thick skin
What You Have
(d) Large paws
5. Match the items in Column I with those in Column II
Learnt
• Birds in the
Column I Column II
polar regions
(a) Sticky pads (i) Smelling migrate to
(b) Long tails (ii) Climbing trees warmer places
(c) Large and long beak (iii) Grasping branches to escape
(d) Long trunk (iv) Getting food severe winters.
6. How is weather different from climate? • Tropical
7. Why do animals in the polar regions need to adapt regions are
themselves in special ways? located around
8. How do polar bears keep themselves warm during severe the equator.
cold? These are hot
9. Why do we find enormous number of animals in the
and get plenty
tropical rainforests? of rains.
10. What are the features that make polar bears good

• The major
swimmers? types of
animals living
11. How do polar bears protect themselves from their
predators?
in the tropical
rainforests are
12. How do elephants keep themselves cool in the hot and
monkey, ape,
humid climate of the rainforest?
gorilla, lion,
Answers to check your progress tiger, elephant,
1. (a) leopard, lizard,
2. No. Because climate is the average weather pattern taken over snake, birds
a long time or several years. and insects.
3. (d)
• Animals in the
4. White fur and strong sense of smell
5. (c) tropical region
6. The tropical region generally has a hot climate because of its adapt to the
location around the equator. The temperature is moderate hot and humid
throughout the year ranging from 15°C in winters to about climate in
40°C in summers. Days and nights are almost of equal length different ways.
throughout the year. These regions get plenty of rainfall.
7. (b)
8. Because they feed mainly on fruits and seeds, young leaves,
stems, flowers and buds which they can easily get on trees.
9. (c)
10. (i) To hear very feeble sounds and also to keep the body
cool.
(ii) Used as a nose and also for picking up food.
(iii) They are modified teeth to tear the bark of trees.
(iv) To prevent it from getting caught in the trees or
branches.
(v) Acts as an insulator and protects from heat and
injuries.
(vi) To support the huge weight
1. (c)
2. (b)
3. (c)
4. (d)
5. (a) - (ii)
(b) - (iii)
(c) - (iv)
(d) - (i)
6. The day-to-day variation due to changes in the temperature,
humidity, rainfall and wind of that area constitutes the
weather of that place. While climate is the average weather
pattern taken over a long time or several years.
7. Because polar regions are covered with snow and it is very
cold for most parts of the year. The temperature can be as low
as -37°C.
8. They have a layer of fat under their skin which keeps them hot
and insulated.
9. Because tropical rainforests have rich vegetation, they provide
lot of food and shelter to several animals.
10. Wide and large paws make polar bears good swimmers.
11. The white fur of polar bears merge well with the white

background of snow and so the predators are not able to locate
them easily.
12. Elephants keep themselves cool by flapping their ears like
fans.
Notes
Wind, Storms
and Cyclones 6
You know that the moving air is called wind. You must
have experienced that on some days the wind is calm while
on some other days, the wind blows very fast. The high
speed wind sometimes takes the form of a cyclone and
causes a lot of destruction of life and property. Cyclones
affect mainly the eastern coastal region of our country,
particularly states like Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal and Tamil Nadu. In this chapter we will study the
occurrence of cyclones.
6.1 Air Exerts Pressure

Try to recall now some of your experiences. If you are in
a boat, is it easier to row it if there is wind coming from
behind you? You also find it difficult to ride a bicycle
against the direction of the wind. You know that we have
to fill air into the bicycle tube to keep it tight. Also, you
know that a bicycle tube overfilled with air may burst.
All these experiences show that air exerts pressure. It
is due to the air pressure that the leaves of trees, banners,
or flags flutter when the wind is blowing.
You must have experienced that when you keep
blowing a balloon it bursts. Why does the balloon burst?
The pressure of air inside the balloon increases as more
air is blown into it. As a result the pressure becomes so
high that the balloon bursts.
Check your progress
1. Give two examples where air exerts pressure.
6.2 High Speed Winds are Accompanied by

Reduced Air Pressure
Activity 6.1
• Take two balloons of approximately equal size. Pour
a little water into the balloons.
• Inflate both the balloons
and tie each one by a
string.
• Hang the balloons 8–10
cm apart on a cycle spoke
or a stick as shown in
Fig. 6. 1.
• Blow in the space between
the balloons. Fig 6.1. Blowing between
the balloons.
What do you observe?
When you blew between the balloons, they moved
towards each other. Why does it happen like this?
This happens because the pressure of air between
the balloons was reduced. The pressure on the outer
side of the balloons is more than the pressure in the
space between them. It is this pressure difference that
pushes them towards each other.
From this activity, we conclude that an increase in

wind speed is accompanied by a reduction in air pressure.
Now recall what happens when you keep the mouth
of an inflated balloon towards your face and open its
mouth. You feel the air blowing on your face. Air always
moves from the region where the air pressure is high to
the region where the pressure is low. The greater the
difference in pressure, the faster the air moves. But
how are the pressure differences created in nature? Is
the difference in temperature involved? The following
activities will help you to understand this.
6.3 Air Expands on Heating

Activity 6.2
Take two paper bags or empty paper cups of the same
size. Hang the two bags in the inverted position on the
two ends of a metal or wooden stick as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.2. Hot air rises up.
Tie a piece of thread in the middle of the stick. Hold
the stick by the thread as in a balance. Place a burning
candle below one of the bags as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Observe what happens. Why is the balance of the bags
disturbed? As the air becomes hot, it becomes lighter
and rises up. Therefore, the bag filled with lighter
air goes up. That is also the reason that the smoke
goes up.
Whenever a place gets a lot of heat the air there becomes

warm and rises up and the pressure is reduced. The cold
air from the surrounding regions then rushes in.
For example, during summers the land near the
equator warms up faster. Therefore, most of the time the
temperature of the land is higher than that of water in
the oceans. The air over the land gets heated and rises.
This causes the winds to flow from the oceans towards
the land.
The monsoon winds are generated in a similar manner.
These winds from the oceans carry water and bring rain
to the land. In winters, the wind flows from the land to
the ocean.
Farmers in our country depend mainly on rains for
their harvests. However, in addition to bringing rains,
winds also often create problems, such as thunderstorms
and cyclones.
Check your progress
2. When you blow in between two balloons hanging
side by side, why do they come together?
3. Explain why warm air rises up.
6.4 Thunderstorms and Cyclones

Thunderstorms develop in hot, humid areas like India
very frequently. The rising temperatures produce strong
upward rising winds. These winds carry water droplets
upwards, where they freeze and fall down. The swift
movement of the falling water droplets along with the
rising air creates conditions for lightning and sound.
This event is what we call a thunderstorm. Under certain
circumstances thunderstorms can develop into cyclones.
Level III: Wind, Storms and Cyclones 179
Cyclones can be very
destructive. Most of the
strong cyclones are usually
formed in water bodies like
oceans, seas and lakes.
Strong winds push water
towards the shore. These
are the first indications of
an approaching cyclone.
The water waves produced
by the wind are so powerful
that a person cannot
Fig. 6.3. Rising water level caused by overcome them. The rising
cyclones. water may be as high as
3–12 metres (Fig.6.3). It appears like a water-wall moving
towards the shore. As a result, the seawater enters the
low-lying coastal areas, causing severe loss of life and
property. It also reduces the fertility of the soil.
Continuous heavy rainfall may further worsen the
flood situation. High-speed winds accompanying a
cyclone can damage houses, roads, telephone lines and
other communication systems. It may uproot trees. All
these may cause tremendous loss of life and property.
The whole coastline of India is vulnerable to cyclones,
particularly the east coast. Coastal areas of states of
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
have been affected by cyclones. The west coast of India is
less vulnerable to cyclonic storms. These days with the
advancement of science and technology, satellites and
radars, we are better protected. A cyclone alert or cyclone
warning is issued in advance about an expected strike of
a devastating cyclone.
Check your progress
4. Name two states which are more likely to be affected
by cyclones.
6.5 Safety Measures to Protect us From

Cyclone
• Cyclone shelters have been constructed in the cyclone
prone areas and administrative arrangements are
made for moving people fast to safer places.
• We should not ignore the warnings issued by the
meteorological department through TV, radio, or
newspapers.
• We should make necessary arrangements to shift
the essential household goods, domestic animals
and vehicles, etc. to safer places.
• Avoid driving on roads through standing water, as
floods may have damaged the roads.
• Keep ready the phone numbers of all emergency
services like police, fire brigade and medical centres.
Exercises
1. State which of the following are True or False: What You Have
(a) In summer winds blow from land to ocean. Learnt
(b) Warm air rises up. • Air around us
(c) Cyclones are destructive. exerts pressure.
(d) Air exerts pressure. • Air expands on
2. Fill up the blanks in the following: heating.
(a) Moving air is called_________. • Warm air is
lighter than
(b) Wind blows from a region of ______ pressure to a
region of ______ pressure. cold air.
(c) Warm air is __________than cold air. • Warm air rises
(d) Winds are generated due to __________ heating on the
up, whereas
comparatively
earth.
cooler air tends
3. Name two kinds of destructions caused by a cyclone.
to sink towards
4. List two safety measures necessary for protection from a the earth’s
cyclone.
surface.
5. Explain how monsoon winds bring rains.
• Air moves from
Answers to check your progress high pressure
1. Inflated bicycle tube and inflated balloon (Any other situation region to low
of air exerting pressure may be accepted) pressure region.
2. When we blow air in between two balloons hanging side by • Uneven heating
side, the pressures of air between the balloons is reduced. The on the earth
pressure on the outer sides of the balloons is more than that of
the pressure between them. This pressure difference pushes is the main
the balloons towards each other. cause of wind
3. On heating air expands and becomes lighter. As a result it movement.
rises up. • High air
4. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. (Any two states which are
pressure
affected by cyclone may be accepted.)
difference and
Answers to Exercises high speed
1. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) True winds can
2. (a) Moving air is called wind. cause cyclones.
Level III: Wind, Storms and Cyclones 181

(b) Wind blows from a region of high pressure to a region of
low pressure.
(c) Warm air is lighter than cold air.
(d) Winds are generated due to uneven heating on the
earth.
3. Cyclone can damage houses, telephone lines and other
communication systems. Destruction and loss of life and
property can also occur. (Any type of destruction caused by a
cyclone may be accepted)
4. Two safety measures are
• We should not ignore the warnings issued by the
meteorological department through TV, radio, or
newspapers.
• We should make necessary arrangements to shift the
essential household goods, domestic animals and vehicles,
etc. to safer places. (Any two reasonable safety measures
may be accepted).
5. Monsoon winds blow from oceans towards land in summer.
The winds from the oceans carry water and bring rain to the
land in summer.
Notes
Respiration in
Organisms 7
You are well aware of the fact that all organisms need
energy for carrying out life activities such as growth,
nutrition, transportation, excretion and reproduction.
Energy is needed even when our body is at rest. Where
does this energy come from? How do we get a continuous
supply of energy throughout our life?
Our body gets energy from the food that we eat. The
energy is released by the food when it reacts with oxygen.
The oxygen enters our body during breathing. Breathing
is a part of an overall process called respiration.
Respiration is the vital process in all organisms which
releases energy for all life activities. Let us study the
process of respiration in greater detail.
7.1 What is Respiration?

Respiration is the process of breakdown of food with
release of energy. The process of respiration is divided
into two phases:
(a) Breathing: Movement of air from outside into the
body and from inside the body to outside.
(b) Cellular Respiration: Breakdown of food by oxygen
within the body cells leading to release of energy and
carbon dioxide.
In human beings respiration is completed in four steps:
1. We breathe in oxygen-rich air from the surroundings.
This is called inhalation.
2. Air reaches the respiratory organ from where oxygen
is carried by the blood to each part and each cell of
the body.
3. Within each cell, oxygen breaks down the digested
food and releases energy and carbon dioxide.
4. The carbon dioxide is transported back to the
respiratory organs from where it is released out of
the body. The breathing out of carbon dioxide-rich
air is called exhalation.
Respiration is linked to two other processes–nutrition
and transportation (Fig. 7.1).
NUTRITION TRANSPORTATION
Intake of food absorption of nutrients nutrients reach each cell
Inhalation of air oxygen reaches each cell breakdown of food by

oxygen
RESPIRATION

Release of energy
Fig. 7.1: Relationship between respiration and transportation
Check your progress

1. Write one difference between inhaled air and exhaled
air.
2. Name the gas which is
(a) used in the process of respiration.
(b) formed in the process of respiration.
3. Are breathing and respiration the same? Give
reasons for your answer.
4. Complete the paragraph given below by filling the
empty boxes with appropriate words
blood, digested food, oxygen-rich, oxygen, inhaled,
carbon dioxide, respiratory organ, exhaled, energy,
1 air from the atmostphere is 2 and reaches the

respiratory organs. From there 3 carries the oxygen
to each cell of the body. Here, 4 breaks down the
5 and releases 6 and 7 . Energy is utilised by the
body and CO2 is taken back to the 8 from where, it
is 9 from the body.
7.2 Types of Respiration
After understanding the importance of respiration, let us
try to answer the following questions.
• Is oxygen always essential for respiration? Can
human beings respire without oxygen?
• Are there any organisms in which respiration can
occur in the absence of oxygen?
Though most of the organisms require oxygen for
respiration, a few can respire in the absence of oxygen.
Based on this feature, respiration can be of two types:
(a) Aerobic respiration: This takes place in the presence
of oxygen and the organisms are called aerobes.
(b) Anaerobic respiration: This takes place in the
absence of oxygen and the organisms are called
anaerobes.
Observe Fig. 7.2. Are the products of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration similar?
c
obi n Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Aer iratio
p
res
Digested food
(containing sugars) An
a
res erob
pir i
ati c Carbon dioxide + Alcohol/Lactic acid
on
+ Energy
Fig. 7.2: Products of Aerobic respiration and

Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration leads to the formation of carbon

dioxide, water and release of energy. Anaerobic respiration
results in the formation of alcohol or lactic acid and
energy. But the amount of energy released in anaerobic
respiration is less as compared to that released in aerobic
respiration. A few examples of anaerobic respiration are
given below.
• Yeast cells respire anaerobically and form
carbondioxide and alcohol. This process is called
fermentation and is used in the preparation of bread,
wine and beer.
• During physical exercises the muscle cells of arms and
legs do not get sufficient oxygen. In such situations,
the cells undergo anaerobic respiration to meet the
Level III: Respiration in Organisms 185

extra demand of energy. It results in the formation
of lactic acid which sometimes accumulates in the
muscles causing cramps.
Carbon dioxide and energy are the common products
in both kinds of respiration.
Activity 7.1
Take a test tube and fill it half with water. Dissolve
a little amount of sugar in it and heat the solution
but take care not to boil it. Now add yeast powder to
the warm sugar solution. Tie a deflated balloon to the
mouth of the test tube and keep the setup aside for a
few hours. Observe the balloon and smell the sugar
solution in the test tube.
What do you observe?
• The balloon is inflated.
• The solution has sour smell.
Can you give reasons for your observations?
Check your progress

5. Why do human muscles respire anaerobically
during heavy/brisk exercises?
6. Circle the odd one out.
(a) Carbon dioxide, lactic acid, alcohol, yeast
(b) Aerobes, water, energy, alcohol
7. Fill the following table:
S.No. Aerobic Anaerobic
respiration respiration
1. End products
2. Amount of
Energy
8. Why do we sometimes experience cramps in our leg

muscles after running or jogging?
7.3 Breathing and Breathing Mechanism

You may have noticed that after physical activity like
jumping, climbing stairs, running or brisk exercise, we
breathe faster. What is the reason? Our body needs more
energy during these physical activities. Faster breathing
brings more oxygen in the body which breaks down more
food releasing the required energy. The number of times
a person breathes in a minute is called the breathing
rate. It varies based on age, sex and physical state of
the individual. Don’t we feel hungry after hectic physical
activity? Why?
Take a deep breath and keep the palm on your
abdomen, you will feel the raising and lowering of the
abdomen. It is due to breathing which involves a set of
organs in our body. These organs are: nostrils, nasal
cavity, wind pipe and lungs; which collectively constitute
the respiratory system (Fig. 7.3).
Nasal passage
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Trachea
Lungs
Ribs
Diaphragm
Fig. 7.3: Respiratory system of human beings
Breathing involves two processes, inhalation (in-

breathing) and exhalation (out-breathing). In inhalation,
oxygen-rich air enters through nostrils and during
exhalation carbon dioxide-rich air goes out (Fig.7.4).
Inhalation
Air Nostrils Nasal Cavity Wind pipe Lungs
Exhalation
Fig. 7.4: Direction of air during breathing

Inhalation and exhalation occur alternatively and
involves the expansion and contraction of lungs present
in the chest cavity. Ribs surrounding the chest cavity
and a large flat muscle, the diaphragm, on the floor of
the chest cavity help in the process. Carefully study the
diagrams given as Figs. 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7 to understand
the process.
Inhalation
Ribs move upwards and outwards

and Chest cavity increases in size
Diaphragm moves downwards
Lungs get filled with air and expand Air rushes into the lungs
Fig. 7.5 Events during inhalation
Exhalation
Ribs move inwards and downwards

and Chest cavity decreases in size
Diaphragm moves upwards
Lungs contract in size Air is forced out of the lungs
Fig. 7.6: Events during exhalation
Air is Air forced

drawn in out
Ribs move Ribs move

out back
Diaphragm Diaphragm
moves down moves back
(a) Inhalation (b) Exhalation
Fig. 7. 7: Mechanism of breathing in human beings
Exhaled air is warmer and rich in carbon dioxide and
water vapours. If you exhale on a mirror, you will see
small droplets of water collecting on the mirror. Similarly,
if you breathe out onto the back of your palm, you will
feel the warm exhaled air.
Hiccups are caused by the sudden movements of the

diaphragm which can take place because of irritation
of the diaphragm, fast eating or over-eating. These
movements are not under our control and often subside
on their own.
Check your progress

9. Arrange the following activities in decreasing order
of breathing rates.
Jogging, sleeping, walking, playing carrom
10. Which one of the following is True for inhalation?
(a) Ribs move upwards and inwards.
(b) Ribs move downwards and inwards.
(c) Ribs move upwards and outwards.
(d) Ribs move downwards and inwards.
11. Why do small water droplets appear on the surface
of a mirror when you exhale on it?

12. What would be the effect of inhalation and
exhalation on the size of chest?
Breathing in Other Animals

Animals have different breathing organs depending upon
their habitats.
Name of the animal Habitat Organ of breathing
Cockroaches and other Land Tracheae (air tubes) which
land Insects open outside by spiracles.
Frogs Water and Lungs (land), Moist skin
land (water)
Fish Water Gills (Supplied with blood
vessels)
Birds Air Lungs and air sacs
Cows, buffaloes, goats Land Lungs

Like animals, plants also respire. Leaves of plants
have tiny pores on their surface called stomata which
help in the exchange of gases. Roots absorb air present
in the air spaces between soil particles.
Check your progress
13. Match the organs of breathing in Column ‘A’ with
the organisms possessing them in Column ‘B’:
Column A Column B
(a) Gills (i) Grasshopper
(b) Skin (ii) Frog
What You Have (c) Tracheae (iii) Dog
Learnt (d) Lungs (iv) Fish
• All animals
need energy to (e) Air Sacs (v) Pigeon
perform different 14. Name the air tubes and their openings found in
activities. insects.
Respiration is
15. Why do frogs have a dual mode of breathing?
a continuous
and essential
process for Exercises
the survival of 1. Take a small quantity of wheat flour (50 g) and divide
organisms. into two equal portions A and B. Add a little sugar and
• Respiration yeast to portion B. Knead portion A using water at normal
provides the temperature and knead portion B with warm water.
required energy Keep them aside for 3-4 hours and observe. Answer the
by breaking following questions and give reasons for your answers.
down the food. (a) Is there any difference in size between portion A and
• Respiration B?
consists of two (b) Did you find any kind of smell in portion B?
steps; breathing 2. Observe Fig. 7.8 carefully and answer the questions
and cellular given beneath them.
respiration.
• Breathing is
the process of
exchange of
gases during
which we inhale
oxygen-rich
air and exhale
carbon dioxide-
(a) (b)
rich air. Fig. 7.8
(a) Which figure represents inhalation and which
represents exhalation?
(b) Mark arrows in the figures showing the movement of
air, ribs and diaphragm.
What You Have
3. Why do we see a cloud of exhaled air on a cold day?
Learnt
4. What would happen if our diaphragm stops moving? • During cellular
5. Which property of yeast is used in the preparation of respiration the
wine and beer? inhaled oxygen
6. Take a clean plastic bottle containing a small quantity of reaches each
freshly prepared lime water. Fix a tight fitting cap/lid on cell of the body
it. Make a hole in the lid and insert a straw through the and breaks
hole so that it dips in the lime water. Now blow air gently
down digested
through the straw a few times. Make your observations
and answer the following questions:
food into carbon
dioxide and
(a) Did you observe any change in the colour of lime
water releasing
water?
energy in the
(b) Give reasons for your observation.
process.
(c) Is it necessary to fix a tight fitting cap on the bottle?
Why?
• Respiration
may occur in
(d) Why should the straw dip in lime water?
the presence
7. State whether the following statements are True or False.
or absence
(a) During decreased physical activity, our breathing of oxygen,
rate slows down because we do not require any
called aerobic
energy.
respiration
(b) Diaphragm is a muscular sheet which surrounds the
and anaerobic
lungs and helps in breathing.
respiration,
(c) Frogs have dual mode of breathing because they can
live both in water and on land.
respectively.
(d) Human muscles always respire anaerobically and
• The number
produce lactic acid. of times we
8. Choose the correct options. breathe per
minute is called
(i) After running or performing heavy physical exercises,
our breathing becomes
breathing rate.
(a) faster and deeper (b) faster and shallow
• Lungs, located
in the chest
(c) slower and deeper (d) slower and shallow
cavity, are
(ii) Yeast is used in the bread making industry because
the chief
it produces
respiratory
(a) alcohol (b) energy
organs in
(c) water (d) carbon dioxide
human beings.
Answers to check your progress • Different
1. Inhaled air is rich in oxygen while exhaled air is rich in carbon organisms have
dioxide. different organs
2. (a) Oxygen (b) Carbon dioxide for breathing.
3. No, breathing is a part of respiration. Breathing is the process

of exchanging gases with atmosphere during which we inhale
oxygen-rich air and exhale carbon dioxide-rich air. Respiration
is the breakdown of food in the presence of oxygen leading to
release of energy in our cells.
4. 1- Oxygen-rich; 2- inhaled; 3- blood; 4- oxygen; 5- digested food
6- carbon dioxide; 7- energy; 8- respiratory organ; 9- exhaled.
5. We need extra energy while doing heavy exercises. Sometimes
our muscles do not get sufficient oxygen for respiration, so
they respire anaerobically to fulfil the demand of energy.
6. (a) Carbon dioxide, lactic acid, alcohol, yeast
(b) Aerobes, water, energy, alcohol

7.
S.No. Aerobic Anaerobic
Respiration Respiration
1. End products Carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide,
water alcohol/lactic
acid
2. Amount of More Less
energy
8. While running or jogging, sometimes our leg muscles respire

anaerobically to fulfil the need of energy and produce lactic
acid as one of the products. The lactic acid accumulated in the
muscles causes cramps.
9. Jogging < walking < playing carrom < sleeping
10. (c)
11. The exhaled air contains water vapours. When we exhale on the
surface of a mirror, the water vapours condense and appear as
water droplets.
12. Inhalation increases the size of the chest because of the
expansion of chest cavity, whereas, exhalation
decreases the size of the chest because of the reduction in the
size of chest cavity.
13. (a) (iv); (b) (ii); (c) (i); (d) (ii), (iii), (v); (e) (v)
14. Air tubes – tracheae; openings – spiracles
15. Frogs can live in water as well as on the land. Therefore, they
have dual mode of respiration. When on land, they respire
through the lungs, while in water they respire through their
skin.
1. (a) The size of portion B is more than the size of portion A.
(b) Portion B has sour smell.
(c) Portion B has live yeast which feed on the sugar added to
the flour. They respire anaerobically and produce carbon
dioxide and alcohol. The release of carbon dioxide raises
the dough resulting in increase in size. Formation of alcohol
results in sour smell.
2. See Fig. 7.7 (a) and (b).
3. On a cold day, the exhaled air is warmer than the surrounding
air and is saturated with water vapours. When the exhaled
air meets the cold air of the atmosphere, the water vapours
condense into mist.
4. If our diaphragm stops moving, our lungs would not be able to
expand or contract. As a result, we will not be able to breathe
and die due to suffocation.
5. Yeast respires anaerobically and produces alcohol. Alcohol is
used for making wine and beer from grapes and barley.
6. (a) Lime water turns milky.
(b) The exhaled air contains carbon dioxide which reacts with
lime water and turns it milky.
(c) The cap should be tightly fitted on the bottle to prevent the
escape of exhaled CO2.
(d) The straw should be dipped in lime water so that whatever
air we exhale dissolves in the lime water.
7. (a) False (b) False (c) True (d) False
8. (i) (a); (ii) (d);
Suggested Project:
Sources: Newspapers, magazines, local doctor, community people.
Collect information about the effects of smoking on lungs. You
can also interview a person who has the habit of smoking. A few
questions that can be asked are:
(a) How and when did he start smoking?
(b) What is his monthly expenditure on smoking?
(c) Is he facing any health problems because of smoking?
(d) Does he want to give up smoking but is unable to?
(e) Is he aware of the harmful effects of smoking?
Write down their views and compile them in order to understand
the harmful effects of smoking.
Notes

Transportation
in Animals and 8
Plants
You must have observed a system of pipes in and outside
houses, buildings and apartments. What are they meant
for? They are used for transporting potable and waste
water, rain water and domestic wastes. A similar system
of tubes and pipes is present in the body of animals and
plants too. Can you analyse their function? What moves
through them?
We have learnt that all organisms need food, water and
oxygen for survival. These have to be carried to various
parts of the body. Similarly, you may wonder how water
absorbed by plants is carried to the stem and leaves.
During respiration carbon dioxide is released. It has
to be transported to the lungs for removal from the body.
Cells also produce certain waste products which are toxic
and hence they have to be removed from the body.
The process of movement of materials from one part
of body to another is called transportation. Let us try to
understand how these materials move in the body.
Check your progress
1. Match the incomplete sentences given in Column A
with their last words from Column B.
Column A Column B
(i) Leaves need water for (a) anus
( ii) Oxygen is inhaled by (b) roots
humans during
(iii) Plants absorb water from (c) respiration
the soil by their
(iv) Undigested food is (d) photosynthesis
expelled out of the body
through
2. State True or False. Correct the false statements.
(a) In animals, nutrients absorbed from food are
carried to the stomach.
(b) Carbon dioxide produced by cells is transported
to lungs for removal (elimination).
(c) Oxygen that we breathe in is transported only to
the brain.
8.1 Circulatory System in Humans

Animals require a specialised system for transportation
and distribution of materials to different parts of the
body. This system in animals is called the circulatory
system (Fig 8.1). It consists of blood, blood vessels
and the heart. Heart
Vein
Blood and blood vessels
Artery
Blood is a red fluid which flows in the body through
hollow tubes called blood vessels. It consists of
two components: fluid part called plasma and the
cellular part. Three types of cells are present in the
plasma, the red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells
(WBC) and platelets.
Red blood cells contain an iron pigment called
haemoglobin which helps in the transport of oxygen.
Fig 8.1 Circulatory system
White blood cells fight against disease causing ( Arteries are shown in red
germs, while platelets help in the formation of blood- and veins in blue)
clots to prevent loss of blood from cuts and wounds.
Blood vessels are spread throughout our body. The
blood which flows through these vessels transports
different substances from one part of the body to the
other. Blood vessels are of three types—the thick-walled
arteries, thin walled veins and the fine capillaries which
join the arteries and veins.
Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all
parts of the body. Veins carry carbon dioxide-rich blood
from all parts of the body back to the heart.
Check your progress
3. Which component in blood helps clotting?
4. A few substances are listed in the Table. Classify
them into A or B based on the following :
‘A’ is a substance that is carried to different parts of
the body for utilisation.
Level III: Transportation in Animals and Plants 195

‘B’ is a substance that is carried to an organ for
removal.
Substance ‘A’ or ‘B’
Check Your Progress
(i) Oxygen
(ii) Urea
(iii) Carbon dioxide
(iv) Nutrients absorbed from food
Heart
How does blood reach all parts of the body? The circulatory
system has an important organ, the heart (Fig 8.2). The
heart pumps blood, which carries several substances to
different parts of the body.
Vena cava
Aorta
Pulmonary
artery
Right atrium Left atrium
Right ventricle Left ventricle
Fig. 8.2 Human heart

The heart has four chambers—the two upper chambers
are called the atria (singular: atrium) and the two lower
chambers are called the ventricles.
Listed below are various arteries and veins that carry
blood from and to the heart.
Table 8.1: Circulation of blood in the heart
Heart Parts of the Pathway of blood inside heart
heart
Left side of Left atrium Pulmonary arteries bring oxygen-rich blood
heart from the lungs to the left atrium.
Left ventricle Left atrium pumps blood to left ventricle.
Aorta From left ventricle blood is pumped to
different parts of the body through the aorta.
Right side Right atrium Veins bring carbon dioxide-rich blood from
of heart all parts of the body to right atrium.
Right ventricle Right atrium pumps blood to right ventricle.
Pulmonary veins From right ventricle, blood is pumped to the
lungs through pulmonary veins.
The presence of four chambers in the heart prevents
mixing of oxygen-rich blood and carbon dioxide-rich
blood. Why should mixing of blood be prevented?
Check your progress
5. In Fig. 8.3 a, draw Lungs
arrows along the
labelled arteries Pulmonary
Pulmonary
and veins to show artery vein
the direction of Heart
flow of blood.
Vein Artery
6. Differentiate between
arteries and veins. Capillaries
7. Correct the following
statements:
Fig. 8.3 (a) Schematic diagram
a) Arteries carry of circulation
carbon dioxide-
rich blood from

the heart to (i) (ii)
all parts of the
body.
b) Veins carry
carbon dioxide- (iii) (iv)
rich blood from
Fig. 8.3 (b)
all parts of the
body to the lungs.
8. Fig. 8.3 b depicts/represents the four chambers of
the human heart. Label the four chambers, (i) to (iv).
8.2 How is Circulation Maintained by the

Heart?
Heart is a muscular organ. The rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of muscles of the various chambers of heart is
called the heartbeat. It maintains circulation of blood
in the body. This movement is called the pulse. Pulse is
due to the blood flow because of constant jerks in arteries.
The number of pulse beats per minute is called the pulse
rate. Let us perform an activity to understand this.

Activity 8.1
Place the middle and index finger of your right hand on

the inner side of your left wrist and gently press it down
(Fig. 8.4). Can you feel a throbbing movement? This is
called the pulse beat or simply pulse. How many pulse
beats could you count in a minute? A resting person,
usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per
minute. Find other places in your body where you can
Fig. 8.4 Pulse point in
the wrist feel the pulse. Record your own pulse rate and those of
your classmates in Table 8.1
Table 8.2: Pulse rate
S.No. Name Pulse Rate
1.
2.
3.
4.
Activity 8.2
You must have
observed that a doctor
Tube Chest piece
uses an instrument
while listening to
the heartbeat of a Ear
patient. This is called piece
stethoscope (Fig. 8.5a).
You can make your (a) Stethoscope
own stethoscope. Take
a small funnel of 6-7
(b) Model of stethoscope
cm in diameter. Fix
a rubber tube (50 cm Fig. 8.5 Instrument to hear
long) tightly on the heartbeat
stem of the funnel. Stretch a rubber sheet (or a balloon)
on the mouth of the funnel and fix it tightly with a
rubber band. Place the open end of the tube on one of
your ears and the mouth of the funnel on your chest
near the heart (Fig. 8.5 b). Now try to hear carefully. Do
you hear a regular throbbing sound? The sound that
you hear is that of heart beat. Count the number of
beats in a minute? Count again after running for 4-5
minutes. Compare your observations.
In Table 8.3, record your own pulse rate and heart
beat and that of your friends while resting and after
running. Try to find the relationship between your heart
beat and pulse rate. Each heart beat generates one pulse
in the arteries. The pulse rate per minute indicates the
rate of heart beat.
Table 8.3
Name of While resting After running
student (4-5 minutes)
Heartbeat Pulse rate Heart beat Pulse rate
This rhythmic beating of the various chambers of

heart maintains the circulation of blood and transport of
substances to different parts of the body.
Check your progress
9. What is a pulse? Name some pulse points located
on your body.
8.3 Excretory System in Humans

Our body produces various kinds of waste materials.
These are toxic, therefore, they have to be transported
to specific organs for removal from
the body. The process of removal of
(a)(a)
Kidney
wastes produced in cells of living
organisms is called excretion. It occurs
in all living organisms. You know that
carbon dioxide is removed from the
(b)
(b)Ureter
body through lungs during exhalation.
Undigested food is removed as faeces
during egestion. Sweat containing
water, urea and salts is removed
(c) Urinary(c)
bladder
through skin. Urea is another waste
product which is excreted in the form
(d)(d)
Urethra
of urine by the kidneys. The different
(e)
parts in our body involved in excretion (e) Urinary opening
form the excretory system (Fig 8.6). Fig 8.6 Human excretory system

How is Urine Excreted?
Human beings have a pair of kidneys as main excretory
organs. The blood which reaches the kidneys contains
both useful and harmful substances. Kidneys filter the
blood and remove the harmful substances from the body
with the help of ureters, urinary bladder and the urethra
(Fig. 8.6). Let us understand the process by the following
flow chart.
Part involved Process of urine formation
Kidneys Kidneys filter out harmful waste materials from the blood as
urine. They also absorb useful substances back into the blood.
Ureters Urine from the kidneys flows into tubes called ureters.
Urine flowing in ureters gets collected in the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder
Urine passes out through urethra, a muscular tube with an
Urethra opening.
Check your progress

10. Label the organs (a) to (e) of the
human excretory system in the (a)
given Figure.
(b)
11. Where is urine stored?
12. How does urine reach the urinary (c)
bladder? (d)
(e)
13. How is urine passed out of the Human excretory
urinary bladder? system
What is Kidney Failure?

Kidney failure is a condition in a person whose kidneys
have stopped working due to some infection or injury.
The blood of such a person is filtered from time to time
through the process of dialysis.
8.4 Transport of Materials in Plants

You are aware that roots of plants absorb water and
dissolved minerals from the soil. These are required by
the leaves and other parts of the plant located above the
soil. Similarly, the food prepared in the leaves is needed
by the entire plant including the roots. Let us see how
these substances are transported from one part of the
plant to the other.
Activity 8.3
Take a potted plant and do not water it for 3-4 days.
You will observe that its leaves have wilted (Fig. 8.7 a).
Water the plant. You will observe that the wilted leaves
recover very soon (Fig 8.7 b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.7 (a) Watering a plant with wilted leaves
(b) Recovery of leaves after watering
Check your progress

14. Choose the correct option.
Wilted leaves of plant recover on watering because –
(a) leaves absorb water that fall on their surface.
(b) extra water stored in the stem is conducted
upwards into the leaves.
(c) water is absorbed by the roots from the soil and
conducted upwards through the stem into the
leaves.
(d) water is absorbed by the stem of the wilted plant
and conducted to the leaves.
Paheli asked Boojho to uproot a young mango plant

from the bushes and transplant it in their school
garden. He pulled it out and delightfully exclaimed, “ I
have got all the leaves intact” as he dangled it in front
of Paheli’s eyes. Paheli retorted and said, “It’s more
important to have all the roots intact rather than all
the leaves”.

Activity 8.4
• Put a few drops of red ink or food

colour in a beaker containing
water.
• Place a young balsam plant in
the beaker for one hour(Fig 8.8).
• Observe the plant and answer Fig. 8.8 Transport of water
the following questions. through stem
Check your progress

15. What do you observe after an hour?
16. What does the red colour in leaves indicate?
17. Why do leaves need water?
18. What arrangement do you expect the plant to have
for transportation of food from leaves to other parts
of the plant? (Open-ended question)
What is the Role of Vascular Tissue in Plants?

Plants have two types of vessels for transport of materials.
Xylem helps in the transport of water and minerals,
while phloem helps in transport of food synthesised in
leaves. Xylem and phloem together are called the vascular
tissue (Fig 8.9).
Root hair
(a)
Xylem vessels
(b)
Fig. 8.9 Transportation of water and minerals in
(a) a section of root (b) a tree
What is the Role of Transpiration in Plants?

All the water absorbed by roots is not utilised by the plant.
Excess water evaporates through the stomata of leaves.
This process is called transpiration. Transpiration
generates a force which pulls upwards the water absorbed
by roots from the soil, so that water reaches the stem
and leaves. Transpiration also cools the plant because What You Have
evaporation of water from any surface causes its cooling. Learnt
• Movement
Exercises of materials
1. Fill in the blanks within the
(a) ___________ is the red coloured fluid that flows in body is called
blood vessels. transportation.
(b) The fluid part of blood is called ___________ Circulatory
(c) The three types of cells present in blood are _______, System in
________ and _________. Humans
(d) The presence of ___________ makes the blood red • Circulatory
coloured. system consists
(e) Blood transports useful and waste substances through of blood, blood
___________ ___________. vessels and
(f) On reaching the tissues, arteries divide and redivide heart.
into extremely thin tubes called _________. These in • Red blood
turn reunite to form ________ that empty blood into cells (RBC)
the ________. contain a red
2. Match the waste materials in Column A with the pigment called
excretory organ given in Column B. haemoglobin
Column A Column B that carries
Waste material Excretory organ oxygen.
1. Carbon dioxide a. skin • White blood
2. Sweat b. lungs cells (WBC) fight
3. Urine c. kidneys against germs
that enter our
3. Choose the correct option: body.
(i). Lungs, anus, skin and urethra–all together are parts • Platelets form
of which system? blood clots
(a) Respiration which plug cuts
(b) Digestion on the body to
(c) Excretion stop bleeding.
(d) Transportation • Heart is a
(ii). When blood reaches the kidneys it contains muscular organ
(a) Both useful and harmful substances. and it has four
chambers.
(b) Only urine
• Arteries, veins
(c) Water and urea
and capillaries
(d) Undigested food
are three types
4. How is circulation of blood maintained in the human body? of blood vessels.
5. Why do we need a healthy heart?

What You Have 6. What are the various waste materials produced in our
body?
Learnt
• The rhythmic 7. How are waste materials produced in our body?
contraction and 8. Which part of plants absorbs water and minerals?
relaxation of the 9. Where is water transported to after absorbtion by the
heart muscles roots of a plant?
constitute a 10. What is kidney failure?
heartbeat. 11. Label the parts of heart (a to i) in the given figure. You
• The number of have to choose the terms given below: Right atrium,
pulse beats per left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle, pulmonary
minute is called artery, pulmonary veins, vena cava, aorta and partition.
the pulse rate. separting the right and left side.
Excretory System (a) (e)

in Humans
• The process (f)
of removal of (g)
wastes from the (b) (h)
body is called
excretion. (c) (i)
• Human kidneys
filter the blood
and remove (d)
harmful Figure of heart.
substances
as urine,
1. (i) -d (ii) -c (iii) -b (iv)-a
whereas useful 2. (a) False: In animals, the nutrients absorbed from food are
substances are carried to varous parts of the body.
absorbed back (b) True
into the blood. (c) False: The oxygen that we breathe in is transported to
lungs.
• The kidneys, 3. Platelets.
the ureters, 4. (i) A (ii) B (iii) B (iv) A
the urinary 5.
bladder and the Lungs
urethra form the
excretory system.
Pulmonary
• Dialysis is the artery Pulmonary
process by Heart vein
which the blood
Vein Artery
of a person
with damaged
kidneys Capillaries
is filtered
periodically.
6.
Arteries Veins
Arteries carry oxygen-rich Veins carry carbon dioxide-
blood from the heart to all rich blood from all parts of
parts of the body. the body back to the heart.
Arteries have thick elastic Veins have thin walls. They
walls because the blood have valves which allow
flow is rapid and at a high blood to flow only towards
pressure. the heart. What You Have
7. (a) Arteries usually carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to Learnt
all parts of the body. Transport of
(b) Veins usually carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all
Substances in
parts of the body to the heart.
8. (i) Right atrium (ii) Left atrium (iii) Right ventricle Plants
(iv) Left ventricle • Plants have
9. The throbbing movement, felt over some points on our body, pipe-like
due to the flow of blood in the arteries is called the pulse. tissues called
Some of the pulse points are wrist, temple, throat and behind
xylem and
the knees.
10. (a) Kidney; (b) Ureter; (c) Urinary bladder; phloem for
(d) Urethra; (e) Urinary opening transportation
11. Urine is stored in the urinary bladder. of materials.
12. From the kidneys the urine is stored in the urinary bladder • Xylem
through tube-like ureters.
13. The urinary bladder passes out the urine through a muscular
transports
tube called urethra. water and
14. (c) water is absorbed by the roots and conducted upwards
minerals in the
through the stem into the leaves. plant.
15. We observe a column of red colour rise in the stem and the
• Phloem
leaves also appear red.
16. It indicates that plants have a system of pipes that transports transports food
water and nutrients from roots through stem to the leaves. synthesised in
17. Leaves require water for photosynthesis the leaves to
18. The food produced in the leaves has to be transported to other all parts of the
parts of the plants such as the stem, the roots, the flowers and
plant.
the fruits.
19. I would expect the plant to have another set of pipe-like system • Xylem and
for transportation of food from the leaves to other parts of the phloem
plant.(or any other logical answer). together
constitute
the vascular
1. (a) Blood is the fluid that flows in blood vessels.
(b) Blood has fluid part called plasma.
tissue.
(c) The three types of cells present in blood are RBC, WBC • Water
and platelets. evaporates
(d) The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red. through the
(e) Blood transports useful and waste substances through stomata of
blood vessels.
(f) On reaching the tissues, arteries divide and redivide into leaves by the
extremely thin tubes called capillaries. Capillaries in turn process of
reunite to form veins that empty blood into the heart. transpiration.

2.
Column A Column B
(Waste Material) (Excretory organ)
(i) Carbon dioxide (a) lungs
(ii) Sweat (a) skin
(iii) Urine (c) kidneys
3. (i) -c (ii) -a
4. The rhythmic beating of the various chambers of the heart
maintains circulation of blood of the body.
5. We need a healthy heart for efficient transport of blood in our
body.
6. The various waste materials produced in our body are sweat,
urine, faeces and carbon dioxide.
7. Waste materials are produced as a by product of various life
processes in our body.
8. Roots
9. The water absorbed by the roots is transported to the stem
and leaves.
10. Kidney failure is a condition in which a person’s kidneys stop
working due to infection or injury.
11. (a) vena cava; (b) right atrium;
(c) partition; (d) right ventricle;
(e) aorta; (f) pulmonary artery;
(g) pulmonary vein; (h) left atrium;
(i) left ventricle
Notes
Reproduction
in Plants 9
Reproduction is an important characteristic of organisms.
It is the process by which an organism produces
individuals of its kind. Reproduction enables species to
increase its population. If they do not reproduce, their
population will decrease and they will disappear. In this
chapter we will learn how reproduction occurs in plants.
9.1 Parts of a Plant

At Level-I you studied about the various parts of a plant
and their functions. You must have observed that after
a certain period of growth, most plants bear flowers.
The flowers change into fruits which bear seeds. Seeds
germinate and form new plants. Therefore, flowers are
called the reproductive parts of plants. On the other
hand, roots, stem and leaves are the vegetative parts.
Check your progress
1. Label the parts of plant in Fig.
9.1.
2. Use letter ‘R’ for reproductive
part and ‘V’ for vegetative part
in the following Table.
S.No. Part of plant ‘R’ or
‘V’
i Root
ii Stem
iii Flower Fig. 9.1
iv Leaf
9.2 Types of Reproduction in Plants

Plants can reproduce by two methods—sexual and
asexual. You know that most plants grow by germination
of seeds. Formation of seeds involves fusion of the male
and female gametes. This type of reproduction is called
sexual reproduction. The type of reproduction in which
gametes are not involved is called asexual reproduction.
Seeds are not formed in asexual reproduction. We shall
first understand the various types of asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction
Activity 9.1
Visit a garden or an orchard. Interview the owner/
gardener to find out the methods to grow different
plants. Try to grow some plants from their parts such
as root, stem and leaves.
Check your progress

3. In the list of plants given below, put a tick (√) mark
on the parts which can produce a new plant.
S.No. Name of plant Which part can produce a new
plant?
Root Stem Leaf Seed
1. Rose
2. Mango
3. Carrot
4. Bryophyllum
4. Give four examples of plants that are capable of

vegetative propagation. Name the vegetative part of
that plant.
S.No. Name of plant Its vegetative part that
grows into a new plant
1.
2.
3.
4.
Paheli told Boojho, “Shhhhh.... I quietly pulled out this

twig of money plant from the neighbour’s garden. I
have heard that only a stolen piece of twig can grow
into a new plant.” Boojho told her disbelievingly, “It’s
not true. Just a part of stem of the broken twig with
2-3 nodes can grow into a new plant!”
Vegetative Propagation
The ability of some plants like rose, ginger, potato and
Bryophyllum produce new plants from their vegetative
parts is called vegetative propagation. It is also a type
of asexual reproduction. Can you reason out? The new
plant is identical to the parent. Vegetative propagation
may take place in nature or by artificial methods
(Figs. 9.2 – 9.5). Look at the examples given below:
Eyes
Bud in the
axil of leaf
Node
Fig: 9.2 Stem cutting of rose Fig: 9.3 Potato plants sprouting
from ‘eyes’ of potato tuber
Fig: 9.4 Ginger with new Fig: 9.5 Leaf of Bryophyllum with
plants sprouting from it buds in the margin
Budding
Activity 9.2
(To be demonstrated by the teacher)

Preparing a yeast culture
Divide the class into two groups. Collect a small
quantity of sugar solution and sugar cane juice. Each
group can select any one of the sample. Dissolve a pinch
of dried yeast powder in water. Add/mix few drops of
Level III: Reproduction in Plants 209

this to both the samples. Cover the containers and leave
them aside, undisturbed in a warm place, for 1-2 hours.
Write your observations on the blackboard on the basis
of change in colour and odour of the solutions. Take a
drop of the solution on a glass slide and observe under
a microscope. Observe once at the beginning and again
after 1-2 hours.
Observation
S.No. Change Food stuff used for activity
Group I (Sugar Group II
solution) (Sugar cane
juice)
1. In colour
2. In odour
3. Under the
microscope
You will observe that the colour of the solutions
becomes yellowish and gives a sour smell. Yeast cells
reproduce rapidly and form large number of new yeast
cells.
Under a microscope, you may see the parent cell with
small bulb-like protrusion, called a bud. Yeast is a
unicellular fungus which reproduces by budding (Fig
9.6)when it gets a suitable medium containing sugar.
The bud continues to grow until it separates from the
parent cell forming a new independent cell. Sometimes
the buds may not separate from each other and may
appear as a chain.
Developing Chain of buds
bud New bud
Yeast cell
Fig. 9.6 Reproduction in yeast by budding
Spore Formation
In the chapter ‘Nutrition’ you studied about saprotrophs,
mushrooms, bread mould and yeast. Do you know that
some varieties of mushrooms are cultivated and sold
in the market? You are also familiar with the cottony
growth of bread mould. Saprotrophs have a special way
of reproduction by producing spores (Fig 9.7). Spores
are asexual reproductive bodies. Each spore is covered
Fig. 9.7 Reproduction by spore

formation in fungi
by a hard protective coat to withstand unfavourable
conditions. Spores develop into new plants.
Sexual Reproduction
Role of Flower in Sexual Reproduction
Flower is the most attractive part of the plant. You have
read about the various parts of a flower in Level I. Take
a flower like that of pitunia and observe the reproductive
parts. Stamens are the male reproductive part and
pistil is the female reproductive part. Stamens produce
pollen grains that contain the male gamete. Ovary of
the pistil contains the ovules that contains egg or the
female gamete. Male gamete fuses with female gamete to
produce a seed. Seeds germinate to produce new plants.
Bisexual and Unisexual Flowers
Are all flowers similar? Flowers that contain both male
and female parts are known as bisexual flowers.
Examples: mustard, rose and petunia. Flowers that
possess either stamens or pistil are known as unisexual
flowers. Examples: corn, papaya and cucumber.
Pollination
Have you ever noticed a yellow powdery dust spread
over some parts of a flower? This happens when the
anthers open and release the pollen grains. They may be

dispersed by wind, water or by animals, especially insects
and birds. They reach the stigma of flowers. This process
of transfer of pollen from anther to stigma is known as
pollination. There are two types of pollination–(i) cross
pollination and (ii) self-pollination.
When pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of a

flower on a different plant of the same type, it is known
as cross-pollination (Fig. 9.8 a). Examples: apple, pear
and walnut. When pollen grains are transferred to stigma
of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on
the same plant, it is known as self-pollination (Fig.9.8 b).
Examples include peanuts, tomato, soyabean and most
citrus fruits.
Anther Anther
Stigma
Stigma
Flowers of different plants Flowers of the same plant

(a) Cross pollination (b) Self Pollination
Fig. 9.8 Types of pollination
Fertilisation
What happens after the pollen is deposited on the
stigma? The pollen produces
Pollen grain (germinating)
a pollen tube (Fig. 9.9 a)
which reaches the ovary and
Pollen
tube releases the male gamete.
Zygote The male gamate fuses with
formation
the egg (the female gamete)
to form the zygote (Fig.
Ovum (egg) 9.9 b). This fusion is called
inside ovule
(a) (b) fertilisation. The zygote
Fig: 9.9 Fertilisation (zygote formation) develops into an embryo.
Check your progress
5. Observe the Fig. 9.10 (a). It shows unisexual flowers of
corn present on the same plant. The male flowers are
on the top and female flowers are situated below.
Observe the arrows and mention the type of pollination.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.10
6. (a) Label only reproductive parts of flower in the

Fig. 9.10 (b).
(b) Is it a bisexual flower or a unisexual flower?
Give reasons.
Fruit and Seed

After fertilisation, ovule
becomes the seed and ovary
Seed
becomes the fruit (Fig. 9.11).
Fruit protects the seeds.
After the fruit is formed, Fruit
wall
other parts of the flower
generally fall off. The embryo
is present in the seed. Seeds
Fig. 9.11 Section of an apple
have cotyledons that have fruit
food reserves for nourishing
the embryo.When seeds are sown in the soil, the embryo
inside the seed develops into a new plant.
9.3 Fruit and Seed Dispersal

What would happen if all the fruits and seeds fell under
the parent plant? They would compete for space, sunlight,
air, water and minerals and would not grow into healthy
plants. How do seeds reach to far off places? Can they
fly? Fruits or seeds of certain plants have special features
that help them to travel large distances, which increases

their chance of survival. This is called dispersal of seeds.
Seeds and fruits can be dispersed by wind, water and
animals.
A few examples are given below(Figs. 9.12 – 9.15).

Observe these and note down the features helpful in
dispersal. Guess the agents which assist in dispersal.
Seed
Wing
(a) (b) (a) (b)

Fig. 9.12 Seeds of (a) Drumstick Fig. 9.13 (a) Light and hairy fruit
(b) Maple of sunflower and
(b) Hairy seed of madar
Fig. 9.14 Balsam seeds dispersed Fig. 9.15 Spiny seeds of Xanthium
due to bursting of fruits with sudden dispersed by animals
jerks
Check your progress

7. Name the agent or mechanism of dispersal of the
following fruits/seeds.
(a) Lotus fruit
(b) Coconut
(c) Mango
(d) Seeds of silk cotton
1. Match the following Learnt
S.No. Column A Column B • Reproduction is a
1. Vegetative parts of a (a) flower
process wherein
plant new individuals
2. Reproductive part of a (b) possess either are formed from
plant stamens or pistil their parents.
3. Stamens (c) possess both male • In asexual
and female parts reproduction,
4. Pistil (d) female reproductive seeds are not
part formed. It involves
5. Bisexual flowers (e) male reproductive only one parent.
part
• The reproduction
6. Unisexual flowers (f) roots, stem and of plants from the
leaves
vegetative parts is
2. Correct the following sentences: called vegetative
a) When pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of propagation.
the same flower or to the stigma of another flower • Sexual
on the same plant, the process is known as cross- reproduction
pollination. involves the
b) When pollen grains are transferred to the stigma fusion of male
of a flower on a different plant of the same type it is and female
known as self-pollination. gametes.
c) Fruit is a ripened stigma. • Flower is the
d) Fusion of two gametes results in the formation of reproductive part
ovary. of plant.
e) Ovary wall develops into seeds while ovules develop • Pistil is the female
into fruit. reproductive part.
3. Various stages of sexual reproduction in plants are given
• The ovary
in the box.
encloses the
Germination of seed, gametes, embryo, fertilisation, ovules.
seed, formation of fruit, pollination • Stamen is the
male reproductive
Choose the correct stage and write it against the process part.
in the Table given below. • Anthers produce
pollen which are
S.No. Process of sexual reproduction in Name of the
the male gametes.
plants stage
1. Anthers and ovules produce these
• Pollination is the
structures. transfer of pollen
2. Transfer of pollen grains from anther from anthers to
to the stigma by different agents. stigma.

3. Male gamete reaches the ovule and
fuses with the female gamete to form
zygote
4. The zygote develops into this
structure.
5. The ovule is converted into this
structure after fertilisation.
6. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens.
7. The embryo grows into a new plant
from the seed

1.
2. i-V; ii-V; iii-R; iv-V Bud
Bud
Flower
Flower
3. i. Rose – stem
ii. Mango – stem, seeds Leaf
Leaf
iii. Carrot – roots, seeds
iv. Bryophyllum – stem, leaves Stem
Stem
4. i. Cactus-stem; ii. Ginger – stem;
What You Have iii. Radish- root; Roots
Roots
Learnt iv. Sugarcane - stem
5. Cross pollination Parts of a plant
• Fertilisation
6. (a) See figure
is the union
of male and
female gametes Stigma
to form a Stamen
Anther Style Pistil
zygote. Filament Ovary
• The fertilised
ovule becomes
the seed which
contains the Reproductive parts of a flower
embryo. (b) Bisexual flower, because it contains both male and female
• The embryo reproductive parts.
develops into a 7. a) Water
new plant. b) Water
c) Bird/animals
• Seed dispersal d) Wind
prevents
competition Answers to Exercises
between 1. 1-f; 2-a; 3-e; 4-d; 5-c; 6-b
growing plants 2. (a) When pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the
and allow same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same
plant it is known as self-pollination.
seeds to reach (b) When pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of a flower
far off habitats on a different plant of the same kind it is known as cross-
for wider pollination.
distribution. (c) Fruit is a ripened ovary.
(d) Fusion of two gametes results in the formation of a zygote.
(e) Ovules develop into seeds while ovary develops into fruit.
3. 1. Gametes
2. Pollination
3. Fertilisation
4. Embryo
5. Seed
6. Formation of fruit
7. Germination of seed
Notes

Time and Speed
10
Just imagine the day when the clock or watch in your
house has stopped working. Can you think of the
confusion it might create? You might miss your bus or
train. Your parents may get late for work. The clock tells
us when it is time to get up, time to go to school or work,
time to eat, and time to rest and so on.
We all use the word time quite often. We talk about
how much time is left for the train or the bus to arrive, or
how many hours a week we work or the time remaining
till the start of our favourite television programme. In
this chapter we will learn about various kinds of devices
used for measuring time. Also we learn about the units
in which time is measured.
10.1 Measurement of Time

Activity 10.1
Estimate the time taken to perform some common
activities, such as taking bath, taking meal, reaching
school/playground, doing housework, watching TV.
Fill the information in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1
S.No. Activity Time taken

1. Taking bath 15 minutes
2.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Now answer the following questions:
1. What device did you use to measure the time?
2. Was the time measured in hours, minutes or
seconds?
3. How would you have estimated the time required
by you for various activities, if you had no watch
or clock?
4. What do you think your ancestors did to measure
time before the invention of a modern clock or
watch? Let us find out how the present system of
measurement of time evolved.
10.2 History of Measurement of Time
In ancient times, rising and setting of the Sun were
used to have an idea
of time. During the
day the position of the
Sun marked morning,
noon, evening etc.
At night positions of
stars and moon were
used for this purpose.
Sand clock or Water clock
Later on various types Hour glass
of sundials and sand Fig. 10.1 Some ancient time
clocks were devised (Fig. measuring devices
10.1). Different types of
water clocks were assembled which could measure time
with greater accuracy. Only in the seventeenth century
did the mechanical clock with pendulums and springs
appeared. Accurate quartz clocks were developed in the
first half of the twentieth century.
10.3 Modern Clocks

The present day watches
or clocks (Fig. 10.2) are
based on the principle
of periodic motion. This
is based on a simple Alarm clock
observation made by
Galileo in seventeeth
century. He observed Wall clock Digital clock
that a lamp hung on a Fig. 10.2, Different types of clocks
Check your progress

1. Why is there a need to measure time?
2. Name the different types of time measuring devices
used by our ancestors.
Level III: Time and Speed 219

3. What is the basic principle on which the working
of a pendulum clock depends?
chain swings and completes its to and for motion always

in exactly the same time. He used his pulse for measuring
time. Such a swinging motion is called periodic motion.
Based on these findings the first pendulum clock was
made by Christian Huygens in 1656.
10.4 Unit of Time

The commonly used units of time are seconds, minutes
and hours. Nowadays, the basic unit of time is taken as a
‘second’, denoted as ‘s’. The multiples and sub-multiples
of the unit of time are as follows.
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
365 days = 1 year
Different unit of time are used depending on the need.
For example, your age is expressed in years rather than
days or hours. Time taken by you for any journey may
be in minutes or hours. The time taken by an athlete to
run 100 m is in seconds.
Check your progress
4. State whether the statements given below are true
or false:
(i) The age of a person is usually measured in
seconds.
(ii) The basic unit of time is second.
5. The device used to measure time taken by an athlete
to complete 800 metre race is
(a) sand clock (b) water clock
(c) a stop wacth (d) sundial
10.5 Slow or Fast

Some objects move fast and some objects move slow. If
we watch two persons walking on a road in the same
direction, we can normally tell which one of them is
moving faster than the other.
Activity 10.2
1. Look at Fig. 10.3 (a) & (b). Figure 10.3 (a) shows
the position of two cars moving on a road in the
same direction at some instant of time. Figure (b)
shows the position of the same cars after a gap of
some time.
2. Compare the two figures and decide which of the
two cars is moving faster.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.3 (a) Position of cars at a given instant of time,

(b) Position of the same cars at a later instant of time
You might have thought that the red car is moving

faster. But how do you decide that one vehicle is moving
faster than the other?
By comparing the two figures, we find that the red
car has moved a larger distance in the same interval
of time. So, the distances moved by objects in the
same interval of time can help us decide which one
is faster or slower.

Activity 10.3
1. Look at Table 10.2. It shows the time taken by the
students in a race to cover 100 metres.
2. Compare the time taken by students and find
which student ran the fastest.
Table 10.2
S.No. Name of Time taken to cover 100

student meters
1. Tanuj 34 s
2. Hazel 30 s
3. Kokila 27 s
4. Najma 25 s
5. Sunil 30 s
You found that Najma was the fastest. But how did
you arrive at this conclusion?
By comparing the time, we find that Najma has
taken the shortest time to cover the distance of 100 m.
So the time taken by an object to cover a given distance
can help us to decide which one is faster or slower.
Check your progress
6. At a traffic signal, a scooter and a bicycle are
standing side by side. When the light turns green
both start moving together. After a few minutes,
the scooter has moved longer distance compared
to that moved by the bicycle. Which of the two is
moving faster?
7. Two brothers, Rohit and Mohit, leave their home on
their bicycles at the same time and take the same
route to reach their school. Rohit reaches the school
three minutes before Mohit. Which of the two boys
moved faster? Give reasons.
10.6 Speed
The most convenient way to find out which of the two or
more objects is moving faster is to compare the distances
moved by them in a unit time. Thus, if we know the
distance covered by two buses in one hour, we can tell
which one is slower.
We call the distance covered by an object in a unit
time as the speed of the object.
Speed is the total distance covered, divided by the total
time taken. Thus,
Total distance covered
Speed =
Total time taken
When we say that a car is moving with a speed of 50
km per hour it implies that it will cover a distance of 50
km in one hour,100 km in two hours, and so on.
However, a car seldom moves with a constant speed

for one hour. In fact, it starts moving slowly and then
picks up speed. So, the speed calculated here is actu-
ally the average speed of the car. At this level, we shall
use the term ‘speed’ for ‘average speed’.
The basic unit of speed is metre per second (m/s).
Of course, speed could also be expressed in other units
such as metre per minute (m/min) or kilometre per hour
(km/h).
Activity 10.4
Speeds, in km/h, of some living organisms are given in
Table 10.3. Calculate their speeds in m/s.
Table 10.3
S. No. Name of the Speed in Speed in m/s

Object km/h
1. Falcon 320 320 x
× 1000 m
=
60 x
× 60 s
2. Cheetah 112
3. Blue fish 42
4. Rabbit 56
5. Squirrel 19
6. Mouse 11
7. Human beings 4

8. Giant tortoise 0.27
9. Snail 0.05
Check your progress

8. A cyclist often moves at a speed of 2 m/s and a
tortoise with a speed of 8 cm/s. Which moves faster?
What You Have 9. The distance between two stations is 240 km. A train
Learnt takes four hours to cover this distance. Calculate
• The present the speed of the train.
day watches
or clocks are 10.7 Measuring Speed
based on the
principle of We can calculate the speed of a given object once we can
periodic motion. measure the distance covered by the object and the time
taken by it.
• The basic unit of
time is second Activity 10.5
(s)
Calculate the speed of each student with the help of
• The distance
the data given below.
moved by an
S.No. Name of Time taken Speed in
object in a unit
student to cover 100 (m/s)
time is called its meters
speed. 1. Tanuj 35 s
• The basic unit of 2. Hazel 30 s
speed is metre 3. Kokila 40 s
per second
4. Najma 25 s
(m/s).
• Speed of objects
help us to
Check your progress
decide which
one is moving 10. A rocket is moving with a speed of 8 km/s. How
faster than the much time will it take to cover 800 km?
other.
• The speed of Exercises
an object is the 1. In a 100 m race, Shyam reaches the finishing line in 13
total distance s whereas John reaches in 14 s. Which of the two boys
travelled ran faster?
divided by the 2. Bus A takes 120 minutes to move from Puri to
total time taken Bhubaneswar. Bus B takes 150 minutes to move from
to cover that Puri to Bhubaneswar on the same route. Which bus
distance. moved faster?
3. The distance covered by an object in a unit time is called
its ________.
4. The odometer of a car reads 57321.0 km when the clock
shows the time 08:30 AM. What is the distance moved by
the car, if at 08:50 AM, the odometer reading has changed
to 57337.0 km? Calculate the speed of the car in km/min
during this time. Express the speed in km/h also.
5. Salma takes 15 minutes from her house to reach her
school on a bicycle. If the bicycle has a speed of 2 m/s,
calculate the distance between her house and the school.
1. Measurement of time allows us to lead a systematic life.
2. Sun dials, water clock, sand clock etc.
3. The working of a clock is based on the periodic motion. (The
fact that given pendulum completes the to and fro motion
always in the same time.)
4. (i) False
(ii) True
5. (c) – stop watch
6. Scooter has moved faster compared to the bicycle.
7. Rohit moved faster because he covered the same distance in
shorter time.
8. The cyclist moves faster (its speed is larger than that of the
tortoise).
9. The speed of the train is 60 km/hour.
10. The rocket will take 100 s (or 1 min 40 s) to cover 800 km.
1. Shyam ran at a higher speed because he covered the same
distance in a shorter time.
2. Bus A moved faster because it took lesser time to cover the
same distance.
3. The distance covered by an object in a unit time is called its
speed.
4. The distance travelled is 16 km in 20 min.
Speed of car is 0.8 km/min or 48 km/h
5. Time = 15 min = 15 × 60 = 900 s
Distance covered = Speed × Time
= 2 × 900 m
= 1800 m = 1.8 km
Notes

Electric Current
and its Effect 11
You might have experienced that an electric bulb in
switched off position is not hot. However, if the bulb is
kept on for 5-10 minutes, it becomes quite hot. In fact,
one should never touch a bulb that is switched on.
You may also have seen or used electrical appliances
such as a room heater, electric iron and immersion water
heater. These appliances are used to generate heat for
different purposes. All of them, in fact, depend on the
heating effect of electric current. In this chapter, we will
learn about this effect.
11.1 Heating Effect of Electric Current

Activity 11.1
Make a circuit as shown in
Fig.11.1. Keep the switch in
‘OFF’ position. Touch the bulb.
What do you feel?
Now switch ‘ON’ the circuit. Let
the bulb glow for a few minutes
and again touch the bulb. What
do you feel now? Do you feel
the bulb has become warm? Fig. 11.1
The heating of the bulb is caused by the flow of electric

current through it. This shows the heating effect of
electric current.
The filament of an electric bulb gets heated to such
a high temperature that it begins to glow. Though an
electric bulb is used for lighting, it also gives off heat. The
production of heat here is undesirable.
This results in the wastage of electric energy. Therefore,
Fig. 11.2 instead of bulbs, we should use CFLs (Fig. 11.2) which
give light but waste very little energy in the form of heat.
There are many situations where heat produced by
electirc current is desirable. For example, we need heat to
obtain hot water or to keep a room warm during winters.
The appliances used for such purposes make use of
heating effect of electric current. Immersion heaters,
geysers, room heaters are some of the examples of such
appliances.
Caution: Never touch a switched-on electric bulb/electric
heater connected to the mains.
11.2 Electric Fuse

Activity 11.2
What do you think would happen if a large current
passes through a thin wire? Let us set up an electric
circuit as shown in
A thin strand of steel wool
Fig. 11.3. Note that
in this circuit you
Nail
are using a battery
of two cells.
Keep the switch
in the ‘ON’ position
for a few minutes. Battery of
two cells
Observe the strand
of steel wool
carefully and note Switch
Fig. 11.3 Heating effect of
what happens.
electric current
Does the strand of
steel wool become red hot? Does it ultimately melt and
break? What do you conclude from this activity? When
a large current flows through a wire, it becomes too
hot. This heat may be sufficient to melt it.
There is a maximum current which can safely flow
through an electric circuit. If by accident, the current
exceeds this safe limit, wires get overheated and
melt. Electric current beyond safe limit can damage
appliances or electric circuits. Therefore, we need some
device to provide protection against such damages.
Electric fuse is one such device.
Heating effect of current is used in an electric fuse.

Electric fuses are made of wires of special materials.
These wires melt quickly and break when large electric
currents pass through them. Thus, a fuse is a safety
Level III: Electric Current and its Effects 227

device which prevents damage to electric circuits and
possible fires. Fuses of different kinds are used in
buildings and electric appliances (Fig. 11.4).
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.4 (a) Fuses used in electric appliances
(b) Fuses used in buildings
11.3 Symbols of Electric Components

In drawing electric circuit it is convenient to represent the
various components by their symbols. Some components
and their symbols are shown in Table 11.1
Table 11.1 Symbols for some electric circuit components.
S. No. Electric component Symbol

1. Electric cell
2. Electric bulb
3. Switch in ‘ON’ position
4. Switch in ‘OFF’ position
5. Battery
6. Connecting wire
Fig. 11.5 shows an electric

circuit in which symbols
have been used for various
components.
Note that the symbols for
switch and battery have been
used in the circuit shown in Fig. 11.5 Circuit diagram of
Fig. 11.3. electric circuit
11.4 Magnetic Effect of Current

Activity 11.3
Place a compass
needle in an empty
tray of a match box.
Wind a few turns of
wire around the tray.
Connect the ends of
wire to a cell and a Fig. 11.6 Magnetic effect of current
bulb through switch
(Fig. 11.6). Note the position of the compass needle.
Now bring the switch to ‘ON’ position for a second or
two. Observe what happens to the compass needle.
Does it get deflected? Switch on the current again for
a short time. Does the magnetic needle show the same
effect? Do you recall what happens when a bar magnet
is brought near a magnetic compass? The magnetic
needle gets deflected. Does this activity show that a wire
behaves like a magnet when a current flows through it?
Yes. This is known as magnetic effect of current. This
effect is used to make electromagnets.

11.5 Electromagnet
Activity 11.4
Take about 30 cm long piece of connecting wire and
What You Have
a long iron screw or a nail.
Learnt
• A conducting Wind the wire tightly around
wire gets the nail along one direction
heated when a only. Connect the free ends
current passes of the wire with a cell and a
through it. This switch (Fig. 11.7). Place a
is known as few pins near one end of the
heating effect of nail. Switch ‘ON’ the current.
Fig. 11.7 An electromagnet
electric current. What do you observe? Do
• Appliances like the pins cling to the iron nail? Now switch ‘OFF’ the
electric bulbs, current. What do you observe?
heaters, geysers
utilise heating The coil of wire in Activity 11.4 behaves like a magnet
effect of electric when electric current flows through it. This is called
current.
electromagnet. Electromagnets are used in electric bells,
• A fuse is a
loud speakers, microphones, headphones, etc.
safety device to
protect electric Exercises
circuits and 1. In which of the following devices is the heating effect of
appliances from electric current utilised?
damage due to Electromagnets, electric fuse, electric bulbs, electric
current beyond bells, electric toasters.
a safe limit. 2. Do you observe some difference between an electromagnet
• In a circuit and a bar magnet? What is the difference?
diagram, 3. Suggest a method to check whether an electromagnet
various has two poles.
components are 4. Draw the symbols of following electric components:
represented by
Electric cell, switch in off position, an electric bulb.
their symbols.
5. Describe an activity to show the working of an electric
• When a current
fuse.
passes through
a wire, it Answers to Exercises
behaves like a 1. Electric fuse, electric bulb and electric toaster are based on
heating effect of electric current.
magnet. This 2. Yes, electromagnet can attract iron pins so long as electric
effect is called current flows through the wire. A bar magnet can always
magnetic effect attract iron pins.
which is used 3. By placing a compass needle near the ends of an electromagnet
for making and observing that one end of the electromagnet attracts the
north pole of the compass needle and the other end repels it.
electromagnets.
4. , ,

5. Activity 11.2
Notes

Light 12
How many times in a day do you look at your image in
a mirror? Do you realise that your right ear (or eye), for
example, becomes the left ear (or eye) of your image? And
where is the image actually formed and how far is it from
you? We will investigate all these questions in this chapter.
We will also see what happens if the mirror is not plane but
is curved. The curved mirrors are used in scooters and cars
for drivers to see traffic behind them.
Have you ever used a ‘magnifying glass’ to see very small
objects or to read very fine
print. The children often
play with the magnifying
glass to show that they
can burn pieces of black
paper by concentrating
sunlight on them (Fig.
12.1). The magnifying
glass is actually a lens.
The spectacles that
people use to correct their
eyesight have lenses. Fig. 12.1 Burning of black paper using a
magnifying glass
What type of images do
these lenses form?
You must have felt
thrilled on seeing a
magnificent rainbow of
colours in the sky. You
must also have played
with soap bubbles and
amazed by the array of
colours that they show.
You might have observed
colours in a thin layer of Fig. 12.2 Soap bubbles show colours
oil on a wet surface. Where do the colours in the rainbow
and soap bubbles come from? We will ponder over this
question, too, in this
unit.
You are familiar with
the reflection of light
from a plane mirror.
You know that a mirror
changes the direction
of light that falls on
it. This change of
direction by a mirror is
called reflection of light.
Figure 12.3 shows how
light gets reflected from Fig. 12.3 A mirror reflects
a plane mirror. a beam of light
12.1 Image Formation By A Plane Mirror

Place a candle lit in front of a plane mirror (Fig. 12.4). Try
to observe the image of the candle in the mirror.
Now place the
candle in different
positions in front
of the mirror.
Observe the
image in each
case carefully.
Does the image
of the candle
have the same
size as that of the Fig. 12.4 Image of a candle in a
candle? plane mirror
Is the tip of the image of the flame at the top as in the

candle itself? Such images are called erect images.
Place a screen behind the mirror and try to get the
image of the candle on that screen. Are you able to get
the image on the screen?
Your observations will tell you that
• the image formed by a plane mirror is erect and of the
same size as the object.
Level III: Light 233

• the image in a plane mirror appears to be at the same
distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
of it.
• the image formed in a plane mirror cannot be obtained
on a screen. An image that is erect and cannot be
obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.
Let us see one interesting characteristic of the image
formed by a mirror.
Stand in front of a plane mirror and look at your
image. Raise your left hand.
Which hand does your image
raise (Fig. 12.5)? Now touch
your right eye. Which eye of
the image is touched in the
mirror?
You find that in an image
formed by a mirror, the left of
the object appears on the right
of the image and the right of
the object appears on the left
of the image. This is known as Fig. 12.5 Left hand appears on
lateral inversion. the right side in the image
Thus, the image formed in a mirror is laterally inverted.

Do you know why the word
‘AMBULANCE’ is written in a
strange manner in front of an
ambulance (Fig. 12.6)?
When the driver of a vehicle
ahead of an ambulance looks
in her/his rear view mirror
she/he can read correctly the
word “AMBULANCE” written Fig. 12.6 An ambulance
on it and gives way to it.
12.2 Image Formation By Spherical Mirrors
You must have seen your image in a plane mirror. Have
you seen your image in a spoon or a curved surface of a
bowl (Fig. 12.7)?
In what way is the image formed in a curved
surface different from the image formed in plane
mirror?
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.7 (a) Image from the inner side of a spoon,

(b) Image from the outer side of spoon
(a) (b)
Reflecting Reflecting
Surface Surface
Fig. 12.8 (a) Concave and (b) a convex mirror
If the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is

concave it is called a concave mirror (Fig.12.8 a). The
inner surface of a spoon is an example of a concave
surface(Fig.12.7 a).
If the reflecting surface is convex, then it is a
convex mirror (Fig.12.8 b). The outer surface of a
spoon is an example of a convex surface (Fig. 12.7 b).
Search for a few more examples of concave and
convex surfaces.
What is the difference between the images formed
by these mirrors? Let us find out.

12.3 Image Formed By A Concave Mirror
Activity 12.1
Fix a concave mirror on a stand and place it on a table
(Fig. 12.9). If you cannot get a stand, you can make one
from a piece of thermocol.
Light a candle and keep it on the table at a distance of
about 60 cm in front of the mirror. Also keep a screen
fixed on a stand in such a manner that the screen does
not obstruct the light from the candle falling on the
mirror. Try to obtain the image of the flame on the
screen. For this you can move the screen forward and
backward till a sharp image of the flame is obtained.
Image on the screen

Mirror
Fig. 12.9
Candle
Observe the size of the image. Is this image real or

virtual? You may find that the image of the candle flame
is smaller than the flame itself (Fig. 12.9). As it is formed
on the screen, so it is a real image.
Image on
the screen
Mirror
Candle
Fig. 12.10
Now move the candle towards the mirror and place it

at distances mentioned in Table 12.1. In each case try
to obtain the image of the candle flame on the screen.
For this you may have to change the position of the
screen (Fig. 12.10).
Is it possible to obtain the image of the candle flame

on the screen when the candle is too close to the mirror,
say at about a distance of about 7 cm (Fig. 12.11)?
Record your observations in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1. Image formed by a concave mirror for object placed Fig. 12.11 Virtual image
at various distances from it formed by a concave mirror
Distance of Smaller/ Character of the image

the object larger than Inverted/ Real/virtual
from the the object erect
mirror
60 cm
40 cm
20 cm
7 cm
You will see that the image formed by a concave
mirror can be smaller or equal or larger in size than the
object. You will also notice that when the candle flame
is too close to the mirror its image is erect and larger in
size than the candle flame itself. This image cannot be
obtained on a screen. It is a virtual image. So, the image
formed by a concave mirror may be real or virtual.
You may have seen that
1. doctors use concave mirrors for examining ears, nose
and throat.
2. dentists use concave mirrors to see enlarged image of
the teeth [Fig. 12.12].
Fig. 12.12 A dentist examining a patient

Moreover, concave mirrors are used as reflectors in
torches, headlights of cars and scooters (Fig. 12.13).
Fig. 12.13 Reflector of a torch
12.4 Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

Now repeat Activity 12.1 using
a convex mirror in place of a
concave mirror (Fig. 12.14).
You will find that the image
formed by a convex mirror is
always smaller in size than the
object and it is virtual.
Convex mirrors are used as
side-view mirrors in scooters
and cars to help drivers see
the traffic coming from behind Fig. 12.14 Image formed
them. by a convex mirror
Check your progress

1. Fill in the blanks .
(i) A virtual image smaller than the object can be
produced by a _________ mirror.
(ii) A girl 50 cm in front of a plane mirror seems to
be ______ cm away from her image.
(iii) A virtual image larger than the object can be
produced only by a _________ mirror.
2. Draw the image of letter D formed in a plane mirror.
12.5 Image Formation by Lenses
Get a reading glass. Touch and
feel its shape. It is thicker in the
middle than at the edges. Such
lenses are called convex lenses (a) (b)
(Fig.12.15 a). There are also
lenses which are thinner in the
middle than at the edges. Such
lenses are called concave lenses Fig. 12.15 (a) Convex lens.
(Fig. 12.15 b). (b) Concave lens.
Activity 12.2
Take a thick convex lens and fix it on a stand. Place it
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 12.16
at the centre of a table. Light a candle and place it at

a distance of about 60 cm from the lens (Fig. 12.16).
Try to obtain the image of the candle flame on a screen
placed on the other side of the lens.
What type of image did you get? Is it real or virtual?
Now change the distance of the candle by moving it
towards the lens. Try to obtain the image of the candle
flame every time on the screen. Record your observations
in a Table as you did in case of the concave mirror
(See Table 12.1). What do you conclude from these
observations?
As the object moves towards the lens the image moves

away from the lens.

Did you get in any position of the object an image which
was erect and magnified (Fig. 12.16 d)? Could this image
be obtained on a screen? Is the image real or virtual?
This case is shown in Fig. 12.17.
Fig. 12.17 Virtual image Fig. 12.18 Image formed by a

formed by the convex lens concave lens
Now replace the convex lens with a concave lens and

carry out Activity 12.2. Study the images formed in this
case. You will find that the image formed by a concave
lens is always virtual, erect and smaller in size than the
object (Fig. 12.18).
12.6 Uses of Lenses

Lenses are widely used in spectacles,
telescopes, microscopes and cameras.
The magnifying glass which you use
to read very small print (Fig. 12.19) or
to see the body parts of a cockroach Fig. 12.19
is actually a convex lens. A magnifying glass
Check your progress

3. Name the type of lens which always forms a virtual
image.
4. Which lens can be used to burn a sheet of paper
using sunlight?
12.7 Sunlight — A Mixture of Colours

Have you ever seen a rainbow in the sky (Fig. 12.20)?
How many colours are present in a rainbow? Why do the
soap bubbles appear colourful? Similarly, when light is
reflected from the surface of a compact disc (CD), you see
Fig. 12.20 A rainbow many colours.
Let us investigate about these phenomena.
Activity 12.3
Take a prism and place it in the path of narrow beam
of sunlight. Allow the light coming out of the other face
of the prism fall on a white sheet of paper. What do
you observe? Do you see colours similar to those in a
What You Have
rainbow (Fig. 12.21) you may have to rotate the prism
Learnt
slightly to see the colour clearly.
• Change in the
direction of light
caused by a
mirror is called
reflection of
light.
• An image which
can be obtained
on a screen is
called a real
Fig. 12.21 A prism splits sunlight into seven colours image.
This shows that sunlight consists of many colours. • The image
The prominent colours are red, orange, yellow, green, formed by a
blue, indigo and violet. The sunlight is said to be white plane mirror is
light. This means that white light consists of seven erect, virtual
prominent colours. and is of the
same size as
the object. The
image appears
to be at the
same distance
behind the
mirror as the
object is in front
Fig. 12.22 A top with seven colours of it.
Can you mix these colours to get white light? Try it • A concave mirror
by making a small top as shown in Fig. 12.22. can form a real
and inverted
Exercises image. When the
Choose the correct option in questions 1 – 3: object is placed
1. A real image smaller in size than the object can be very close to the
produced by a mirror, the image
(a) convex mirror. (b) concave mirror. formed is virtual.
(c) plane mirror. (d) concave lens. It is erect and
magnified.

2. A virtual image larger in size than the object can be
produced by a
(a) concave lens. (b) convex lens.
(c) convex mirror. (d) plane mirror.
3. White light is composed mainly of
(a) three colours. (b) two colours.
(c) five colours. (d) seven colours.
4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is True and ‘F’ if it is False:
What You (a) We can obtain an enlarged and erect image by a
concave lens. (T/F)
Have Learnt
• Image formed (b) A virtual image can be obtained on a screen. (T/F)
by a convex (c) We can obtain a real, enlarged and inverted image by
a concave mirror. (T/F)
mirror is
(d) A convex lens always forms a real image. (T/F)
always virtual.
It is erect and (e) A convex mirror always forms a virtual image. (T/F)
smaller in 5. Fill in the blank:
size than the (a) An image formed by a convex _______________ cannot
object. be obtained on a screen.
• A convex lens (b) An image formed by a _______________ mirror is always
of the same size as that of the object.
can form real
and inverted (c) Image formed by a ______________ mirror is always
virtual and smaller in size.
image. When
(d) An image which can be obtained on a screen is called
the object is
a _______________ image.
placed very
(e) A _______________ lens always forms a virtual image.
close to the
6. Give one use each of a concave and a convex mirror.
lens, the
image formed 7. Name the mirror which can form a real image.
is virtual. It 8. State two differences between a convex and a concave
is erect and lens.
magnified. 9. State three characteristics of the image formed by a plane
• A concave mirror.
lens always 10. Describe an activity which shows that white light consists
forms a virtual of seven colours.
image. It is Answers to check your progress
erect and 1. (i) A virtual image smaller than the object can be produced
by a convex mirror.
smaller in
(ii) A girl 50 cm in front of a plane mirror seems to be 100 cm
size than the away from her image.
object. (iii) A virtual image larger than the object can be produced by
• White light a concave mirror.
D D
is composed 2.
of seven
prominent
3. Concave lens
colours. 4. Convex lens
1. b
2. b
3. d
4. (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) T
5. (a) An image formed by a convex mirror cannot be obtained
on a screen.
(b) An image formed by a plane mirror is always of the same
size as that of the object.
(c) Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual and
smaller in size.
(d) An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real
image.
(e) A concave lens always forms a virtual image.
6. Concave mirror – Dentist’s mirror or reflector of a torch
(or any other)
Convex mirror – Side-view mirror of scooter or a car.
7. Concave mirror
8. (i) Convex lenses are thicker in the middle while concave
lenses are thinner in the middle.
(ii) Concave lenses always form virtual images whereas convex
lenses can form virtual as well as real images.
9. (i) Same in size
(ii) At the same distance in the mirror as the object is in front
of the mirror.
(iii) Erect or virtual
10. See Activity 12.3.
Notes

Water
13
Do you know how much water is required by a person in
a day for drinking, cooking, washing and maintaining a
proper hygiene? According
to the United Nations
recommendation this
amount of water is 50
litres. But you must have
seen that this much of
water is not available to
many people. There is an
acute shortage of water.
Most of the times the taps
Fig. 13.1 Long queue for water
run dry. There are long
queues near a public water tap or any other source of water
and people fight over it (Fig. 13.1). The reason is that the
population on earth is increasing very fast. Approximately
2/3 part of the earth is covered with water but the fresh
water which is fit for use is very less.
13.1 Forms of Water
Water is available on earth in three different forms.
Normally in ponds, lakes and rivers it exists in the liquid
form. The solid form of water is ice and snow. In nature
it is found as snow in upper hilly areas. The gaseous form
of water is steam/water vapour. As you already know, air
also contains some amount of water vapour.
Check your progress
1. List out the three forms of water in which it exists
in nature
2. According to the United Nations recommendation,
how much water is required by a person per day?
13.2 Ground Water as an Important Source of
Water
Large number of people draw water from wells, tube wells
and hand pumps. This ground water is a precious source
of useable water. You have learnt that rain water seeps
into the ground. The
water also seeps
into the ground from
water bodies like
ponds, rivers etc.
This seeped water
keeps the sources
of ground water
filled and the water
supply continues.
This process of
seeping water into Fig 13.2 Ground water and water table
the ground is called
infiltration. The level of ground water at different places
varies depending upon the amount of rain water that seeps
into the ground. The upper level of ground water is called
water table (Fig. 13.2). The increase in water table due
to infiltration is known as recharging of ground water. In
some areas, the water gets stored in between the layers
of hard rocks. This structure is called aquifer. This water
can be taken out by hand pumps or tube wells from this
area. The water table of a region may go down due to
following reasons:
• Less rain fall in the region.
• Increasing population – Besides consumption of
water during normal human activities, the rapidly
growing population creates demand for construction
of buildings, roads, etc. These constructions leave very
less open space from where water seeps into the earth.
• Increasing industries – The industries also require
huge amount of water in the production processes
which they draw from the ground.
• Agricultural activities – Farmers mostly depend upon
rainfall for irregation. But in case of poor rainfall, they
also use ground water through tube wells.
Level III: Water 245

Check your progress
3. If we keep on drawing ground water continuously
what will happen?
4. Mention three reasons which are responsible for
decrease in water table.
13.3 Water Management

Water is a precious resource. One must not waste it. You
might have seen water gushing out at many places from
the pipes. The civic bodies should be more vigilant in this
matter. Mismanagement or wastage of water can also take
place at individual level. We leave the taps running while
brushing our teeth, bathing, washing cloths, cooking etc.
and waste too much of water (Fig.13.3). As a responsible
citizen what should be your duty?
(a) (b)
Fig 13.3 (a) A child brushing teeth with a tap running

(b) A woman washing cloths with tap running
Activity 13.1
Make a list of do’s and don’ts for not wasting water at
your level.
Many a time you must have felt the scarcity of water in

your area. Most of the water we get from rainfall is wasted
as it goes into the drain. This rain water can be used to
recharge the ground water. This is called Rain water
harvesting. Try to find out if there is some building near
your house in which this system is installed. You can also
ask your parents to have
rain water harvesting
installed at your
building. Rajasthan is
a hot and dry state.
Social workers have
transformed few of the
areas into green places
by rain water harvesting.
In earlier times
stepwells (Bawaris) Fig 13.4 Stepwell
What You Have
were constructed to Learnt
store water as shown in • Although there
Fig. 13.4. They also help is plenty of
in recharging the ground water on the
water. earth, the
amount of
Quite a lot of water is water available
also wasted during for use is very
irrigation. Farmers can less.
Fig 13.5 Drip irrigation method
adopt ‘drip irrigation
• We should not
method’ to save water (Fig 13.5). In this technique, water
waste water as
is directly delivered at the base of the plant using narrow
at many places
tubings. This method reduces the amount of water
people do not
required for irrigation.
get water even
Check your progress to drink.
5. Explain how ground water is recharged. • As per the
United Nations
6. In which areas is drip irrigation most popular? How recommendation
does it prevent wastage of water? the amount of
water required
Exercises by a person per
1. What is infiltration? day is 50 litres.
2. What do you understand by water table of an area? • The water
3. You have been asked to maintain a garden. How will you which seeps
minimise the use of water? into the ground
4. Which of the following factors is not responsible for water
is called ground
shortage? water, which
is an important
(a) Rapid growth of industries
source of
(b) Increasing population
useable water.
Level III: Water 247

(c) Heavy rainfall
(d) Water mismanagement
5. Choose the correct option.
The total amount of water —
(a) in the lakes and rivers of the world remains constant.
(b) under the ground remains constant.
(c) in the seas and oceans of the world remains constant.
(d) of the world remains constant.
1. The three forms of water are ice, liquid water and water vapour.
2. 50 litres.
3. If we keep on drawing ground water continuously, the water
table will go down.
4. Industrilisation, irrigation and construction of buildings or any
other reason.
5. Ground water is recharged by the process of infiltration.
6. Drip irrigatoin method is more popular in places where there is
less ground water and people feel scarcity of water. This method
reduces the amount of water required for irrigation.
1. The process of seeping of water into the ground is called
infiltration.
What You 2. The upper limit of ground water of an area is called water table.
3. Store the rain water in tank. Install the tank at the corner of
Have Learnt the ground and use drip irrigation method.
• The upper 4. (c)
level of ground 5. (d)
water is called
water table. Notes
• With too much
of use, the
water table is
depleting.
• Water has to
be conserved
by rain water
harvesting and
constructing
Stepwells.
• Drip irrigation
is used
to avoid
wastage of
water during
irrigation.
Appendix
Suggestive Time Schedule to Transact the
Learning Material
Level - I (Entry to Class VI)

S.No. Chapters Number of Hours
1. Food – Sources of Food and Cultivation 2

of Crops
2. Water Around Us 2
3. Characteristics of Organisms 2
4. Plants – Our Friends 2
5. Light 2
Total 10 hours
Level - II (Entry to Class VII)

1. Food 2.5
2. Fibre to Fabric 3
3. Sorting Material into Groups 1.5
4. Separation of Substances 2.5
5. Changes Around Us 2
6. Getting to Know Plants 3
7. Habitat and Adaptation 3
8. Motion and Measurement of Distance 3.5
9. Light 4
10. Electricity and Effect of Electric Current 3
11. Fun with Magnets 2
12. Water 2.5
13. Air 2.5
14. Garbage 2
Total 37 hours
Level - III (Entry to Class VIII)
1. Nutrition 3.5
2. Animal Fibres – Wool and Silk 2
3. Acids, Bases and Salts 3
4. Physical and Chemical Changes 3
5. Habitat and Adaptation 3
6. Wind, Storm and Cyclone 2
7. Respiration in Organisms 3
8. Transportation in Animals and Plants 4
9. Reproduction in Plants 4
10. Time and Speed 3
11. Electric Current and its Effects 1.5
12. Light 4
13. Water 2
Total 38 hours
Total hours for Level I + II + III = 10 h + 37 h + 38 h =

85 hours
052
Learning Material for Lateral Entry at the Upper Primary Stage
Classes VI - VIII
Learning Material
FOR LATERAL ENTRY
AT THE UPPER PRIMARY STAGE
Science
Classes VI-VIII
23080
NCERT
ISBN 978-93-5007-302-5
SCIENCE

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Learning Material for Lateral Entry at the Upper Primary Stage

OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

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Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal

Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly

Chief Production : Arun Chitkara

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What is Academic Readiness?

Children With Special Abilities — A Challenge

Scaffolding of Modules at Three Levels

Is the Learning Material Different From Textbooks?

Level – I — for Entry to Class VI 1-32

Level – II — for Entry to Class VII 33-136

Chapter 1 Nutrition 139

Butter ............................ 2. Name five food items obtained from

Crop States where Climate Season of cultivation

Wheat ................................... ............................. ....................................

Jowar ................................... ............................. ....................................

Mustard ................................... ............................. ....................................

Sugarcane ................................... ............................. ....................................

Rye ................................... ............................. ....................................

Bajra ................................... ............................. ....................................

Arhar ................................... ............................. ....................................

Soya ................................... ............................. ....................................

1.3 How are Crops Cultivated?

Fig. 1.2 A plough Fig. 1.3 A tractor

Level I: Food: Sources of Food and Cultivation of Crops 5

Fig. 1.5 Harvesting of onions

So far you have learnt the various steps involved in the

Crop Month of sowing Month of harvesting

Jowar ........................ ........................

Paddy ........................ ........................

Mustard ........................ ........................

Arhar ........................ ........................

Groundnut ........................ ........................

Rye ........................ ........................

Soya ........................ ........................

Sugarcane ........................ ........................

1.4 What Happens if Food is not Properly Stored?

Check your progress

Level I: Food: Sources of Food and Cultivation of Crops 7

Level I: Food: Sources of Food and Cultivation of Crops 9

2.1 Sources of Water

2.2 Which Water is Fit for Drinking?

Level I: Water Around Us 11

Check your progress

2.3 How to Check Water Wastage?

People waste a large amount

Check your progress

2.5 Ground Water

2.6 Customs Related to Water

Level I: Water Around Us 13

3.1 Organisms Need Food

3.2 Organisms Grow

3.3 Organisms Respire

3.4 Organisms Respond to Stimuli

3.5 Organisms Reproduce

Level I: Characteristics of Organisms 17

You must have seen nests of some birds. Most of the

3.6 Organisms Show Movement

Level I: Characteristics of Organisms 19

Answers to check your progress