M2PM5

Metric Spaces & Topology
Lectured in Spring 2016 at Imperial College by Prof. T. Coates.

Humbly typed by Karim Bacchus.
Caveat Lector: unofficial notes. Comments and corrections should be sent to

kb514@ic.ac.uk. Other notes available at wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/∼kb514.
Syllabus
This module extends various concepts from analysis to more general spaces.
Metric spaces: definition, examples including function spaces; continuity;

boundedness; subspaces; open and closed subsets, continuity in terms of open
sets; equivalence of metrics. [6]
Topological Spaces: definition, examples; finer and coarser topologies; conti-

nuity; bases; subspaces; homeomorphisms; neighbourhoods, closed sets, limit
points, the closure of a set; dense sets. [6]
The Hausdorff Property. [1]
Compactness: compact subsets of metric spaces; compact subsets of Hausdorff

spaces; compactness is a topological property; the Heine-Borel Theorem. [3]
Sequential Compactness: convergent sequences and Cauchy sequences; the

Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem; Lebesgue number. [2]
Complete metric spaces: completeness; total boundedness; convergence in

function spaces: pointwise and uniform convergence; the Cauchy Criterion;
the Contraction Mapping Theorem (aka Banachs Fixed Point Theorem) [3]
The Fundamental Group: paths and homotopies; definition of the fundamental

group; the fundamental group of the circle; winding number application: the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra [6]
Appropriate books
W.A. Sutherland Introduction to Metric and Topological Spaces. Clarendon.
A. Hatcher Algebraic Topology. CUP.
Course website: coates.ma.ic.ac.uk/M2PM5

Contents
1 Metric Spaces 3
1.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Boundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Open and Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Convergence in Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Topological Spaces 20
2.1 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Hausdorff Spaces 29
4 Connected Spaces 31
4.1 Path Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Compactness 34
6 Sequential Compactness 38
6.1 Convergence of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7 Complete Metric Spaces 42

7.1 Properties of complete metric spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.2 Contraction Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8 The Fundamental Group 48

8.1 Computing π1 (X, x0 ) in simple cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.2 Homotopy of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.3 Fundamental Group of the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1 Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
1 Metric Spaces
Reminder: Given f : R → R, what does it mean for f to be cts at a? Lecture 1
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a
Expand on this: Given > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − f (a)| < whenever |x − a| < δ
In words: f is continuous at x = a ⇐⇒ I can make f (x) arbitrarily close to

f (a) by taking x sufficiently close to a.
What does it mean that for f : Rn → Rm to be continuous at a ∈ Rn ?
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a
where x, a are vectors in Rn , f (a), f (x) vectors in Rm . Expand on this: Given

> 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
||f (x) − f (a)|| < whenever ||x − a|| < δ

p
(where ||x|| = x21 + . . . x2n .)
Definition (Metric Space). A metric space is a pair (X, d) where X is a

non-empty set and d : X × X → R is a function satisfying:
– (M1): d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ X, with equality iff x = y.
– (M2): d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X. [Symmetry]
– (M3): d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y ∈ X. [4 inequality]
4 inequality in R2 : z
d(x, z)
d(y, z)
x y
d(x, y)
Example 1.1 (Euclidean metric on Rn ). Take X = Rn and

v
u n
uX
d = t (xi − yi )2
i=1
where x = (x1 , . . . , xn )T , y = (y1 , . . . , yn )T .
Claim: d is a metric.
3
Proof. Check (M1) - (M3):

(M1) is obvious.
(M2) is obvious.
(M3): Put z = (z1 , . . . , zn )T . Set
ri = xi − yi , si = yi − zi
We need to show that
d(x, z) = d(x, y) + d(y, z)
i.e. v v v
u n u n u n
uX uX uX
t (xi − zi )2 ≤ t (xi − yi )2 + t (yi − zi )2
i=1 i=1 i=1
i.e. v v v
u n u n u n
uX uX uX
t (ri + si )2 ≤ t ri2 + t s2i
i=1 i=1 i=1
This is true if and only if

v v 2
n
X
u n
X
u n
X
u u
(ri + si )2 ≤ t ri2 + t s2i 
 
i=1 i=1 i=1
This is true if and only if

v  
u
n
X u Xn Xn
2 ri si ≤ 2t ri2   s2i 
u
i=1 i=1 i=1
This is the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality (M1GLA): it holds for all ri , si .

So (M3) holds. Thus d is a metric.
Example 1.2 (Discrete metric). Take X = any non-empty set and

(
0 if x = y
d(x, y) =
6 y
1 if x =
(M1), (M2) obvious. (M3) left as an easy exercise.
4
Example 1.3. Take X = {all continuous functions f : [a, b] → R}, and Lecture 2
Z b
d(f, g) = |f (t) − g(t)| dt
t=a
E.g. d = shaded area:
sup
f
Exercise: If h : [a, b] → R is continuous and h(t) ≥ 0 for all t ∈ [a, b] then

Z b
h(t) dt ≥ 0
t=a
with equality iff h(t) = 0 or all t.

Apply this with h(t) = |f (t) − g(t)| which is continuous. Then d(f, g) ≥ 0
with equality iff |f (t) − g(t)| = 0 for all t ∈ [a, b], i.e. with equality iff
f = g. So (M1) holds.
(M2): d(f, g) = d(g, f ) is obvious.
(M3): Let f, g, h : [a, b] → R be continuous functions. Then
Z b
d(f, h) = |f (t) − h(t)| dt
t=a
Z b
= |f (t) − g(t) + g(t) − h(t)| dt
t=a
Z b

≤ |f (t) − g(t)| + |g(t) − h(t)| dt
t=a
Z b Z b
= |f (t) − g(t)| dt + |g(t) − h(t)| dt
t=a t=a
= d(f, g) + d(g, h)
So (M3) holds, hence (X, d) is a metric space.
Exercise: Take X = {all continuous functions f : [a, b] → R} and show that
d(f, g) = sup |f (t) − g(t)|

t∈[a,b]
is also a metric.
5
Lots more examples in textbook (on your reading.) Some examples can be
very strange looking, e.g. the discrete metric: X = any non-empty set,
(
0 if x = y
d(x, y) =
1 if x 6= y
A good source for counterexamples. Similar things can be found in Coun-

terexamples in Topology, by Steen & Seeback [515.1 STE]
1.1 Continuity
Reminder: f : R → R is continuous at a ∈ R iff given > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
if |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − f (a)| < . We can generalise this:
Definition (Continuity). Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces and let
f : X → Y be a function. We say f is continuous at a ∈ X if and only if
∀, ∃δ > 0 such that whenever dX (x, a) < δ we have dY (f (x), f (a)) < .
We say that f is continuous iff f is continuous at a ∈ X for all a ∈ X.
For (X, dX ) = (Rn , d) and (Y, dY ) = (Rm , d) with d = Euclidean metric, then
this is the same definition as in M1P1. So you already know many continuous
functions.
Example 1.4. f : R2 → R as (x, y) 7→ x + y is continuous, f : R → R

with x 7→ |x| is continuous, etc.
Proposition 1.5 (The composition of continuous functions is continuous.).

Let (X, dX ), (Y, dY ), (Z, dZ ) be metric spaces. Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z
be functions such that f is continuous at a ∈ X and g is continuous at f (a) ∈
Y . Then g ◦ f : X → Z is continuous at a.
Proof. Fix > 0. Since g is continuous at f (a) ∈ Y , we know ∃δ 0 > 0 such

that whenever dY (y, f (a)) < δ 0 ,
dZ (g(y), gf (a)) <
Because f is continuous at a ∈ X, ∃δ > 0 such that whenver dX (x, a) < δ,
dY (f (x), f (a)) < δ 0
Thus whenever dX (x, a) < δ, we have
dY (f (x), f (a)) < δ 0
now setting y = f (x), we have
dZ (gf (x), gf (a)) <
Thus g ◦ f : X → Z Is continuous at x = a.
6
In particular, if f : X → Y is continuous and g : Y → Z is continuous, then

g ◦ f : X → Z is continuous.
Corollary 1.6. Suppose that (X, d) is a metric space and f, g : X → R are Lecture 3
continuous functions1 . Then
(a) |f | : X → R where x 7→ |f (x)|
(b) f + g : X → R where x 7→ f (x) + g(x)
(c) f × g : X → R, with x 7→ f (x)g(x)
are all continuous.
Proof. The function | ·| : R → R, where y 7→ |y| is continuous. So applying the

previous proposition, the composition of continuous functions is continuous, so
|f | is continuous. (b) and (c) follow similarly, since we know that the function
R × R → R sending a, b 7→ a + b is continuous, and the function R × R → R
sending a, b 7→ ab is also continuous.
1.2 Product Spaces

Given two metric spaces (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ), can we put a metric on X × Y ?
Yes; in lots of ways. We could define
d1 ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = dX (x, x0 ) + dY (y, y 0 )
or p
d2 ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = dX (x, x0 )2 + dY (y, y 0 )2
or p
dp ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = p
dX (x, x0 )p + dY (y, y 0 )p
for 1 ≤ p < ∞.
Showing that dp is a metric comes down to Hölder’s inequality:
n
X n
X n
1/p X 1/q
|ak bk | ≤ |ak |p |bk |p
k=1 k=1 k=1
where p, q ∈ [1, ∞) such that 1/p + 1/q = 1.

What happens when p → ∞?
d∞ ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) = max(dX (x, x0 ), dY (y, y 0 ))
Exercise: Show that these are all metrics on X × Y .

Later we will see that all of these choices are equivalent in a precise sense.
In particular, they all lead to the same notions of continuous functions and
they lead to the same notion of convergent sequences. [They lead to the same
topology on X × Y ]. Until then, always use d1 on product spaces, unless oth-
erwise stated.
1 Any time I write Rn we use the Euclidean metric.
7
Proposition 1.7. Let f : X → X 0 , g : Y → Y 0 be maps of metric spaces.

Suppose that f is continuous at a ∈ X, g continuous at b ∈ Y . Then the map
f × g : X × Y → X0 × Y 0
where (x, y) 7→ (f (x), g(y)) is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y .
Proof. Let dX , dY , dX 0 , dY 0 be the metrics on X, Y, X 0 and Y 0 respectively.

The metric on X × Y is then
dX×Y ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = dX (x1 , x2 ) + dY (y1 , y2 )
and similarly
dX 0 ×Y 0 ((x01 , y10 ), (x02 , y20 )) = dX 0 (x01 , x02 ) + dY 0 (y10 , y20 )
We’re trying to prove that f × g is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y , so fix > 0.

By continuity of f, g we know that ∃δ1 , δ2 > 0 such that
dX 0 (f (x), f (a)) < /2 (1)
whenever dX (x, a) < δ1 , and
dY 0 (g(y), g(b)) < /2 (2)
whenever dY (y, b) < δ2 .

So set δ := min(δ1 , δ2 ). Then whenever dX×Y ((x, y), (a, b)) < δ, we have
dX (x, a) + dY (y, b) < δ
=⇒ dX (x, a) < δ ≤ δ1 and dY (y, b) < δ ≤ δ2 . Thus (1) and (2) holds, and so
dX 0 ×Y 0 ((f (x), g(y)), (f (a), g(b))) <
So f × g is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y .
Proposition 1.8. Let (X, dX ), (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Then the projection
maps
pX : X × Y → X, (x, y) → 7 x
and
py : X × Y → Y, (x, y) 7→ y
are both continuous.
Proof. Omitted.
Definition. The diagonal map ∆ : X → X × X sends x 7→ (x, x).
Proposition 1.9. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the diagonal map ∆ :
X → X × X is continuous.
8
To write down a continuous map X × Y → X 0 × Y 0 , I can take (x, y) 7→

(f (x), g(y)) where f : X → X 0 , g : Y → Y 0 are continuous. Suppose I want
to write down a continuous map X → X 0 × Y 0 .
Is x 7→ (f (x), g(x)) continuous, given f : X → X 0 , g : Y → Y 0 are? Yes!
We know
X × X −→ X 0 × Y 0
with (x, y) 7→ (f (x), g(y)) and
∆
X −→ X × X
with x 7→ (x, x) are both continuous. Then we can compose these:
X −→ X × X −→ X 0 × Y 0
Subspaces
Recall the 3 properties that define a metric: Lecture 4
– (M1): d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ X, with equality iff x = y.

– (M2): d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X. [Symmetry]
– (M3): d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y ∈ X. [4 inequality]
If (X, d) is a metric space and A ⊆ X is any non-empty subset of X, then
(A, d) is also a metric. [technically d|A : A×A → R sending (a, a0 ) 7→ d(a, a0 )].
Definition. (A, d) is called a subspace of (X, d) and the metric on A is

called the subspace metric.
1.3 Boundedness
Definition (Bounded). A subset S of a metric space (X, d) is called
bounded if and only if S = ∅ or there exists points x0 ∈ S and K ∈ R
such that d(x, x0 ) ≤ K for all x ∈ S.
Note that if this holds for some x0 ∈ S, then it holds for any choice of x0 ∈ S
(but for a different K):
Proof. Let x1 ∈ S be arbitrary. Then, for all x ∈ S, by the 4 inequality
d(x, x1 ) ≤ d(x, x0 ) + d(x0 , x1 )
so, setting K 0 = K + d(x0 , x1 ), we see that
d(x, x1 ) ≤ K 0 ∀x ∈ S
Note also that if S is a bounded subset of (X, d) then d(x, y) is bounded for
any x, y ∈ S, because S is bounded =⇒ ∃x0 ∈ S, K ∈ R such that
d(x, x0 ) ≤ K ∀x ∈ S
9
Let x, y ∈ S be arbitrary. Then

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, x0 ) + d(x0 , y) ≤ 2K
So the following definitionx makes sense:
Definition. Let S be a non-empty bounded subset of a metric space (X, d).

The diameter of S is defined to be
sup{d(x, y) : x, y ∈ S}
Example 1.10. Take X = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1} as a subspace of

R2 . Then the diameter of X is 2:
Convention. We define diameter(∅) = 0.
Definition. Let S be a set, (X, d) be a metric space and f : S → X a

map. We say that f is bounded iff the subset f (S) ⊆ X is bounded.
So taking X = R, S = R gives the usual notion of a bounded function f :

R → R.
Proposition 1.11. Let S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn be bounded subsets of a metric space
(X, d). Then
n
[
Si
i=1
is also bounded.
Remark. This is not true for infinite

S sets, e.g. Take X = R, Si = {i} for i ∈ N.
Then each Si is bounded, but i Si is not.
Proof. It is sufficient to prove this for n = 2. (induction.)

Then ∃K1 ∈ R such that d(x, x1 ) ≤ K1 for all x ∈ S1 and ∃K2 ∈ R such that
d(x, x2 ) ≤ K1 for all x ∈ S2 . (Here x1 ∈ S1 and x2 ∈ S2 are chosen points.)
We want to show that S1 ∪ S2 is bounded. It suffices to show that ∃K ∈ R
such that d(x, x1 ) ≤ K for all x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 . Take
K = max(K1 , K2 + d(x1 , x2 ))
Then either x ∈ S1 , in which case d(x, x1 ) ≤ K1 ≤ K, or x ∈ S2 , in which
case d(x, x1 ) ≤ d(x, x2 ) + d(x2 , x1 ) ≤ K2 + d(x1 , x2 ) ≤ K. So S1 ∪ S2 is
bounded.
10
1.4 Open and Closed Sets

Let (X, d) be a metric space and x0 ∈ X. Let r > 0, r ∈ R.
Definition. The open ball in X of radius r centred at x0 ∈ X is
Br (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x0 , x) < r}
Example 1.12. Take X = R2 and x0 = (a, b). Then
Br (x0 ) = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < r2 }
r (a, b)
√
Example 1.13. Take X = R and x0 = 5, r = 1. Then
√ √
B1 ( 5) = {x ∈ R : |x − 5| < 1}
is
√ √
5−1 5+1
√
0 5
Example 1.14. Take X = R2 and the taxi-cab metric
d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = |x1 − x2 | + |y1 − y2 |
then Br ((0, 0)) looks like
Balls don’t have to be round!
11
Example 1.15. Take X = {f : [a, b] → R continuous} and
d(f, g) = sup |f (t) − g(t)|

t∈[a,b]
What’s B (f )? It’s all the functions that lie within the dashed region:
f
i.e. B (f ) = {g : [a, b] → R continuous s.t.|f (t) − g(t)| < ∀t ∈ [a, b]} Lecture 5
Note: if |f (t) − g(t)| < for all t ∈ [a, b], then
sup |f (t) − g(t)| ≤

t∈[a,b]
We need to show that this is inequality is strict.

From M1P1: a continuous function h : [a, b] → R is bounded and attains
its bounds. Apply this with h(t) = |f (t) − g(t)|, and so
sup |f (t) − g(t)| <

t∈[a,b]
since this is equal to |f (t0 ) − g(t0 )| for some t0 ∈ [a, b].
Proposition 1.16. Given an open ball Br (x) in any metric space (X, d) and
any y ∈ Br (x), there exists > 0 such that B (y) ⊆ Br (x).
Proof. Idea in R2 :
r
x
y
Fix = r − d(x, y) > 0. I claim that B (y) ⊆ Br (x).
12
Let z ∈ B (y) be arbitrary. We need to show z ∈ Br (x). But
d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z)

< d(x, y) +
= d(x, y) + r − d(x, y) = r
Hence z ∈ Br (x).
Remark. The containment cannot be strict (since the discrete metric would
not satisfy this).
Definition (Open set). Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset U ⊆ X is

called open iff for any x ∈ U, ∃ > 0 such that B (x) ⊆ U.
So the previous proposition says “open balls are open”.
Example 1.17. Let (X, d) = any metric space. X is an open set. So is

∅.
Example 1.18. In R, with Euclidean metric, we claim that for a < b ∈ R:

• (a, b) is open.
• (a, b] is not open.
a b
x
1
For any x ∈ (a, b), take = 2 min(b − x, b − a). Then (x − , x + ) ⊆ (a, b).
a b
x
Any open ball centred at b contains a point y : y > b. So no open ball

centered at b lies in (a, b].
Example 1.19. In R2 , (a, b) × (c, d) is open, but [a, b] × (c, d) is not:
13
Example 1.20. (X, d) is any non-empty set with the discrete metric.
Any subset of X is open.
Proposition 1.21. Let f : X → Y be a map of metric spaces. Then f is

continuous iff f −1 (U) is open in X whenever U is open.
Proof. Suppose that f is continuous and that U ⊆ Y is open. We want to

show that f −1 (U) is open in X. Let x ∈ f −1 (U) be arbitrary. We need to
show that ∃δ > 0 such that Bδ (x) ⊆ f −1 (U), or in other words, f (Bδ (x)) ⊆ U.
But x ∈ f −1 (U), so f (x) ∈ U. And U is open, so ∃ > 0 such that B (f (x)) ⊆
U. Now f is continuous at x ∈ X, so ∃δ > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (x0 )) <
whenever dX (x, x0 ) < δ. In other words, f (Bδ (x)) ⊆ B (f (x)) =⇒
f (Bδ (x)) ⊆ U. So Bδ (x) ⊆ f −1 (U), as required.
Conversely, suppose that f −1 (U) is open in X whenever U is open in Y . We Lecture 6

need to show that f is continuous. Let x0 ∈ X be arbitrary. It suffices to
show that f is continuous at x0 . In other words, it suffices to show that for
all > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < whenever dX (x, x0 ) < δ
Fix > 0, and consider U = B (f (x0 )). U is open, so by assumption, f −1 (U)
is open. We know that x0 ∈ f −1 (U), so ∃δ > 0 such that Bδ (x0 ) ⊆ f −1 (U).
So whenever d(x, x0 ) < δ we have f (x) ∈ U, i.e. whenever d(x, x0 ) < δ we
have d(f (x), f (x0 )) < . Thus f is continuous at x0 ∈ X and we’re done.
Remark. f −1 (U) being open in X whenever U is open in Y does NOT mean

that f takes open sets to open sets. E.g. f : R → R where x 7→ 0 is certainly
continuous, so f −1 (U) is open in R whenever U is open in R, but every non-
empty set maps to {0}.
Exercise: Think of another continuous map f : X → Y of metric spaces and

U ⊂ X an open set such that f (U) is not open.
Proposition 1.22.
(i) Let UT
1 , . . . , Un be open sets in a metric space (X, d). Then the intersec-
n
tion i=1 Ui is also open.
S
(ii) Let Ui , i ∈ I be open sets in a metric space (X, d). Then i∈I Ui is open
in (X, d).
Tn
Proof. (i) LetTx ∈ i=1 Ui be arbitrary. We need to show that ∃ > 0 such
n
that B (x) ⊆ i=1 Ui . Now x ∈ Ui for each i and Ui is open, so ∃i > 0 such
that B (x) ⊆ Ui . So set = min(1 , . . . , n ) > 0. Then B (x) ⊆ Ui for each i,
and so
\n
B (x) ⊆ Ui
i=1
(ii) is left as an exercise.
14
Definition (Closed set). A subset V of a metric space (X, d) is closed if

and only if X\V is open.
Examples 1.23.
V = ⊂ R2
i.e. V : |x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b is closed, because R2 \V is open.
V = ⊂ R2
i.e. V : |x| ≤ a, |y| < b is not closed, because R2 \V is not open.
Warning. As in the previous example, closed is not the opposite of open.

Sets are not doors; they can be both or neither open and closed.
Example 1.24. N ⊂ R is closed, since R\N is open.
Example 1.25. Let X = any non-empty set and d = discrete metric.

Any U ⊂ X is open. Any V ⊆ X is closed.
Proposition 1.26.
Sn
(i) Let V1 , . . . , Vn be closed subsets of a metric space (X, d). Then i=1 Vi
is closed.
T
(ii) Let Vi , i ∈ I be closed subsets of X. Then i∈I Vi is closed.
Proof. By De Morgan’s laws:

[ \
X\ Xi = (X\Xi )
i∈I i∈I
and \ [
X\ Xi = (X\Xi )
i∈I i∈I
So this follows from the previous proposition about open sets.
Notice that closed sets contain their limit points, i.e.

V closed ⇐⇒ X\V open
⇐⇒ every point of X\V is surrounded by a small ball of points in X\V
⇐⇒ no points of X\V has a sequence of points of V leading to it
15
Definition (Limit Point). Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. A

point x ∈ X is called a limit point of A (also called a point of accumulation
of A) iff for all > 0, ∃y ∈ A with y ∈ B (x) and y 6= x.
Example 1.27. Take X = R and A = (0, 1] ∪ {2}. Then the limit points
are [0, 1].
Definition (Closure). Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X a subset

of X. The closure A of A is
\
A= Z
Z⊆X
Z closed,A⊆Z
So A is the smallest closed subset of X that contains A. If Y is a closed subset

of X and A ⊆ Y , then A ⊆ Y .
Proposition 1.28. Ā = A ∪ { limit points of A}.
Proof. Set B = A ∪ {limit points of A}. We need to show Lecture 7
(i) B is closed.
(ii) Any closed subset V of X such that A ⊆ V also contains all limit points
of A.
(i) Let U = X\B. We need to show that U is open. Let x ∈ U be arbitrary.
1
We need to show that ∃ > 0 such that B (x) ⊆ U. Suppose not. ( = 2n ).
1
Then ∃an ∈ B such that d(x, an ) < 2n . Either an ∈ A, in which case set
xn = an , or an is a limit point of A, in which case we can find a point xn of
1 1 1
A with d(xn , an ) < 2n =⇒ d(xn , x) < 2n + 2n = n1 .
So I’ve found a sequence {xn }n≥1 of points of A such that d(xn , x) < 1/n, so
x is a limit point of A, XX since x ∈ X\B and B contains all the limit points
of A. So ∃ > 0 such that B (x) ⊆ U =⇒ U is open =⇒ B is closed.
(ii) Let Z ⊆ X be closed and suppose that A ⊆ Z. We need to show that
Z contains all the limit points of A. Let x ∈ X be a limit point of A. We
need to show x ∈ Z. Suppose not. Then x ∈ X\Z, which is open. So ∃ > 0
such that B (x) ⊆ X\Z. But x is a limit point of A, so ∃y ∈ B (x) such that
y ∈ A and y 6= x, XX since B (x) ⊆ X\Z and A ⊆ Z, so y can’t be in B (x).
Therefore x ∈ Z, as required.
Example 1.29. Let
A= ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| < b.
16
I claim that
A= ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b.
Example 1.30. Q ⊂ R. What is Q? Q = R. (R\Q) = R.
Proposition 1.31. Let A, B be subsets of a metric space X. Then

(i) A ⊆ A.
(ii) A ⊆ B =⇒ A ⊆ B.
(iii) A is closed ⇐⇒ A = A.
(iv) A = A.
(v) A is closed in X.
(vi) A is the smallest closed subset of X that contains A.
Proof. Left as a straightforward exercise.
Interior
The opposite notion; the interior is the biggest open set contained in A.
Definition (Interior).
S Let A be a subset of a metric space (X, d). The
interior of A is Å = U ⊆A U. Equivalently
U open
Å = {a ∈ A : ∃ > 0 such that B (a) ⊆ A}
Examples 1.32.
• A = [a, b] ⊂ R. Then Å = (a, b).
• Interior of (a, b] is also (a, b).
• Q ⊂ R, then Q̊ = ∅.
Proposition 1.33. Let A and B be subsets of a metric space (X, d). Then:
(i) Å ⊆ A.
(ii) A ⊆ B =⇒ Å ⊆ B̊.
(iii) A is open in X ⇐⇒ A = Å.
˚
(iv) Å = Å.
17
(v) A is open in X.
(vi) A is the largest open subset of A [i.e. if U ⊆ A and U is open, then
U ⊆ Å.]
Proof. Å = X\(X\A). Now look at the previous proposition.
Boundary
Definition (Boundary). The boundary of a subset A of a metric space
(X, d) is ∂ Å = A\Å.
Example 1.34. Take X = R, A = [a, b]. Then A = [a, b] and Å = (a, b)

so ∂A = {a, b}.
Example 1.35.
A= ⊂ R2
Then
∂A = ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b.
1.5 Convergence in Metric Spaces

The same notions we have in M1P1: Lecture 8
Definition (Convergence). Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of points in a metric

space (X, d). We say that xn → x, where x ∈ X, given > 0, ∃N such
that whenever n ≥ N , we have d(x, xn ) < .
Definition (Cauchy). A sequence (xn )n≥1 of points in a metric space

(X, d) is called Cauchy sequence iff ∀ > 0, ∃N such that whenever n, m ≥
N , we have d(xn , xm ) < .
Proposition 1.36 (Uniqueness of limits). Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of points

in a metric space (X, d) . Suppose that x, y ∈ X are such that xn → x and
xn → y. Then x = y.
18
Picture:
x

Proof. Suppose x 6= y. Fix = 21 d(x, y) > 0. Since xn → x, ∃N1 such

that d(xn , x) < whenever n ≥ N1 . Similarly since xn → y, ∃N2 such that
d(xn , y) < whenever n ≥ N2 .
Take N = max(N1 , N2 ). Then
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, xN ) + d(y, xN ) < 2 = d(x, y) XX
So our assumption that x 6= y must be false, thus x = y.
Proposition 1.37. Suppose that A is a subset of a metric space (X, d) and

(an ) is a sequence of points of A such that an → a ∈ X. Then a ∈ A.
Proof. If an = a for some n, then there’s nothing to prove (since an ∈ A ⊆ A).

Otherwise, an 6= a for all n and for all > 0, ∃N such that whenever n ≥ N
we have an ∈ B (a). So a is a limit point of A. Thus a ∈ A.
Exercise: Show any point in A is the limit of a sequence (an ) of points in A.

Equivalent metrics - see reading pp. 61-72.
19
2 Topological Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
2 Topological Spaces
Motivation:
“shape” of a metric space (X, d) −→ continuous functions on (X, d)
These only feel the open sets in (X, d), not d itself.
Definition. A topological space (X, T ) consists of a non-empty set X

together with a collection T of subsets of X such that
– (T1) ∅ ∈ T , X ∈ T .
– (T2) If U, V ∈ T , then U ∩ V ∈ T .
S
– (T3) If Ui ∈ T , i ∈ I then i∈I Ui ∈ T .
Elements in T are called open sets in (X, T ). T is called a topology on X.
Example 2.1 (Metric Topology). Let (X, d) be any metric space. Let
T = {U ⊆ X : U is open w.r.t. d}
Then T satisfies (T1),(T2) & (T3), i.e. T is a topology. This is called the
metric topology on X.
Example 2.2. Take X = [0, 1], T = {∅, X, [0, 21 ]} is a topology.

In general if we take X = any non-empty sets, T = {∅, X, V } where V is
some fixed subset of X is a topology.
Example 2.3 (Euclidean Topology). Take Rn and
T = {subsets of R2 which are open w.r.t Euclidean metric}
this is just the metric topology on Rn induced by the Euclidean metric.
Example 2.4 (Discrete Topology). Take X = any non-empty set, T =

{ all subsets of X} is a topology, called the discrete topology. This is the
metric topology on X induced by the discrete metric.
Example 2.5 (Indiscrete Topology). Take X = any non-empty set and

T = {∅, X} is a topology, but not a metric topology if X has more than
one-point.
Exercise: Take X = any non-empty set and T = {∅}∪{U ⊆ X : X\U is finite}.

Show that this is a topology on X. (The cofinite topology).
Proposition 2.6. Let X be a topological space. Then U ⊆ X is open iff for Lecture 9
all x ∈ U, there exists an open set Nx with x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U.
20
Proof. Suppose that U is open. Then take Nx = U for all x ∈ U. This works.
Suppose, on the other hand, that for all x ∈ U, ∃ open set Nx such that
x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U. Then [
U= Nx
x∈U
So by (T3), we have that U is open.
Definition (Coarser, Finer). Given two topologies T1 , T2 on the same set

X, we say say that T1 is coarser than T2 ⇐⇒ T1 ⊆ T2 and T1 is finer than
T2 ⇐⇒ T2 ⊆ T1 .
Definition (Continuity). Let (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) be topological spaces

and let f : X → Y be a map. We say that f is continuous if and only if
f −1 (U) ∈ TX whenever U ∈ TY .
So if X and Y are metric spaces, and TX and TY are the metric topologies,
this is the same notion of continuous functions as before.
Aside: What about continuity at x ∈ X?
Definition. f is continuous at x ∈ X iff for all U ∈ TY such that f (x) ∈ U,

we have that f −1 (U) ∈ TX .
But this turns out to not be so important for us. We are more concerned with
global properties of shape.
Proposition 2.7. Let (X, TX ), (Y, TY ), (Z, TZ ) be topological spaces. Let f :

X → Y and g : Y → Z be continuous functions. Then g ◦ f : X → Z is
continuous.
Proof. Let U ∈ TZ . We need to show that (g ◦ f )−1 (U) ∈ TX . But

(g ◦ f )−1 (U) = f −1 (g −1 U))
and g −1 (U) ∈ TY by the continuity of g, so f −1 (g −1 U)) ∈ TX by the continuity
of f .
Examples 2.8.
(i) Let X be any topological space. Then id: X → X is continuous.
(ii) Any constant map is continuous. In other words, Let X, Y be any
topological spaces and let f : X → Y be the map sending x 7→ y0
for some fixed y0 ∈ Y . Then f is continuous.
Proof. Let U ⊆ Y be open. Then

(
X y0 ∈ U
f −1 (U) =
∅ y0 6∈ U
21
So f −1 (U) is open.
(iii) Let X be equipped with the discrete topology, and let Y be any
topological space, and let f : X → Y be any map. Then f is
continuous.
Proof. Let U ⊆ Y be open. We need to show that f −1 (U) is open

in X. But all subsets of X are open. So this is true.
(iv) Let X be any topological space. Let Y be equipped with the indis-
crete topology. Let f : X → Y be any map. Then f is continuous.
Proof. The open sets in Y are ∅, Y . Now f −1 (∅) = ∅ ∈ TX and

f −1 (Y ) = X ∈ TX . Therefore f is continuous.
Homeomorphisms
What does it mean for two topological spaces to be “the same” or “equivalent”?
Definition. A homeomorphism between topological spaces X and Y is a

bijection f : X → Y such that f and f −1 are continuous.
Exercise: A bijection of sets f : X → Y gives a homeomorphism of topological

spaces X → Y if and only if it induces a bijection TX → TY given by sending
U 7→ f (U).
2.1 Bases
In metric spaces, open sets were unions of open balls. What’s the analogue of
this statement for topological spaces?
Definition. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A basis for T if a subfamily

B ⊆ T such that every set in T is a union of open sets in B. We say (X, T )
has a countable basis for the topology if and only if ∃ a countable basis.
Example 2.9. Let X = R2 with the usual Euclidean topology. Then
B = {B (x) : > 0, x ∈ R2 }
is a basis. Also
B 0 = {B (x) : > 0, ∈ Q, x ∈ Q2 }
is a basis.
Aside: How can we get f such that f is continuous, f −1 not? Lecture 10
Take X to discrete topology, Y indiscrete topology; then the identity map

satisfies this: Suppose X has at least 2 points in it. Clearly id : X → Y is
continuous, but id : Y → X is not; take any point not Y or ∅.
22
2.2 Closed Sets

Definition. A subset V of a topological space X is closed iff X\V is open.
Proposition 2.10. Let X be a topological space. Then:

– (C1) X, ∅ are closed in X.
– (C2) If V1 , V2 are closed subsets of X, then V1 ∪ V2 is closed.
T
– (C3) If Vi , i ∈ I are such that Vi are closed, then i∈I Vi is also closed.
Proof. Take compliments: Set Ui = X\Vi , then (C1), (C2), (C3) become (T1),
(T2), (T3).
Example 2.11 (Euclidean Topology on R2 ).
A= ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| < b is not closed. But
A= ⊂ R2
|x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b is closed.
2.3 Closure
The closure of a subset A of a topological space X is the smallest closed subset
of X that contains A. Precisely:
Definition. Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X. The closure of A is

\
A= V
V ⊆X
V closed, A⊆V
Example 2.12. See previous examples in metric spaces.
Example 2.13. Take X = any non-empty set with the indiscrete topol-
ogy. If A ⊆ X is any non-empty set, then A = X.
23
Definition (Point of closure). Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X.

Then a point x ∈ X is a point of closure of A iff every open set U such
that x ∈ U satisfies U ∩ A 6= ∅.
Proposition 2.14. A = {x ∈ X : x is a point of closure of A}.
Proof. Set B = {x ∈ X : x is a point of closure of A}. We want to show that

A = B. It suffices to show
(i) B is closed.
(ii) If V is a closed subset of X such that A ⊆ V , then B ⊆ V .
(i). Set U = X\B. We need to show U is open. Take x ∈ U. We need to show

that ∃ open set Nx such that x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U. Suppose not. Then every
open set Nx with x ∈ Nx satisfies Nx 6⊆ U, i.e. Nx ∩ B 6= ∅. So ∃b ∈ Nx such
that b is a point of closure of A. But Nx is an open set containing b, so Nx
contains a point of A. Thus every open set Nx such that x ∈ Nx contains a
point of A. Thus x is a point of closure of A, i.e. x ∈ B, XX. So the assumption
is false, i.e. ∃Nx open such that x ∈ Nx and Nx ⊆ U. So U is open.
(ii). Suppose that V is closed in X and A ⊆ V . Let b ∈ B be arbitrary. We
need to show that b ∈ V . Suppose not. Then b ∈ X\V which is open. So ∃ U
open such that b ∈ U and U ⊆ X\V . Then U ∩ A = ∅, XX since b is a point
of closure with A, so any open set U with b ∈ U meets A. Thus b ∈ V as
required.
Proposition 2.15. Let A, B be subsets of a topological space X Then: Lecture 11
(i) A ⊆ A.
(ii) A ⊆ B =⇒ A ⊆ B.
(iii) A is closed in X ⇐⇒ A = A.
(iv) A = A.
(v) A is closed in X.
(vi) A is the smallest closed subset containing A.
Proof. Left as an exercise.
Interior
Definition. Let X be a topological space and A be a subset of X. Then
a ∈ X is called an interior point of A iff ∃ an open set N such that x ∈ Nx
and Nx ⊆ A. The interior of A is
Å = {a ∈ X : a is an interior point of A}
Equivalently [
Å = U
U ⊆A
U open
24
Examples 2.16.
• R2 with the Euclidean topology, if B = {x ∈ R2 : |x| ≤ 1}, then
B̊ = {x ∈ R2 : |x| < 1}.
• X = any non-empty set with the indiscrete topology, A ⊆ X any
non-empty subset of X. Then Å = ∅ and A = X. (cf. Q ⊂ R with
the Euclidean topology)
Proposition 2.17. X\A = X\Å.
A
X
Proof.
x ∈ X\A ⇐⇒ x is a point of closure of X\A

⇐⇒ for all open sets U such that x ∈ U, we have U ∩ (X\A) 6= ∅
⇐⇒ there is no open set U such that x ∈ U and U ⊆ A
⇐⇒ x ∈ Å
So X\A = X\Å.
Corollary 2.18. Let A, B be subsets of a topological space X. Then
(i) Å ⊆ A.
(ii) If A ⊆ B then Å ⊆ B̊.
(iii) A is open in X ⇐⇒ Å = A.
˚
(iv) Å = Å.
(v) Å is open in X.
(vi) Å is the largest open set contained in A.
Proof. Apply the previous proposition. This turns (i) - (vi) into the corre-
sponding statements about closures.
Definition. The boundary of A is ∂A = A\Å.
Useful Terminology. Let X be a topological space and x ∈ X. An open

neighbourhood of x is an open set such that U ⊆ X such that x ∈ U.
25
2.4 Subspaces
Definition. Let (X, T ) be a topological space and let A be a subset of X.
The subspace topology on A is TA = {A ∩ U : U ∈ T }. A equipped with
this topology is called a subspace of X.
Claim. TA is a topology on A.
Proof. We need to show (T1) – (T3):
– ∅ ∈ TA because ∅ ∈ TA =⇒ A ∩ ∅ ∈ TA .
– A ∈ TA because X ∈ TX =⇒ A ∩ X ∈ TA .
– Suppose that U, V ∈ TA . Then U = U 0 ∩ A for some U 0 ∈ TA and
V = V 0 ∩ A for some V 0 ∈ T , so U ∩ V = U 0 ∩ A ∩ V 0 ∩ A = (U 0 ∩ V 0 ) ∩ A.

Example 2.19. A = [0, 1] and X = R with Euclidean topology. Then

(1 − c, 1] is open in the subspace topology.
Definition. The function i : A → X which sends a 7→ a is called the Lecture 12

inclusion map, denoted i (or iA )
Lemma 2.20. Given (X, T ) a topological space, A ⊂ X with the subspace

topology, i : A → X is continuous.
Proof. We want for any U ∈ T , for i−1 (U) ∈ TA . But for any U ∈ T ,
i−1 (U) = U ∩ A ∈ TA by definition.
Proposition 2.21. If T 0 is a topological space on A and i : A → X is

continuous, then TA ⊂ T 0
Proof. If i continuous =⇒ ∀ U ∈ T , i−1 (U) ∈ T 0 . But if V ∈ TA , V = U ∩ A

for some U ∈ T , so V ∈ T 0 =⇒ TA ⊂ T 0 .
Proposition 2.22. Let (X, TX ), (Y, TY ) be topological spaces as a f : X → Y .

Then f continuous =⇒ f ◦ i continuous.
f
Y X
i
f ◦i
A
Proof. The composition of two continuous functions is also continuous.
26
Proposition 2.23 (Universal property). Let (X, TX ), (Z, TZ ) be topological

spaces and A ⊆ X be with the subspace topology and g : Z → A. Then g
continuous iff i ◦ g continuous.
X
i◦g
i
g
Z A
Proof. If g continuous =⇒ (i ◦ g) continuous by composition of continuous

functions. Conversely, suppose we have (i ◦ g) continuous. We want that for
any U ∈ TA , g −1 (U) ∈ TZ . U ∈ TA =⇒ ∃V ∈ T such that U = V ∩ A. We
have
g −1 (U) = g −1 (V ∩ A) = g −1 (i−1 (V )) = (i ◦ g)−1 (V ) ∈ TZ
by the continuity of i ◦ g. So g is continuous.
Theorem 2.24
Given (X, T ), A ⊂ X, TA is the only topology such that for any (Z, TZ )
and function g : Z → A, g continuous iff (i ◦ g) is continuous.
Proof. Take a topology T 0 on A such that for any (Z, TZ ) and function g :
Z → A, g continuous iff (i ◦ g) is continuous.
(i) TA ⊆ T 0 : Choose (Z, TZ ) = (A, T 0 ) and g = id.
(X, T )
i◦g
i
(A, T 0 ) g=id
(A, T 0 )
Now id = g is continuous =⇒ i ◦ g = i is continuous. So TA ⊆ T 0 .

(ii) T 0 ⊆ TA : Let (Z, TZ ) = (A, TA ).
(X, T )
i◦g
i
(A, TA ) g=id
(A, T 0 )
i ◦ g = i : (A, TA ) → (X, T ) but i is continuous. So (i ◦ g) is continuous =⇒ g

continuous, g = id. So g −1 (U) ∈ TA for any U ∈ T 0 . So g −1 (U) = U ∈ TA . So
T 0 ⊆ TA .
Lemma 2.25. If B is a basis of (X, T ) and A ⊂ X, then BA = {U ∩A : U ∈ B}

is a basis of TA .
27
Proof. We need to show that if U ∈ TA , then

[
U= Ui , Ui ∈ BA
i∈I
But if U ∈ TA , then U = V ∩ A for a V ∈ T . So

[
V = Vi , V i ∈ B
i∈I
Hence [ [ [
U =V ∩A= Vi ∩ A = (Vi ∩ A) = Ui ∈ BA
i∈I i∈i i∈I
Given a metric space (X, d) and A ⊆ X, there are 2 canonical topologies:

(i) Metric topology T(dA ) on A
(ii) Subspace topology (TA )
Proposition 2.26. T(dA ) = (TA ).

Proof. Exercise. (quite hard).
Products
Definition (Product topology). Let X and Y be topological spaces. Let Lecture 13
T be the collection of all unions of subsets of X × Y of the form U × V
where U is open in X and V is open in Y . This topology on X × Y is called
the product topology.
Note: In R2 , the black squares alone are not in the product topology; we also
require the red squares for X × Y :
Not every open set in the product topology is of the form U × V with U open
in X and V open in Y . But
B = {U × V : U open in X, V open in Y }
is a basis for the product topology. We will explore this on example sheets.
Exercise: The Euclidean topology on R2 (a) coincides with the product topol-
ogy on R × R (b).
(a) is made up of unions of B (x, y). Why is this open in the product topology?
For each point in B (x, y), we can surround it by another disk, but we can
always inscribe a rectangle in this disk – this is the U × V we use.
28
3 Hausdorff Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
3 Hausdorff Spaces
Definition (Convergence). A sequence (xn )n≥1 of points in a topological
space X converges to x ∈ X written xn → x if and only if for every open
set U such that x ∈ U, ∃N such that whenever n ≥ N we have xn ∈ U.
Examples 3.1.
• For metric topologies this is the usual notion of convergence.
• X with the discrete topology, xN → x if and only if xn = x for all
n ≥ N (for some N ).
• X with the indiscrete topology, xn → x for all sequences (xn )n≥1
and all x.
Why don’t sequences have unique limits here? Because open sets
don’t separate points.
Definition (Hausdorff). A topological space is called Hausdorff if and only

if for all x, y ∈ X with x 6= y, ∃ open sets U, V in X with x ∈ U, y ∈ V
and U ∩ V = ∅.
Claim: Let X be a Hausdorff topological space. Then convergent sequences

in X have a unique limit.
Proof. Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of points in X. Suppose that xn → x and

xn → y. We need to show that x = y. Suppose not. Then x 6= y and ∃ open
sets U, V such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Since xn → x, ∃N such
that xn ∈ U whenever n ≥ N ; since xn → y, ∃M such that xn ∈ V whenever
n ≥ N . So for n ≥ max(M, N ), xn ∈ U and xn ∈ V XX since U ∩ V = ∅.
Any metric topology is Hausdorff. (If (X, d) is a metric space and x, y ∈ X

satisfy x 6= y, then set = d(x, y), U = B/2 (x), V = B/2 (y). Then U, V are
open in X with x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅.)
So any metrisable (there is a metric on X s.t. the topology is the metric
topology) topological space X must be Hausdorff.
Example 3.2. Let X be an infinite set with the cofinite topology. Then
X is not Hausdorff.
Open sets are all of the form X\{ finitely many points }. So if x, y ∈ X and
U, V are open sets with x ∈ U, y ∈ V we have U ∩ V 6= ∅. So U ∩ V = X\{
finitely many points } and X is infinite, so U ∩ V 6= ∅.
Proposition 3.3.
(i) A subspace of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff. Lecture 14
(ii) X × Y is Hausdorff ⇐⇒ X and Y are Hausdorff.

(iii) If f : X → Y is a continuous injective map of topological spaces and Y
is Hausdorff, then X is Hausdorff.
29
3 Hausdorff Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
(iv) If X and Y are homeomorphic, then X is Hausdorff ⇐⇒ Y is Haus-

dorff.
Proof.
(i) Let a, b ∈ A be such that a 6= b. Then a, b ∈ X and X is Hausdorff, so
∃ open subsets U, V of X such that a ∈ U, b ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Set
U 0 = U ∩ A and V 0 = V ∩ A. Then U 0 , V 0 are open in A (because A has
the subspace topology) and a ∈ U 0 and b ∈ V 0 and U 0 ∩ V 0 = ∅. So A is
Hausdorff.
(ii) Suppose X, Y are both Hausdorff. Let (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) be distinct
points of X × Y . Then either x0 6= x1 or y0 6= y1 . wlog exchanging X
and Y if necessary, we may assume that x0 6= x1 . Then X is Hausdorff,
so ∃ open sets U, V in X with x0 ∈ U, x1 ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Set
Ũ = U × Y and Ṽ = V × Y . Then Ũ, Ṽ are open in X × Y (because
X × Y has the product topology) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ Ũ and (x1 , y1 ) ∈ Ṽ and
Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅ //
Suppose X × Y is Hausdorff. We will show that X is Hausdorff. Take
x0 , x1 ∈ X with x0 6= x1 . Fix y0 ∈ Y and consider (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y0 ) ∈
X × Y . These points are distinct and X × Y is Hausdorff =⇒ ∃ open
sets Ũ, Ṽ in X × Y such that (x0 , y0 ) ∈ Ũ, (x1 , y0 ) ∈ Ṽ and Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅.
Because {U × V : U ⊂ X open, V ⊂ Y open} is a basis for the product
topology, ∃U1 × V1 ⊆ Ũ with (x0 , y0 ) ∈ U1 × V1 and U2 × V2 ⊆ Ṽ with
(x1 , y0 ) ∈ U2 × V2 , and U1 , U2 ⊆ X are open, and V1 , V2 ⊆ Y are open.
We have (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ) = ∅. I claim U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Suppose not.
Then ∃x0 ∈ U1 ∩ U2 and y0 ∈ V1 ∩ V2 (because y0 ∈ V1 and y0 ∈ V2 ). So
(x0 , y0 ) ∈ (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ), XX, so U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. But x0 ∈ U1 and
x1 ∈ U2 , with U1 , U2 ⊆ X open and U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. So X is Hausdorff.
(iii) Let x0 , x1 be distinct points of X. Then f (x0 ) and f (x1 ) distinct points
of Y (because f is injective), so ∃ disjoint open sets U, V in Y with
f (x0 ) ∈ U and f (x1 ) ∈ V (because Y is Hausdorff). Set Ũ = f −1 (U)
and Ṽ = f −1 (V ). Then Ũ, Ṽ are open in X (because f is continuous)
and also x0 ∈ Ũ and x1 ∈ Ṽ and Ũ ∩ Ṽ = ∅ (as if ∃x0 ∈ Ũ × Ṽ 0 then
f (x0 ) ∈ U ∩ V = ∅, XX). Therefore X is Hausdorff.
(iv) Follows immediately from (iii)
Aside: When is a topological space metrisable? Being Hausdorff (can separate

distinct points using disjoint open sets) is not enough. In metric spaces you
can separate a point from a closed subset using disjoint open sets.
Definition. A topological space is regular iff for every closed subset C ⊆ X

and every p ∈ X with p 6∈ C, ∃ open sets U, V ⊆ X such that p ∈ U, C ⊆
V and U ∩ V = ∅.
6
Metric spaces are regular. Hausdorff =⇒ regularity.
30
4 Connected Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
4 Connected Spaces
Definition. A topological space X is connected iff 6 ∃ a continuous surjec- Lecture 15
tive map f : X → {0, 1} where {0, 1} is given the discrete topology.
Equivalently X is connected iff 6 ∃ non-empty open sets A, B ⊆ X such that

A ∪ B = X, A ∩ B = ∅.
Why are these equivalent? We could take A = f −1 ({0}), B = f −1 ({1}) which
are open and non-empty since f is surjective, with A ∩ B = ∅.
Conversely define f : X → {0, 1} by
(
0 x∈A
x 7−→
1 x∈B
Examples 4.1.
(i) Take X = {5, 7} a subspace of R. This is not connected; A =
{5}, B = {7}. (5 is open since {5, 7} ∩ (4, 6) = {5})
(ii) Q as a subspace of R. Connected or disconnected? Disconnected:
Take A = (−∞, π) ∩ Q, B = (π, ∞) ∩ Q.
(iii) X with the discrete topology is disconnected if |X| > 1. If |X| > 1,
then take A = {x}, B = X\{x}.
(iv) X with the indiscrete topology is always connected: we can’t choose
non-empty open sets A, B with A ∩ B = ∅.
Exercise: Show that the connected subsets of R are intervals. [I is an interval

iff x, y ∈ I =⇒ z ∈ I for all x < z < y.]
Proposition 4.2. Let X be a connected topological space, and let f : X → Y

be continuous. Then f (X) is connected.
Proof. Suppose not. Then choose non-empty A, B open subsets of f (X) [with
the subspace topology] such that A ∩ B = ∅ and A ∪ B = f (X).
Y
f
X
A
B
Set Ã = f −1 (A), B̃ = f −1 (B). Then Ã, B̃ are open in X (since f continuous)

and Ã ∪ B̃ = X (as under f any x ∈ X maps to either A or B) and Ã ∩ B̃ = ∅
(as A ∩ B = ∅). So X is disconnected, XX. Thus f (X) is connected.
Corollary 4.3. Suppose that topological spaces X, Y are homeomorphic. Then

X is connected iff Y is connected.
31
Proposition 4.4. Let Ai , i ∈ I be connected

S subsets of a topological space X,
such that Ai ∩ Aj 6= ∅ for i 6= j. Then i∈I Ai is connected.
S
Proof. Let f : i∈I Ai → {0, 1} be continuous. It suffices to show that f is
not surjective. wlog not all the Ai ’s are empty. On each Ai , the function f is
constant. And these constants areSthe same on Ai and Aj for all i, j because
Ai ∩ Aj 6= ∅. So f is constant on i∈I Ai . Thus f is not surjective.
For a similar argument you can show that if B S and Ai , i ∈ I are connected
subsets of X and B ∩ Ai 6= ∅ for all i, then B = i∈I Ai is connected.
Example 4.5. Suppose that A, B are connected subsets of X.

Does it follow that A ∩ B is connected? No! E.g. Two crescents intersect-
ing is not connected:
A B
By convention, ∅ is connected. Lecture 16
Example 4.6. X = {x}, T = {∅, X}. Then X is connected.
Theorem 4.7
Let X and Y be topological spaces. Then X × Y is connected ⇐⇒

both X and Y are connected.
Proof. Suppose X × Y is connected. Let pX : X → Y → X and pY : X × Y →

Y be the projection maps; these are continuous. So X = pX (X × Y ) is
connected and Y = pY (X × Y ) is connected.
LastStime: if B and Ci , i ∈ I are connected and B ∩ Ci 6= ∅ for all i, then
B ∪ i∈I Ci is connected.
B is homeomorphic to X, hence connected,SCx is homeomorphic to Y , hence
connected. B ∩ Cx = {(x, y0 )} =
6 ∅, so B ∪ x∈X Cx is connected.
4.1 Path Connectedness

Definition (Path). A path in a topological space X from x0 ∈ X to x1 ∈ X
is γ : [0, 1] → X continuous such that γ(0) = x0 , γ(1) = x1 .
32
Examples 4.8.
x2
γ
x1 X
Definition (Path connected). A topological space X is path connected iff

any two points in X can be joined by a path in X.
Proposition 4.9. If a topological space X is path-connected, then it is con-

nected.
Proof. Suppose X is disconnected. Then ∃ non-empty open sets A, B ⊆ X

such that A ∪ B = X, A ∩ B = ∅. Take x0 ∈ A, x1 ∈ B. Since X is path-
connected, there is a path from x0 to x1 :
γ : [0, 1] → X cts such that γ(0) = x0 , γ(1) = x1
Set Ã = γ −1 (A), B̃ = γ −1 (B). Then Ã, B̃ are open subsets of [0, 1] (by
continuity of γ), Ã ∪ B̃ = [0, 1] and Ã ∩ B̃ = ∅, XX since [0, 1] is connected. So
X is connected.
6
So path-connected =⇒ connected, but connected =⇒ path connected.
Exercise: Say that a topological space X is locally path connected iff every
x ∈ X has an open neighbourhood U such that U is path-connected.
(i) Show that Rn is locally path-connected.
(ii) If X is locally path connected, then X connected =⇒ X path-connected.
In particular, for open subsets of Rn , path-connected ⇐⇒ connected.
Example 4.10 (Topologists sine curve). (See Problem Sheet) X con-

nected but not path connected : subspace of R2 :
The graph of y = sin 1/x for x > 0 and y-axis from y = −1 to y = 1
Claim: R2 ∼
6 R
=
Proof. Suppose R2 is homeomorphic to R. Then R2 \{one point} which is

path-connected is homeomorphic to R\ {one point} which is disconnected.
Exercise: S 0 = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1} ∼
6 R.
=
33
5 Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
5 Compactness
What does it mean for a topological space to be “small”?
Reasonable notion: X is small ⇐⇒ for every continuous function f : X → R,
f (X) is bounded. Motive: [0, 1] is “small” in this sense. (0, 1) is not small.
Definition (Compact). A subset A of a topological space X is compact if

and only if every open cover of A admits a finite subcover.
Definition (Open cover). We say {Ui S : i ∈ I} is an open cover of A iff

each Ui is an open subset of X and A ⊆ S i∈I Ui . A subcover of {Ui : i ∈ I}
is {Uj : j ∈ J} with J ⊆ I such that A ⊆ j∈J Uj . This is a finite subcover
if |J| < ∞.
Example 5.1 (Non-example). (0, 1) is not compact as a subset of R. Lecture 17

Proof.
S Consider Ui = (0, 1 − 1/i), i ≥ 2. The Ui are open in R and
U
i≥2 i = (0, 1). We have
U2 ⊆ U3 ⊆ U4 ⊆ . . .
so if {Ui1 , . . . Uik } were a finite subcover then
(0, 1) ⊆ Ui1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uin

= Umax(i1 ,...,ik ) = (0, ik−1
ik )
So {Ui : i ≥ 2} has no finite subcover, XX. So (0, 1) is not compact.
Note: (0, 1) is not compact, but {(−1, 3)} is an open cover of (0, 1).
Example 5.2. [0, 1] is compact as a subset of R.

Proof. Let {Ui : i ∈ I} be an open cover of [0, 1]. We need to show that ∃
a finite subcover. Let
S = {a ∈ [0, 1] : [0, a] can be covered by finitely many unions of Ui }
S is non-empty because 0 ∈ S. S is bounded above (by 1), so we can let

s = sup S. Then s ∈ [0, 1]. So ∃j with s ∈ Uj . Find > 0 such that
(s − , s + ) ⊆ Uj . Now s = sup S, so ∃a ∈ S with a > s − . Then, if
s < 1, we have that [0, s + 2 ] can be covered by finitely many o f the Ui ’s,
finitely many to cover [0, a] by construction, plus Uj to cover [a, s + 2 ], XX.
So s = 1. At this point I know that [0, a] can be covered by finitely many
|Ui for all a < 1.
We need to show that [0, 1] can be covered by finitely many Ui . Now 1 ∈ Uk
for some k, so 1 − ∈ Uk for some > 0. Then [0, 1 − ] is covered by
Ui1 , . . . , Uik for some i1 , . . . , in , so [0, 1) is covered by Ui1 , . . . , U1n , Uk .
34
Proposition 5.3. Any compact subset C of a metric space (X, d) is bounded.
Proof. If C = ∅, there’sS nothing to prove. Else ∃c ∈ C. Set Un = Bn (c).

Un is open and C ⊆ n≥1 Un , so {Un : n ≥ 1} is an open cover of C. C is
compact, so ∃ finite subcover Ui1 , . . . , Uik say, but U1 ⊆ U2 ⊆ U3 ⊆ . . . , so
Ui1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uik = Umax(i1 ,...,ik ) . Set N = max(i1 , . . . , ik ). Then C ⊆ BN (c), so
C is bounded.
X is a subspace of R2 , B (c) = {x ∈ X : d(c, x) < }. In particular, compact

subsets of Rn are bounded.
Proposition 5.4. Compact subsets of Hausdorff topological spaces are closed.
Proof. Let X be a Hausdorff topological space. Let C ⊆ X be compact. We

need to show that X\C is open. Take y ∈ X\C. We need to show ∃ an open
set U with y ∈ U and U ⊆ X\C.
Given c ∈ C, ∃ Uc , Vc with y ∈ Uc , c ∈ Vc and Uc ∩ Vc = ∅. Note that {Vc : c ∈
C} is an open cover of C. So ∃c1 , . . . , ck ∈ C such that Vc1 , . . . , Vck is an open
cover of C. Let U = Uc1 ∩ · · · ∩ Uck . This is open. Then U ⊆ Uci for each i. So
U ∩ (Vc1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vck ) = ∅
So U ∩ C = ∅ (because C ⊆ Vc1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vck ). So U is an open set in X, with

y ∈ U and U ⊆ X\C. So X\C is open ( =⇒ C is closed).
In particular, compact subsets of Rn are closed. (Later, A ⊆ Rn is compact

⇐⇒ A is closed and bounded.)
Proposition 5.5. Let X, Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y a continuous

map. If X is compact then f (X) is compact.
Proof. Left as an exercise.
So if X is a compact topological space and f : X → R continuous, then f (X) Lecture 18

is bounded. In other words, compact topological spaces are “small” in the
sense of the motivating discussion at the start of the section. Sharper result:
Proposition 5.6. Let X be a compact topological space and f : X → R be

continuous. Then f is bounded and attains its bounds.
Proof. f (X) is compact, and therefore bounded. So f is bounded. Notice

also that f (X) is closed (since R is Hausdorff). So inf f (X) ∈ f (X) and
sup f (X) ∈ f (X). So ∃x+ ∈ X with f (x) ≤ f (x+ ) for all x ∈ X, and
∃x− ∈ X with f (x) ≥ f (x− ) for all x ∈ X, and f attains its bounds.
Proposition 5.7. A closed subset of a compact topological space is compact.
Proof. Let X be a compact topological space, C ⊆ X be closed.
35
C X
Let {Ui : i ∈ I} be an open subcover of C. Need to show ∃ a finite subcover.

Well, {Ui : i ∈ I} ∪ {X\C} is an open cover of X. So this has a finite subcover
for X. This is either {Ui1 , . . . , Uin } or {Ui1 , . . . , Uin }, X\C. In either case
{Ui1 , . . . , Uin } covers C.
Note the closed condition is necessary, e.g. [0, 1] is compact, (0, 1) is not com-
pact.
Theorem 5.8
Let X and Y be topological spaces. Then X × Y is compact iff both X

and Y are compact.
Proof. If X × Y is compact, then X = pX (X × Y ) is compact and pX :

X × Y → X is continuous. Similarly Y is compact.
Suppose now that X and Y are compact, and that {Wi : i ∈ I} is an open
cover of X × Y . We need to show ∃ finite subcover.
(i) Step 1: Show that the ‘slice’ {x} × Y is covered by finitely many of the
Wi . The slice is homeomorphic to Y , hence is compact and {Wi : i ∈ I}
is an open cover of the slice =⇒ ∃Wi1 . . . , Win such that
{x} × Y ⊆ Wi1 ∪ · · · ∪ Win
(ii) Step 2: Wi1 ∪ · · · ∪ Win ⊇ Ux × Y for an open set Ux ⊆ X containing x.

x
Ux
If Wij = Uj × Vj for Uj ⊆ X, Vj ⊆ Y open then this is obvious:
Ux = Ui1 ∩ Ui2 ∩ · · · ∩ Uin
Recall that {U × V : U ⊆ X, V ⊆ Y open} is a basis for the product

topology. Given (x, y) on my slice, we have (x, y) ∈ Wij for some j, so ∃
36
open sets Zy ⊆ X, Vy ⊆ Y such that (x, y) ⊆ Zy × Vy . So {Vy : y ∈ Y }

is an open cover. This admits a finite subcover Vy1 , . . . , Vyk , so Y =
Vy+1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vyk . So I’ve covered by slice with finitely many rectangles:
Zy1 × Vy1 , . . . , Zyk × Vyk
and each rectangle is contained within one of the Wi ’s. Thus Wi1 ∪ Win
contains
(Zy1 ∩ · · · ∩ Zyk ) ×Y
| {z }
Ux
(iii) Step 3: Do this for every x ∈ X. Then {Ux : x ∈ X} are an open cover
of X. So ∃ finite subcover Ux1 , . . . , Uxl . So
(1) Ux1 × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wi1,1 , . . . , Wi1,m1
(2) Ux2 × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wi2,1 , . . . , Wi2,m2
..
.
(l) Uxl × Y is covered by finitely many of the Wi : Wil,1 , . . . , Wil,ml
So
{Wia,b : 1 ≤ a ≤ l, 1 ≤ b ≤ na }
covers all of X × Y .
Corollary 5.9 (Heine-Borel Theorem). Let A be a subset of Rn . Then A is Lecture 19

compact if and only if A is closed and bounded.
Proof. =⇒ : Rn is a metric space, so compact subsets of Rn are bounded.

Rn is Hausdorff, so compact subsets of Rn are closed.
⇐= : Suppose that A ⊆ Rn is closed and bounded. Then A ⊆ [a1 , b1 ] × · · · ×
[an , bn ] for some a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn . But [a, b] is compact, so [a1 , b1 ] × · · · ×
[an , bn ] is compact. And now A is a closed subset of a compact topological
space hence is compact.
Aside: If f : X → Y is continuous and bijective, then it need not be a

homeomorphism.
Claim: Let X be a compact topological space, Y be a Hausdorff topological

space, f : X → Y be a continuous bijection. Then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. We need to show that f −1 : Y → X is continuous, that is that whenever

U is open in X, we have (f −1 )−1 (U) is open in Y . It is sufficient to prove that
f (V ) is closed in Y whenever V is closed in X.
V is a closed subset of a compact topological space, so V is compact. Thus
f (V ) is also compact (because f is continuous). But Y is Hausdorff, so f (V )
(being a compact subset of a Hausdorff space) is closed.
37
6 Sequential Compactness Metric Spaces & Topology
6 Sequential Compactness
Definition (Sequentially Compact). A metric space (X, d) is called sequen-
tially compact iff every sequence (xn )n≥1 of points of X has a convergent
subsequence. A subset A of a metric space (X, d) is called sequentially
compact iff it is sequentially compact as a metric space with the subspace
metric.
i.e. iff any sequence (an )n≥1 of points of A has a subsequence which converges
(in X) to a point of A.
E.g. closed bounded subsets of Rn are sequentially compact. R is not sequen-

tially compact: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . .
Proposition 6.1. A subset A ⊆ R is sequentially compact iff it is closed and

bounded.
Proof. Left as exercise.
Theorem 6.2
Let X be a metric space. Then X is sequentially compact iff X is

compact.
Before we prove this, we prove the claim:

Claim: Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of points in a metric space (X, d). Then
(xn )n≥1 contains a subsequence converging to x ∈ X iff for all > 0, B (x)
contains infinitely many of the xn .
Proof. =⇒ : If (xnk )k≥1 converges to x, then for all > 0, xnk ∈ B (x)
whenever k ≥ K for some K. So B (x) contains infinitely many of the xn ’s.
⇐= : Construct a sequence xn1 , xn2 , . . . as follows. Take xnk ∈ B1/k (x) such
that nk > nk−1 .
Proof of first half of theorem. ⇐= : Suppose not. Then ∃ a sequence (xn )n≥1
of points of X with no convergent subsequence. In particular, for any x ∈
X, there is no subsequence of (xn )n≥1 that converges to x. So ∃x > 0
such that Bx (x) contains only finitely many of the xn ’s. Now {Bx (x) :
x ∈ X} is an open cover of X. But X is compact, so ∃ finite subcover
Bx1 (x1 ), . . . , Bxk (xk ). So X = Bx1 (x1 )∪· · ·∪Bxk (xk ). So X is sequentially
compact, XX
A new and useful concept before we prove =⇒ direction of the theorem: Lecture 20
Definition (Lebesgue number). Let A be a subset of a metric space (X, d)

and {Ui : i ∈ I} a cover of A, we say that the cover has Lebesgue number
> 0 iff for all a ∈ A, B (a) ⊆ Ui for some i ∈ I.
38
If is a Lebesgue number for a cover, then 0 is a Lebesgue number whenever

0 < 0 < .
Example 6.3. Consider A = (0, 1) ⊂ R. U1 = (−5, 2/3), U2 = (1/3, 17).

Then = 1/3 is not a Lebesgue number for {U1 , U2 }, since B1/3 (a) 6⊆ Ui
for a ∈ [1/3, 2/3], but = 1/6 is a Lebesgue number.
Claim: Any open cover of a sequentially compact metric space has a Lebesgue
number.
Proof. Let X be a sequentially compact metric space. Suppose for contradic-
tion that {Ui : i ∈ I} is an open cover of X with no Lebesgue number > 0.
Then 1/n is not a Lebesgue number, so ∃xn ∈ X such that B1/n (xn ) 6⊆ Ui
for any i ∈ I. The sequence (xn )n≥1 has a convergent subsequence (xnk )k≥1
where xnk → x as k → ∞.
But {Ui : i ∈ I} is an open cover of X, so x ∈ Ui for some i ∈ I. So ∃ > 0
such that B (x) ⊆ Ui . For k sufficiently large, we have d(xnk , x) < /2 and
1/nk < /2, so B1/nk (xnk ) ⊆ B (x) ⊆ Ui , XX. So our assumption that the
cover has no Lebesgue number must be false.
Definition (-net). Let X be a metric space

S and > 0 be a real number.
An -net in X is a subset S ⊆ X such that s∈S B (s) = X ⇐⇒ {B (s) :
s ∈ S} is an open cover for X ⇐⇒ every part of X is at most from a
point of S.
Example 6.4. Z is a 1-net for R. It is an -net for R whenever > 1/2.
Claim: Let X be a sequentially compact metric space. Then ∀ > 0, ∃ finite

subset S ⊆ X that is an -net for X.
Proof. Suppose 6 ∃ a finite -net for X. Choose x1 ∈ X. Then {x1 } is not an

-net. So ∃x2 ∈ X with d(x1 , x2 ) ≥ . So {x1 , x2 } is not an -net, so ∃x3 such
that d(x1 , x3 ) ≥ and d(x2 , x3 ) ≥ . Continuing this, this gives a sequence
(xn )n≥1 in X such that d(xi , xj ) ≥ whenever i < j. (So d(xi , xj ) ≥
whenever i 6= j.). But (xn )n≥1 has a convergent subsequence, xnk → x say.
So for k sufficiently large, d(xnk , x) < /2 =⇒ d(xnk , xnk +1 ) < , XX. Thus
my original assumption that 6 ∃ a finite -net must have been false.
Lets finish the proof of Theorem 6.2: Sequentially compact metric spaces are
compact.
Proof. Let X be a sequentially compact metric space and {Ui : i ∈ I} be an

open cover of X. We need to show that there is a finite subcover. The cover
{Ui : i ∈ I} has a Lebesgue number > 0. So for any x ∈ X, B (x) ⊆ Ui for
some i ∈ I. Also ∃ a finite -net for X, so X is covered by B (x1 ), . . . , B (xn )
for some x1 , . . . , xn ∈ X. Then
B (x1 ) ⊆ {Ui1 }, . . . , B (xn ) ⊆ {Uin }
So X is covered by Ui1 , . . . , Uin , so X is compact.
39
Remark. The Theorem is not true for topological spaces in general, though
the examples of spaces that are compact but not sequentially compact are
very complicated. But it’s true for metric spaces.
Another application of Lebesgue number:
Definition (Uniformly continuous). Let (X, dX ), (Y, dY ) be metric spaces

and f : X → Y be a map. We say that f is uniformly continuous iff given
> 0, ∃δ > 0 such that whenever dX (x, x0 ) < δ, we have dY (f (x), f (x0 )) <
.
This is stronger that f being continuous because the δ does not depend on x
or x0 ; it holds uniformly across to whole space X. So f uniformly continuous
=⇒ f continuous. Recall from M1P1: f [a, b] → R is uniformly continuous
⇐⇒ f is continuous.
Proposition 6.5. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map between metric spaces

and suppose that X is compact. Then f is uniformly continuous.
Proof. Fix > 0. We need to show that ∃δ > 0 such that whenever dX (x, x0 ) <
δ we have dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < . For a fixed x, ∃δx > 0 such that whenever
dX (x, x0 ) < δx , we have dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < /2. But {Bδx (x) : x ∈ X} is an
open cover of X. So it has a Lebesgue number, δ > 0. So whenever z, z 0 ∈ X
are such that d(z, z 0 ) < δ, we have z, z 0 ∈ Bδ (x) and Bδ (z) ⊆ Bδx (x) for some
x ∈ X. So
( (
dX (z, x) < δx dY (f (z), f (x)) < /2
0
=⇒
dX (z , x) < δx dY (f (z 0 ), f (x)) < /2
And so dY (f (z), f (z 0 )) < .
6.1 Convergence of Functions

Definition (Pointwise convergence). Let S be a set and fn : S → R be
functions, n ∈ N and let f : S → R be a function. We say that fn → f Lecture 21
pointwise iff fn (s) → f (s) for all s ∈ S.
Example 6.6. Take S = [−1, 1]. Take fn as
x
− n1 0 1
n
40
Then fn → f pointwise, where

(
0 x 6= 0
f=
1 x=0
Definition. We say that fn → f uniformly if for all > 0, ∃N such that

whenever n ≥ N , we have |fn (s) − f (s)| < for all s ∈ S.
Proposition 6.7. Let fn : X → Y be continuous functions between metric

spaces X, Y and suppose that fn → f uniformly for some f : X → Y . Then
f is continuous.
Proof. This is an /3 argument. Fix > 0. Now fn → f uniformly, so ∃N

such that for all n ≥ N , we have dY (fn (x), f (x)) < /3 for all x ∈ X. Also fN
is continuous, so for all x ∈ X, ∃δ such that dY (fN (x), fN (x0 )) < /3 whenever
d(x, x0 ) < δ. Thus if dX (x, x0 ) < δ, we have
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) ≤ dY (f (x), fN (x)) + dY (fN (x), fN (x0 )) + dY (fN (x0 ), f (x0 ))
< /3 + /3 + /3
=
So f is continuous at x, which was arbitrary, so f is continuous.
Rephrased: Let X, Y be metric spaces. Define
B(X, Y ) := {f : X → Y : f is bounded.}
and define d(f, g) := supx∈X dY (f (x), g(x)). This is a metric on B(X, Y ). We

can check that usual conditions hold.
What does convergence in this metric mean? Suppose fn ∈ B(X, Y ) and
f ∈ B(X, Y ) and that fn → f in this metric. Well,
fn → f ⇐⇒ d(fn , f ) → 0 as n → ∞
⇐⇒ sup dY (fn (x), f (x)) → 0 as n → ∞
x∈X
⇐⇒ ∀ > 0, ∃N : n ≥ N =⇒ sup dY (fn (x), f (x)) <
x∈X
⇐⇒ ∀ > 0, ∃N : n ≥ N =⇒ dY (fn (x), f (x)) < ∀x ∈ X
⇐⇒ fn → f uniformly
We just said that the uniform limit of continuous functions is continuous.

Consider,
C bdd (X, Y ) := {f : X → Y : f continuous and bounded}
Then C bdd (X, Y ) ⊂ B(X, Y ). What we just showed is that C bbd (X, Y ) is
closed in B(X, Y ) [because if f ∈ B(X, Y ) is a point of closure of C bdd (X, Y ),
then ∃(fn )n≥1 in C bdd (X, Y ) with fn → f . So f is the uniform limit of
continuous functions, so f ∈ C bdd (X, Y ).]
41
7 Complete Metric Spaces Metric Spaces & Topology
7 Complete Metric Spaces

Definition (Completeness). A metric space is complete iff every Cauchy
sequence in X converges (to a point of X).
Examples 7.1. R is complete, [0, 1] is complete. N is complete (as a

subspace of R). Q ⊂ R is not complete. (0, 1) is not complete, since
xn = 1 − 1/n → 1 but 1 6∈ (0, 1). Notice (0, 1) ∼
= R, but the LHS is not
complete, and the RHS is. So completeness is not a topological property.
Recap: A Cauchy sequence (xn )n≥1 in a metric space (X, d) satisfies: for all Lecture 22
> 0, ∃N such that d(xn , xm ) < whenever n, m ≥ N .
A sequence (xn )n≥1 converges in X always =⇒ the sequence (xn )n≥1 is
Cauchy ( ⇐= in complete metric spaces.)
Proof. Suppose that (xn )n≥1 converges to x ∈ X. Given > 0, ∃N such that
d(xn , x) < /2 whenever n ≥ N . So if n, m ≥ N , we have
d(xn , xm ) ≤ d(xn , x) + d(x, xm )

< /2 + /2 =
So (xn )n≥1 is Cauchy.
Completeness is not a topological property: (0, 1) ∼

= R, however (0, 1) is not
complete and R is complete. But...
Proposition 7.2. Let X, Y be metric spaces and let f : X → Y be a bijection

such that f and f −1 are uniformly continuous. Then X is complete ⇐⇒ Y
is complete.
Proof. Done in assessed coursework #2.
Recall that two metrics d1 , d2 on a set X are called Lipschitz-equivalent iff

∃h, k > 0 constants such that
hd2 (x, y) ≤ d1 (x, y) ≤ kd2 (x, y)
for all x, y ∈ X.
Lipschitz-equivalent metrics define the same topology on X.
Proof. The identity map (X, d1 ) → (X, d2 ) is uniformly continuous and has
uniformly continuous inverse.
7.1 Properties of complete metric spaces

Proposition 7.3. A complete metric subspace Y of a metric space X is closed
in X.
42
Proof. We need to show that Y ⊆ Y . Let x ∈ Y . Then ∃ sequence (yn )n≥1

of points of Y with yn → x. Then (yn )n≥1 is convergent in X, hence it is
a Cauchy sequence. And Y is complete, so yn → y for some y ∈ Y . But
convergent sequences have unique limits (because X is Hausdorff), so y = x.
Thus x ∈ Y .
Similarly:
Proof. We need to show that eery Cauchy sequence in Y converges to a point

of Y . Let (yn )n≥1 be a Cauchy sequence in Y . Since X is complete, we know
that yn → x for some x ∈ X. And then x is a point of closure of Y . So
x ∈ Y = Y . Thus (yn )n≥1 converges to a point of Y .
Proposition 7.4. Compact metric spaces are complete.
Proof. Let X be a compact metric space and let (xn )n≥1 be a Cauchy sequence
in X. We need to show that (xn )n≥1 converges. X is sequentially compact, so
∃ subsequence (xnk )k≥1 such that xnk → x as k → ∞. So it suffices to prove:
Claim: Let (xn )n≥1 be a Cauchy sequence in a metric space X and suppose
that a subsequence (xnk )k≥1 converges to x as k → ∞. Then xn → x as
n → ∞.
Proof of Claim. Fix > 0. We need to show ∃N such that d(xn , x) <
whenever n ≥ N . Now xnk → x as k → ∞, so ∃K such that d(xnk , x) < /2
whenever k ≥ K. And (xn )n≥1 is Cauchy, so ∃N 0 sucht that d(xn , xm ) < /2
whenever n, m ≥ N 0 . Set N = max(nK , N 0 ). Then for n ≥ N we have
d(xn , x) ≤ d(xn , xnK ) + d(xnK , x)
< /2 + /2 =
So xn → x as claimed. This completes the proof that compact metric spaces
are complete.
Proposition 7.5. Let X, Y be metric spaces. Then X × Y complete ⇐⇒

both X and Y are complete.
Proof. Left as an exercise. (Use d∞ ).
Corollary 7.6. Rn is complete.
7.2 Contraction Mapping Theorem

Definition (Contraction). Let (X, d) be a metric space. A map f : X → X Lecture 23
is called a contraction if and only if ∃K < 1 such that d(f (x), f (y)) ≤
Kd(x, y) for all x, y ∈ X.
Note that contractions are automatically uniformly continuous.

[Aside: d(f (x), f (y)) < d(x, y) ∀x, y ∈ X =⇒ f is continuous. ]
43
Definition (Fixed point). A fixed point of f : X → X is x ∈ X such that

f (x) = x.
Theorem 7.7
If X is a complete metric space and f : X → X is a contraction, then ∃

a unique fixed point for f in X.
Proof. Intuition:
X
x
f (f (X))
f (X)
I claim that this x is a fixed point. In other words, X ⊃ f (X) ⊃ f 2 (X) · · · ⊃

f n (X) ⊃ . . . ,
[∞
f (n) (X) = {x} and f (x) = x
n=0
Strategy: Pick x0 as an arbitrary point of X and set xn = f (xn−1 ), n ≥ 1 to

get a sequence (xn )n≥0 in X. Show that x = limn→∞ xn exists and satisfies
f (x) = x.
Claim: (xn )n≥0 is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof of claim:
d(x0 , x1 ) = something
d(x1 , x2 ) = d(f (x0 ), f (x1 )) ≤ Kd(x0 , x1 )
d(x2 , x3 ) = d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) ≤ Kd(x1 , x2 ) ≤ K 2 d(x0 , x1 )
..
.
d(xn , xn+1 ≤ K n d(x0 , x1 )
Suppose m ≥ n, then
d(xn , xm ) ≤ d(xn , xn+1 ) + d(xn+1 , xn+2 ) + · · · + d(xm−1 , xm )

≤ (K n + K n+1 + · · · + K m )d(x0 , x1 )
≤ (K n + K n+1 + · · · + K m + . . . )d(x0 , x1 )
Kn
= d(x0 , x1 ) → 0 as n → ∞
1−K
So (xn )n≥0 is a Cauchy sequence. Thus xn → x for some x ∈ X. (because X
is complete).
44
Claim: f (x) = x.
Proof of claim: xn → x, so f (xn ) → f (x) [because f is continuous) and
xn+1 → x, so f (x) = x.
Uniqueness: Suppose x ∈ X and y ∈ X are fixed point for f . We need to
show that x = y. But
d(x, y) = d(f (x), f (y)) ≤ Kd(x, y)
and K < 1, so d(x, y) = 0. Thus x = y.
Example 7.8. X = [0, 12 ], f : X → X, where x 7→ x2 . This is a contrac-

tion, so ∃ a unique fixed point in [0, 21 ], i.e. a unique solution to x2 = x
in [0, 21 ].
Completeness is essential; the same f but over X = (0, 21 ) does not have
a fixed point even though f is a contraction.
Example 7.9.* Suppose that
D = [xn − a, xn + a] × [yn − b, yn + b]
and f : D → R is continuous and satisfies
|f (x, y1 ) − f (x, y2 )| ≤ K|y1 − y2 |
for all (x, y1 ) and (x, y2 ) ∈ D, for some K > 0. Let M be any upper
bound for |f (x, y)| on D and fix c > 0 such that c < min(a, b/M, 1/K).
Then on I = [x0 − c, x0 + c], there exists a unique solution y(x) to
dy
= f (x, y); y(x0 ) = y0 (∗)
dx
Proof. (∗) holds if and only if x 7→ y(x) is a continuous solution to

Z t=x
y(x) = y0 + f (t, y(t)) dt
t=x0
dy
If dx = f (x, y) and y(x0 ) = y0 , then
Z t=x Z t=x
dy
f (t, y(t)) dt = dt = y(x) − y(x0 )
t=x0 t=x0 dt
On the other hand, if

Z t=x
y(x) = y0 + f (t, y(t)) dt
t=x0
dy
then dx = f (x, y(x)) by the fundamental theorem of calculus.
45
Let X ⊆ C(I) consist of f ∈ C(U ) such that
|f (x) − y0 | ≤ b, ∀x ∈ I
X is closed in C(I) and C(I) is complete. So X is complete. Consider

F : X → X with y 7→ F (Y ), where
Z t=x
F (y)(x) = y0 + f (t, y(t)) dt
t=x0
If y is continuous then F (y) is continuous (so F : X → C(I)).

Claim: If |y(x) − y0 | ≤ b for all x ∈ I, then |F (y)(x) − y0 | ≤ b for all
x ∈ I, because
Z
t=0
|F (y)(x) − y0 | = f (t, y(t)) dt

t=x0
≤ (x − x0 )M ≤ cM ≤ b
(so F : X → X).
Claim: F is a contraction.
Proof. Let y0 , y1 ∈ X. Then
d(F (y0 ), F (y1 )) = sup |F (y0 )(x) − F (y1 )(x)|

x∈[x0 −c,x0 +c]
≤ cKd(y0 , y1 )
with cK < 1. Hence F has a unique fixed point, which is a unique

continuous solution of (∗).
Final Remarks
Aside: Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X a subset. When is A compact Lecture 24
as a subset of X?
Consider A with the subspace topology. When is A is compact? I claim these
two questions are the same. For
A is compact as a subset of X
⇐⇒ every open cover of A has finite subcover
S Sn
⇐⇒ whenever {Ui , i ∈ I} open in X with A ⊆ i Ui , ∃Ui1 , . . . , Uin with A ⊆ j=1 U ij
When is A (with subspace topology) a compact topological space?

A is compact ⇐⇒ whenever {ViS: i ∈ I} open in A with subspace topology,
n
covering A,∃Vi1 , . . . , Vin s.t. A ⊆ j=1 Vij .
But Vi is open in the subspace topology of A iff Vi = Ui ∩ A where Ui open in
A. Choose Ui open in X such that Vi = A ∩ Ui . Then {Ui : i ∈ I} is an open
cover of A in X iff {Vi : i ∈ I} is an open cover for A in the subspace topology.
46
Aside:
Definition (Density). A subspace A of a topological space X is dense if

and only if A = X.
Examples 7.10.
(i) Q is dense in R. R\Q is also dense in R.
(ii) Let X be a non-empty set with the discrete topology. Then A ⊆ X
is dense ⇐⇒ A = X, since all sets are closed.
(iii) Let X be a non-empty set with the indiscrete topology. Then A ⊆ X
is dense ⇐⇒ A 6= ∅.
47
8 The Fundamental Group Metric Spaces & Topology
8 The Fundamental Group

Question: Suppose X is the two-dimensional sphere, i.e.
X = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}
X Y
and suppose Y is the two-dimensional torus, S 1 × S1 where S1 = {(x, y) ∈

R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1} Are these two homeomorphic?
We’d like to think not, since Y has a hole in it; there’d surely have to be a
discontinuity in any mappings. We’re going to build an algebraic structure
out of these ‘loops’ to be able to formalise this.
Recall a path in a topological space X is γ : [0, 1] → X continuous. The end
points of the path are x0 = γ(0), x1 = γ(1). The path is a loop if x0 = x1 .
Definition (Homotopy). A homotopy between paths f0 : [0, 1] → X and

f1 : [0, 1] → X, each of which is a path from x0 ∈ X to x1 ∈ X, is a family
ft : [0, 1] → X of paths from x0 to x1 such that the map F : [0, 1] × [0, 1] →
X mapping (s, t) 7→ ft (s) is continuous.
f0
x0 x1
f1
Definition (Homotopic Paths). We say that paths f0 , f1 are homotopic iff

∃ a homotopy from f0 to f1 .
Homotopy is an equivalence relation:

• Reflexive: f ∼ f – given a path f : [0, 1] → X we need a homotopy from
f to f . Taking ft (s) = f (s) works.
• Symmetry: If f ∼ g then g ∼ f ; Let f, g be paths from x0 to x1 in X that
are homotopic. So ∃ paths ft : [0, 1] → X from x0 to x1 where t ∈ [0, 1]
such that f0 = f, f1 = g and [0, 1] × [0, 1] → X where (s, t) 7→ ft (s) is
continuous. Set gt = f1−t (s). We need to show that (s, t) 7→ f1−t (s)
is continuous: Composing the two functions is the identity, which is
continuous, so it must be continuous as well.
• Transitive: Left as exercise:.
48
Lemma 8.1 (Pasting). Let X be a topological space and let A, B be closed Lecture 25
subsets of X such that X = A ∪ B. Suppose that f : A → Y and g : B → Y
are continuous functions such that f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A ∩ B. Then
h : X → Y mapping (
f (x) x ∈ A
x 7→
g(x) x ∈ B
is continuous.
Proof. It suffices to show that whenever V ⊆ Y is closed, h−1 (V ) is closed in

X. But h−1 (V ) = f −1 (V ) ∪ g −1 (V ) and f −1 (V ) is closed in A, hence closed
in X. Similarly g −1 (V ) is closed in X. So h−1 (V ) is the union of two closed
sets and so is closed.
We could take A, B to be open instead and the result would still hold (exer-
cise.) but we need some condition on A, B for the statement to hold, e.g.
Example 8.2. Let X = R, A = Q, B = R\Q and take f : A → R with

x 7→ 1 and g : B → R with x 7→ 0. These are definitely continuous, but
h : R → R sending (
1 x∈Q
x 7→
0 x 6∈ Q
is not continuous.
Notation. I = [0, 1].

Recall:
A path in a topological space X from x0 ∈ X to x1 ∈ X is f : I → X
continuous such that f (0) = x0 , f (1) = x1 .
Given two paths, f0 : I → X, f1 : I → X, from x0 ∈ X, a homotopy is a
family of paths ft : I → X, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 from x0 to x1 such that I × I → X
mapping (x, t) 7→ ft (s).
s
X
F
f0
t
x0 x1
x0 x1 f1
f is homotopic to g, “f ∼ g” ⇐⇒ ∃ a homotopy from f to g.
Claim: ∼ is an equivalence relation.
49
Proof. Last time we checked reflexive and symmetric. Now transitive:

Let f, g, h : I → X be paths from x0 ∈ X to x1 ∈ X. Let F : I × I → X be a
homotopy from g to g and let G : I × I → X be a homotopy from g to h. We
need to find a homotopy from f to h.
s
f
F
t
x0 x1
g x0
f
X
g
g x1
h
G
x0 x1
We seek:
s
f X
H f
t F
x0 x1
g
x0 G x1
h
h
i.e. H : I × I → X mapping
(
F (s, 2t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
(s, t) 7→ 1
G(s, 2t − 1) 2 ≤t≤1
H is continuous because of the pasting lemma.
The composition of loops

Given a path f : I → X from x0 to x1 and a path g : I → X from x1 to x2 , I
can compose them to get a path f ∗ g from x0 to x2 .
f
x0 x1
g x2
50
Then f ∗ g : I → X with
(
f (2t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 21
t 7→ 1
g(2t − 1) 2 ≤t≤1
f ∗ g is continuous by the pasting lemma.

Fix x0 ∈ X (the basepoint) and consider new loops based at x0 , i.e.paths
f : I → X such that f (0) = f (1) = x0 . Then the composition of paths defines
a “multiplication” operation on this set of loops.
Claim: Let f, f 0 , g, g 0 be loops based at x0 ∈ X. Suppose that f ∼ f 0 and

g ∼ g 0 . Then f ∗ g ∼ f 0 ∗ g 0 . (so composition of paths respects the equivalence
relation of homotopy).
Proof. Let F : I × I → X be a homotopy from f to f 0 . Let G : I × I → X

be a homotopy from g to g 0 . We need to construct a homotopy from f ∗ f 0 to
g ∗ g0 .
s
f
F
t
x0 x0 f
f0
f0 X
x0
g g0
g
G
x0 x0
g0
So consider (
F (2s, t) 0 ≤ s ≤ 21
H(s, t) =
G(2s − 1, t) 12 ≤ s ≤ 1
This is continuous (pasting lemma) and is a homotopy from f ∗ g to f 0 ∗ g 0 .
Definition (The Fundamental Group). The fundamental group is

π1 (X, x0 ) = [γ]: γ is a loop based at x0
with the product

[γ] ∗ [γ 0 ] = [γ ∗ γ 0 ]
51
Claim: π1 (X, x0 ) is a group. Lecture 26
Proof. We need
(i) Identity: Set ex0 ∈ π1 (X, x0 ) to be the constant loop at x0 , i.e.
ex0 (t) = x0 for all t ∈ [0, 1]. I claim that for all [γ] ∈ π1 (X, x0 ), we
have [ex0 ] ∗ [γ] = [γ] and [γ] ∗ [ex0 ] = [γ]. Indeed,
(
x0 0 ≤ t ≤ 21
ex0 ∗ γ(t) =
γ(2t − 1) 12 ≤ t ≤ 1
s
ex0 γ
t
stretch out gamma
x0
1+t
length = 2
1−t
s= 2
So take the homotopy


x 0 0 ≤ s ≤ 12 (1 − t)
F (s, t) =
2

γ t+1 (s − 12 (1 − t)) 1
2 (1 − t) ≤ s ≤ 1
Right inverse is similar. So ex0 is the identity element in π1 (X, x0 ).
(ii) Inverses. Aside: Given a path γ from x0 to x1 , define γ −1 : I → X,

mapping t 7→ γ(1 − t). This is a path from x1 to x0 . So we need to show
that γ ∗ γ −1 = ex0 and γ −1 ∗ γ = ex0 . We need a homotopy from γ ∗ γ −1
to the constant loop ex0 :
γ γ −1
do gamma
do gamma
backwards
for a while
for a while
Stay where I am
1−t 1+t
s= 2 s= 2
ex0
52
So define

γ(2s)

 0 ≤ s ≤ 21 − 12 t
1 1 1 1
F (s, t) = γ(1 − t) 2 − 2t ≤ s ≤ 2 + 2t
γ −1 (2s − 1) 1 1

2 + 2t ≤ s ≤ 1

We need to show F is continuous, F (s, 0) = γ ∗ γ −1 (s), and F (s, 1) =

ex0 (s). F is continuous by the pasting lemma. (check the formulas agree
on overlap s = 21 − 12 t, s = 12 + 12 t - they all give γ(1 − t).)
(iii) Associativity. i.e. for all loops f, g, h : I → X based at x0 , we have Lecture 27
([f ] ∗ [g]) ∗ [h] = [f ] ∗ ([g] ∗ [h])
in other words, we have
(f ∗ g) ∗ h ∼ f ∗ (g ∗ h)
Make a homotopy F : I × I → X mapping (s, t) 7→ F (s, t) between

(f ∗ g) ∗ h and f ∗ (g ∗ h).
s
f g h
stretch f stretch h
g at 1/4
f g h
Define the homotopy


4s t+1
f 0≤s≤




 t+1 4


t+1 t+2

F (s, t) = g(4s − (t + 1)) 4 ≤s≤ 4

 !

 4 t + 2 t+2
h 2−t s − ≤s≤1


 4 4
(iv) Closure: Obvious so we’ll ignore it.
53
8.1 Computing π1 (X, x0 ) in simple cases

Definition (Convex). A subset D ⊆ Rn is called convex if and only if
whenever x0 , x1 ∈ D, the line segment from x0 to x1 is also in D.
E.g. A convex subset: not convex1 :
D D
Claim: Let D ⊆ Rn be convex and suppose that f, g : I → D are paths in

D from x0 to x1 . Then f ∼ g. [In a convex domain, any two paths with the
same endpoints are homotopic].
Proof. We need to construct a homotopy from f to g.
f (s)
f x1
x0
g g(s)
The straight line from f (s) to g(s) is always in D, so it makes sense to define
F : I × I → D mapping (s, t) 7→ (1 − t)f (s) + tg(s). F is continuous (as it is
the sum of products of continuous functions). and
F (s, 0) = f (s) for all s ∈ I

F (s, 1) = g(s) for all s ∈ I
F (0, t) = x0 for all t ∈ I
which together imply that F is a homotopy from f to g.
Example 8.3. X = R2 \{0}.

f
x0 x1
f is not homotopic to g (to be proved later...)
1 but mildly humorous.
54
Corollary 8.4. Let D be a convex subset of Rn , and x0 ∈ D. Then
π1 (D, x0 ) = {1}
Proof. Any loop γ based at x0 is homotopic to ex0 .
Definition (Simply Connected). If π1 (X, x0 ) = {1} for all x0 ∈ X, we say

that X is simply connected.
Recall from the problem sheet, a domain is star shaped if we have a line from
x to x0 which lies in D, and star-shaped domains are simply-connected.
Dependence on Basepoint
How is π1 (X, x0 ) related to π1 (X, x1 )? See problem sheet.
γ
f
x0 x1
Suppose that ∃ a path γ from x0 to x1 . Define
Mγ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (X, x1 )
mapping [f ] 7→ [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ γ], a loop based at x1 .

Then Mγ is well-defined, and Mγ is a group homomorphism:
Mγ ([f ] ∗ [g]) = [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ g ∗ γ]
and
Mγ ([f ]) ∗ Mγ ([g]) = [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ γ] ∗ [γ −1 ∗ g ∗ γ]
= [γ −1 ∗ f ∗ γ ∗ γ −1 ∗ g ∗ γ]
So Mγ ([f ] ∗ [g]) = Mγ ([f ]) ∗ Mγ ([g]). Also (Mγ )−1 = Mγ −1 . So Mγ is an

isomorphism of groups. So, up to isomorphism, π1 (X, x0 ) depends only on
the path component of X containing x0 , and not on x0 itself.
Question: What happens to the fundamental group when we apply f ?

I claim that f : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, f (x0 )) maps [γ] 7→ [f ◦ γ].
55
Motivating Question
Is S 2 homeomorphic to the 2-dimensional torus, T 2 ? Lecture 28
S2 T2
Why does the fundamental group help here? Given topological spaces X, Y
and f : X → Y continuous,
f
f (x0 )
x0 γ Y
X f ◦γ
Whenever γ : I → X is a loop based at x0 ∈ X, f ◦ γ : I → Y is a loop based

at f (x0 ). Similarly, whenever F : I × I → X is a homotopy between two loops
(or paths), γ0 , γ1 : I → X in X, then f ◦ F is a homotopy from f ◦ γ0 to f ◦ γ1 :
F : I × I → X is a homotopy from γ0 to γ1 , mapping (s, t) 7→ F (s, t) iff F is
continuous and
F (s, 0) = γ0 (s) for all s ∈ I
F (s, 1) = γ1 (s) for all s ∈ I
Thus f : X → Y induces a well-defined map, f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, f (x0 ))

mapping [γ] 7→ [f ◦ γ]. Note that f∗ ([γ0 ] ∗ [γ1 ]) is the homotopy class of loops
with one representative given by the loop based at f (x0 ) in Y given by I → Y ,
where (
f ◦ γ0 (2s) 0 ≤ s ≤ 21
s 7→
f ◦ γ1 (2s − 1) 12 ≤ s ≤ 1
So
f∗ ([γ0 ] ∗ [γ1 ]) = (f∗ [γ0 ]) ∗ (f∗ [γ1 ])
So f∗ is a group homomorphism.
Summarising: Given a topological space X and a point x0 ∈ X, we get a
group π1 (X, x0 ) whenever f : X → Y is continuous, we get a group homo-
morphism f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, f (x0 )). Furthermore, if f : X → Y and
g : Y → Z are continuous, then
f∗ g∗
π1 (X, x0 ) π1 (Y, f (x0 )) π1 (Z, g(f (x0 ))
(g◦f )∗
56
Indeed
g∗ (f∗ [γ]) = g∗ ([f ◦ γ]) = [g ◦ f ◦ γ] = (g ◦ f )∗ [γ]
So (g ◦ f )∗ = g∗ ◦ f∗ .
Theorem 8.5
Let X, Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y be a homeomorphism.

Then
f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, f (x0 ))
is an isomorphism.
Proof. f is a homeomorphism, so ∃g : Y → X continuous such that f ◦g = idY

and g ◦f = idX . I claim that g∗ : π1 (Y, f (x0 )) → π1 (X, x0 ) is the inverse to f∗ .
Because id = (idY )∗ = (f ◦ g)∗ = f∗ ◦ g∗ . Similarly, id = (idX )∗ = (g ◦ f )∗ =
g∗ ◦ f∗ . So f∗ ◦ g∗ = id and g∗ ◦ f∗ = id.
8.2 Homotopy of Maps

Idea: Two maps f0 , f1 : X → Y are called homotopic if I can find a “movie of
maps” ft : X → Y, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, interpolating continuously between f0 and f1
Definition (Homotopic Maps). Continuous maps f0 , f1 : X → Y are

homotopic if and only if ∃F : X × I → Y mapping (x, t) 7→ F (x, t) such
that F (x, 0) = f0 (x) for all x ∈ X and F (x, 1) = f1 (x) for all x ∈ X.
Definition (Basepoint-preserving). Given x0 ∈ X we say that such a Lecture 29

homotopy F : X × I → Y mapping (x, t) → F (x, t) is basepoint-preserving
iff F (x0 , t) = f (x0 ) for all t ∈ I.
Note that if there is a basepoint-preserving homotopy from f to g then f (x0 ) =

g(x0 ), where f, g : X → Y .
Notation. A space with basepoint (X, x0 ) is a topological space X together
with a point x0 ∈ X. A continuous map f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) between spaces
with basepoint is a continuous f : X → Y such that f (x0 ) = y0 .
Proposition 8.6. Let f, g : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) be continuous maps that are

homotopic via a basepoint-preserving homotopy. Then
f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 )
and
g∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 )
are equal.
Proof. Note that

f∗ = g∗ ⇐⇒ f∗ [γ] = g∗ [γ] for all loops γ based at x0 ∈ X
⇐⇒ f ◦ γ ∼ g ◦ γ for all loops γ based at x0 ∈ X
57
We have the basepoint-preserving [F (x0 , t) = y0 , ∀t ∈ I] homotopy F : X ×

I → Y mapping (x, t) 7→ F (x, t) continuous, and have γ : I → X mapping
s 7→ γ(s).
f
y0
g◦γ
x0 γ
X f ◦γ Y
g
Consider H : I × I → Y mapping (s, t) 7→ F (γ(s), t). [“follow γ along the

movie of map F ”]. Then H is continuous (composition of continuous func-
tions) and
H(s, 0) = F (γ(s), 0) = f ◦ γ(s)

H(s, 1) = F (γ(s), 1) = g ◦ γ(s)
H(0, t) = F (γ(0), t) = F (x0 , t) = y0 ∀t ∈ I
H(1, t) = y0 , ∀t ∈ I
So H is a homotopy from f ◦ γ to g ◦ γ, so f∗ = g∗ as claimed.
Aside: Recall that if f : X → Y is a homeomorphism then f∗ = π1 (X, x0 ) →

π1 (Y, y0 ) is an isomorphism of groups
f g
X→Y →X
where g∗ ◦ f∗ = (g ◦ f )∗ = (idX )∗ = id etc. So f∗ is an isomorphism.
Definition (Homotopy Equivalence). A continuous map f : (X, x0 ) →

(Y, y0 ) is called a basepoint-preserving homotopy equivalence if and only if
∃g : (Y, y0 ) → (X, x0 ) continuous such that g ◦ f ∼ idX , f ◦ g ∼ idY .
Example 8.7. If f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) is a homeomorphism then it is a

homotopy equivalence.
Example 8.8. Take

√
X = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : 1 ≤ x2 + y 2 ≤ 4}, x0 = ( 3, 0)
and √
Y = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 3}, y0 = ( 3, 0)
X
Y
58
Then certainly
i π
Y ,→ X −→ Y
√
where in polar coordinates π maps (r, θ) 7→ ( 3, θ).
Then π ◦ i : (Y, y0 ) → (Y, y√0 ) is the identity map. But i ◦ π : (X, x0 ) →
(X, x0 ) mapping (r, θ) 7→ ( 3, θ).
Claim: i ◦ π ∼ idX .
Proof. Take the homotopy F : X × I → X sending

√
((r, θ), t) 7→ (rt + (1 − t) 3, θ)
F is continuous, and
√
F ((r, θ), 0) = ( 3, θ) = i ◦ π((r, θ))
F ((r, θ), 1) = (r, θ) = idX ((r, θ))]
Thus π1 (X, x0 ) ∼
= π1 (Y, y0 ) because whenever f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) is a
homotopy equivalence, f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 ) is an isomorphism.
Example 8.9. R2 \{0} ∼ circle. (same argument as previous example).
8.3 Fundamental Group of the Circle

Theorem 8.10
π1 (S 1 , x0 ) ∼
= Z.
Key notion: winding number.

Suppose that γ : I → S 1 is a loop based at x0 ∈ S 1 . We will define an integer,
the winding number of γ, which is the net number of times that γ wins around
S 1 . E.g. below the winding number is 0, “total change in angle around the
loop is zero”:
S1 x0
Consider p : R → S 1 sending t 7→ (cos 2πt, sin 2πt), x0 = (1, 0).
59
R
γ̃
x̃0
p
I
γ x0 S1
Lemma 8.11 (Path lifting). For any path γ : I → S 1 starting at x0 ∈ S 1 and

any x̃0 ∈ R such that p(x̃0 ) = x0 there is a unique path γ̃ : I → R such that γ̃
starts at x̃0 and p ◦ γ̃ = γ.
How to apply this: Given a loop γ : I → S 1 based at x0 = (1, 0). Take Lecture 30
x̃0 = 0 ∈ R and let γ̃ : I → R be the lift of γ. Then γ̃(1) ∈ Z. (because
p ◦ γ̃ = γ, so p(γ̃(1)) = γ(1) = (1, 0), and p−1 (1, 0) = Z ⊂ R.)
Definition (Winding Number). Define w(γ), the winding number of γ, to

be the integer γ̃(1).
Theorem 8.12
The map π1 (S 1 , x0 ) → Z sending [γ] 7→ w(γ) is well defined and an

isomorphism of groups.
Proof. From the problem sheet, we had the lemma:

Lemma 8.13 (Homotopy lifting). For any homotopy F : I × I → S 1 and any
x̃0 such that p(x̃0 ) = F (0, 0), there exists a unique homotopy F̃ : I × I → R
such that p ◦ F̃ = F .
To show that our map π1 (S 1 , x0 ) → Z is well-defined, suppose that γ1 and γ2

are loops in S 1 based at x0 and that F : I × I → S 1 is a homotopy between
them. Applying the lemma above gives F̃ : I × I → R such that p ◦ F̃ = F .
Let γ̃0 : I → R be the unique lift of γ0 starting at x̃0 , and let γ̃1 : I → R be
the unique lift of γ1 starting at x̃0 .
We need to show w(γ0 ) = w(γ1 ) or in other words, γ̃0 (1) = γ̃1 (1). The map
I → R sending s 7→ F̃ (s, 0) is a path in R starting at x̃0 satisfying p ◦ γ0 . So
by uniqueness, this path is γ̃0 . Similarly F̃ (s, 1) = γ̃1 (s) for all s ∈ I. So F̃ is
a homotopy from γ̃0 to γ̃1 . In particular, therefore, γ̃0 (1) = γ̃1 (1) and so our
map π1 (S 1 , x0 ) → Z mapping [γ] 7→ w(γ) is well-defined.
It remains to show the map is
• surjective
• injective
• a group homomorphism
60
Surjectivity: Given n ∈ Z, we need to find γ : I → S 1 , a loop based at

x0 such that w(γ) = n. Take γ(s) = (cos(2πns), sin(2πns)). Then γ̃(s) = ns
satisfies p ◦ γ̃ = γ, and so γ̃ is the unique lift of γ starting at 0 ∈ R, thus
w(γ) = γ̃(1) = n.
Injectivity: We need to show that if γ0 , γ1 satisfy w(γ0 ) = w(γ1 ), then
γ0 ∼ γ1 as loops in S 1 . But write γ̃0 , γ̃1 : I → R for the lifts of γ0 , γ1 that
start at 0 ∈ R. Then γ̃0 (1) = γ̃1 (1). And R is convex, so any two paths with
the same endpoints are homotopic. Let F : I × I → R be a homotopy from
γ̃0 to γ̃1 . Then p ◦ F is a homotopy from γ0 to γ1 .
Group Homomorphism: Left as an exercise.
Thus π1 (S 1 , x0 ) ∼
= Z.
Motivating Question: Is S 2 homeomorphic to S 1 × S 1 ? No: If S 2 were Lecture 31

homeomorphic to S 1 × S 1 , then π1 (S 2 , x0 ) ∼
= π1 (S 1 × S 1 , y0 ). But
π1 (X × Y, (a, b)) ∼
= π1 (X, a) × π1 (Y, b)
Aside: Why is this true? Product topology on X × Y satisfies
X
pX
F
Z X ×Y
pY
Y
F
The universal property says Z −→ X × Y is continuous if and only if pX ◦ F
and pY ◦ F are both continuous. More concretely, to give F : Z → X × Y
sending z 7→ (F1 (z), F2 (z)) is the same as giving F1 : Z → X and F2 : Z → Y
and F is continuous iff both F1 and F2 are continuous.
A path γ : I → X × Y sending s 7→ (γ1 (s), γ2 (s)) is the same thing as to give
γ1 : I → X, γ2 : I → Y paths in X and Y . Take the map
G : π1 (X × Y, (a, b)) −→ π1 (X, a) × π1 (Y, b)
[γ] 7→ ([γ1 ], [γ2 ])

and a homotopy H : I × I → X × Y sending (s, t) 7→ (H1 (s, t), H2 (s, t)) is
the same thing as to give two homotopies H1 : I × I → X, H2 : I × I → Y .
After some thinking, we get if γ is homotopic to γ 0 , then γ1 is homotopic to
γ10 and γ2 is homotopic to γ20 . So the map G is well-defined. Actually it’s an
isomorphism (mock exam question). Thus π1 (S 1 × S 1 , y0 ) ∼
= Z × Z.
Claim: π1 (S 2 , x0 ) ∼
= {1}. S 2 is simply-connected.
Proof. We need to show that every loop in S 2 based at x0 is homotopic to a

constant loop at x0 . Take x0 = N , the north pole.
(i) Step 1: γ is homotopic to a loop which does not pass through the South
pole S. i.e.
61
S2
S
Sketch of proof. Let D be a small disc containing S but not containing

N . Then every time γ passes through S, we have
S
Homotope that part of γ to go round the edge of D. Do this without

moving γ(I)∩∂D. So every time we hit the south pole we can homotope
off S.
(ii) Step 2: S 2 \{S} is simply-connected: Using stereographic projection, we
see that S 2 \{S} ∼
= R2 .
S
P
P0
R2
Consider f : S 2 \{S} → R2 where x 7→ the unique point of R2 where

the straight line from S to x cuts R2 . [Gap of boring computation]
This is a continuous bijection. So S 2 \{S} ∼
= R2 and π1 (S 2 \{S}, x00 ) ∼
=
2 0 ∼
π1 (R , y0 ) = {1}.
So every loop in S 2 \{S} is homotopic to a constant loop. In particular, γ is
homotopic to a constant loop as claimed. So π1 (S 2 , x0 ) = {1}.
Corollary 8.14. S 2 ∼
6= S 1 × S 1 .
Felina. Finally we prove the fundamental theorem of algebra:
Theorem 8.15: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Let p ∈ C[z] be a degree n polynomial. Then p has n roots in C, counted

with multiplicity.
Proof. It suffices to prove that if deg p > 0 then p has a root in C¿ [division
algorithm: p(z) = (z − a)q(z) + r, r ∈ C, r = p(a).]
62
Suppose that p has no roots in C. Consider the path γr : I → S 1 mapping
p(re2πis ) |p(r)|
s 7→ ·
p(r) |p(re2πis )|
γr is a loop in S 1 based at 1 ∈ S 1 . As r varies, these loops are homotopic.

So γr ∼ γ0 = constant loop. Now imagine taking r >> 0. Writing p(z) =
z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0 , so for r sufficiently large
|z n | > |an−1 z n+1 + · · · + a0 |
Fix this r. Then for all t ∈ [0, 1], the polynomial
pt (z) = z n + t(an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0 )
has no roots on |z| = r. So the loops in S 1 , γr,t : I → S sending
pt (re2πis ) |pt (r)|

s 7→ ·
pt (r) |pt (re2πis )|
are all homotopic. So γ0 ∼ γr = γr,1 ∼ γr,0 = e2πins . So n = 0. Thus if

p ∈ C[z] is a polynomial with no roots in C =⇒ deg p = 0.
- End of Metric Spaces & Topology -
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Metric Spaces & Topology

Lectured in Spring 2016 at Imperial College by Prof. T. Coates.

Caveat Lector: unofficial notes. Comments and corrections should be sent to

Metric spaces: definition, examples including function spaces; continuity;

Topological Spaces: definition, examples; finer and coarser topologies; conti-

The Hausdorff Property. [1]

Compactness: compact subsets of metric spaces; compact subsets of Hausdorff

Sequential Compactness: convergent sequences and Cauchy sequences; the

Complete metric spaces: completeness; total boundedness; convergence in

The Fundamental Group: paths and homotopies; definition of the fundamental

Course website: coates.ma.ic.ac.uk/M2PM5

7 Complete Metric Spaces 42

8 The Fundamental Group 48

lim f (x) = f (a)

Expand on this: Given  > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

|f (x) − f (a)| <  whenever |x − a| < δ

In words: f is continuous at x = a ⇐⇒ I can make f (x) arbitrarily close to

lim f (x) = f (a)

where x, a are vectors in Rn , f (a), f (x) vectors in Rm . Expand on this: Given

||f (x) − f (a)|| <  whenever ||x − a|| < δ

Definition (Metric Space). A metric space is a pair (X, d) where X is a

Example 1.1 (Euclidean metric on Rn ). Take X = Rn and

where x = (x1 , . . . , xn )T , y = (y1 , . . . , yn )T .

Proof. Check (M1) - (M3):

We need to show that

d(x, z) = d(x, y) + d(y, z)

This is true if and only if

This is true if and only if

This is the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality (M1GLA): it holds for all ri , si .

Example 1.2 (Discrete metric). Take X = any non-empty set and

(M1), (M2) obvious. (M3) left as an easy exercise.

E.g. d = shaded area:

Exercise: If h : [a, b] → R is continuous and h(t) ≥ 0 for all t ∈ [a, b] then

with equality iff h(t) = 0 or all t.

So (M3) holds, hence (X, d) is a metric space.

Exercise: Take X = {all continuous functions f : [a, b] → R} and show that

d(f, g) = sup |f (t) − g(t)|

A good source for counterexamples. Similar things can be found in Coun-

Example 1.4. f : R2 → R as (x, y) 7→ x + y is continuous, f : R → R

Proposition 1.5 (The composition of continuous functions is continuous.).

Proof. Fix  > 0. Since g is continuous at f (a) ∈ Y , we know ∃δ 0 > 0 such

dZ (g(y), gf (a)) < 

Because f is continuous at a ∈ X, ∃δ > 0 such that whenver dX (x, a) < δ,

dY (f (x), f (a)) < δ 0

Thus whenever dX (x, a) < δ, we have

dY (f (x), f (a)) < δ 0

now setting y = f (x), we have

dZ (gf (x), gf (a)) < 

In particular, if f : X → Y is continuous and g : Y → Z is continuous, then

Proof. The function | ·| : R → R, where y 7→ |y| is continuous. So applying the

1.2 Product Spaces

where p, q ∈ [1, ∞) such that 1/p + 1/q = 1.

Exercise: Show that these are all metrics on X × Y .

1 Any time I write Rn we use the Euclidean metric.

Proposition 1.7. Let f : X → X 0 , g : Y → Y 0 be maps of metric spaces.

where (x, y) 7→ (f (x), g(y)) is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y .

Proof. Let dX , dY , dX 0 , dY 0 be the metrics on X, Y, X 0 and Y 0 respectively.

dX×Y ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = dX (x1 , x2 ) + dY (y1 , y2 )

dX 0 ×Y 0 ((x01 , y10 ), (x02 , y20 )) = dX 0 (x01 , x02 ) + dY 0 (y10 , y20 )

We’re trying to prove that f × g is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y , so fix  > 0.

dX 0 (f (x), f (a)) < /2 (1)

whenever dX (x, a) < δ1 , and

dY 0 (g(y), g(b)) < /2 (2)

Expand on this: Given > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

|f (x) − f (a)| < whenever |x − a| < δ

||f (x) − f (a)|| < whenever ||x − a|| < δ

Proof. Fix > 0. Since g is continuous at f (a) ∈ Y , we know ∃δ 0 > 0 such

dZ (g(y), gf (a)) <

dZ (gf (x), gf (a)) <

We’re trying to prove that f × g is continuous at (a, b) ∈ X × Y , so fix > 0.

dX 0 (f (x), f (a)) < /2 (1)

dY 0 (g(y), g(b)) < /2 (2)

dX 0 ×Y 0 ((f (x), g(y)), (f (a), g(b))) <

Note: if |f (t) − g(t)| < for all t ∈ [a, b], then

sup |f (t) − g(t)| ≤

sup |f (t) − g(t)| <

Fix = r − d(x, y) > 0. I claim that B (y) ⊆ Br (x).

Let z ∈ B (y) be arbitrary. We need to show z ∈ Br (x). But

(ii) is left as an exercise.

Warning. As in the previous example, closed is not the opposite of open.

Proof. Left as a straightforward exercise.

Å = {a ∈ A : ∃ > 0 such that B (a) ⊆ A}

Proof. Å = X\(X\A). Now look at the previous proposition.