BUSINESS

RESEARCH
METHODS
 Module – 1:

—Research: Meaning, Purpose,

Scientific method, types of
research; scope of business
research. Review of literature:
need, purpose, notes taking.
 Introduction
The last two decades there are dramatic
changes that have occurred in the business
environment throughout the world.

Research is very essential for development of

any country ex. Japan, USA, Russia
etc………..
Examples of few Research areas Science and
Technology, Communication, Banking and
Insurance, Education especially Management,
Agriculture, Industries,
Science and Technology
communication
Industry
Research in Medicine
Agriculture area
 MEANING OF RESEARCH

• A Research simply means Search for a facts, Answer to

questions and solution to problems it is a purposive
Investigation.

• It is to find Explanation to Un Explained phenomenon

• It is an Organized Inquiry; it is adding Knowledge to

the Existing Knowledge.

• Research is a systematic and logical study of an Issue

or Problem or Phenomenon.

• Research is a systematic investigative process employed

to increase knowledge by discovering new facts.
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH/ PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

• To discover answer to Question through application of scientific procedure.

• To Find out Truth which is hidden & which has not been discovered as yet.

• To Gain familiarities with a phenomenon.

• To Test the Hypothesis of a Casual relationship between variables.

• To determine the frequency with which beings, Social Life & Environment.

• Research brings to Light information that might never be discovered

fully during the ordinary course of Life.
 *Research Established generalization &
General Laws and contributes to theory
building in various field of knowledge.

*Research aids Planning this contributes to

National development.

*Research aims at developing new tools,

concepts and theories for better study of Un
known phenomenon like solution to social
economic problems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH
1.Gather New Knowledge or Data
Research is a Systematic & Critical Investigation in to
a Phenomenon.

2.It adopts Scientific Methods

3.Research requires patience, Accurate & Courage.

4.Research is a Logical & Objective

5.Research is based on Observable Experience or

Empirical Evidence.
6.It Emphasis the development of
generalization Principles or Theories.

7.Research is directed towards finding answer

to pertinent questions & solutions to problems.

8.Research is highly purposive,

Reliable, Validity.

9.Research is carefully Recorded & Reported.

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH/ TYPES OF RESEARCH

1.Historical Approach
2.Case study Approach
3.Descriptive Approach
4.Analytical Approach
5.Applied VS Fundamental Research
6.Qualitative Approach
7.Quantitative Research

8.Conceptual VS Empirical Approach

9.Scientific Approach
10.Survey Approach
11.Experimental Approach
12.Clinical or Diagnostic Approach
APPROACHES TO RESEARCH/ TYPES
OF RESEARCH

Historical Approach: Historical Research is a

study based on historical data, past records,
and other evidence information sources with a
view to reconstructing the origin and
development of an institution or a Movement
or a system and discovering the trends in the
past. The Main source are Monuments, Fossils,
Arts and Architecture, Numismatics, Literature
and the like.
 Case study Approach

Case study is a comprehensive study of a social

unit such as an Individual, a Family, an
Institution, a District or a Community. It is an
approach which views any social unit as a whole.
. It also includes In-depth comprehensive study
of a person, a social group, an episode, a process
, a situation, a Programme, A Community, An
Institution or any other social Unit, suicides of
farmers in Karnataka, Draught in north
Karnataka etc.
 Descriptive Approach
Descriptive study is a fact finding Investigation
with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest
type of research. It is more specific than an
exploratory study. It describes the state of affairs
as it is exists at present. It describes a research
problem by using questionnaires and opinions. It
aims at Identifying the characteristics of a
community or Institution or any problem under
study.
 Analytical Approach

Analytical study is a study of

Quantitative data by using
statistical techniques and
mathematical models to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
 Applied Research

Applied Research is carried on to find

solution for an immediate problem facing of
society or an Industry or Business
Organization on it aims to help to take
policy decision. It solves the existing
burning problem. Ex. Sexual Harassment,
Farmers Suicides, Swine flu, Bird flu,
Depression among young professionals,
Fundamental Research/ Pure Research
Fundamental / Pure Research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Pure
Research is undertaken for the sake of Knowledge without
any intention to apply in Practice. It is undertaken out
of intellectual

curiosities. Ex. Behaviors of Workers for changes of

working hours conditions, Behaviors’ of Public for
changes of Petrol Price, Government Policies.
Behaviors of Customer for change of Bank Interest rates by
the RBI. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, Newton’s
contributions, Galileo’s contributions etc.
 Qualitative Approach

Qualitative Research is concerned

with qualitative Phenomenon. Ex
Human behavior, Studies on
Crime, Suicides, Divorce, Opinion,
Attitude, Mr. Cool type of Person,
 Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research is based on the

Measurement of quantity or Amount. It
is applicable to Phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of Quantity. Ex
Mathematical Functional Relationship.
 Conceptual Approach

Conceptual research is that related to

some abstract ideas or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop New Concepts or
to interpret existing ones.
 Empirical Approach

—Empirical Research relies

on Experience or
Observation alone.
 Scientific Approach

The scientific Research is a body of techniques for

investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be
termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific
principles of reasoning. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines the scientific method as "a method or
procedure that has characterized natural science since
the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment, and the formulation,
testing, and modification of hypotheses."
 Survey Approach
Survey is a Fact finding study. It is a method of research involving
collection of data directly from a population or a sample there of at
particular time. It must not be confused with the mere clerical
routine of gathering and tabulating figures.

Survey Research Developed since the 1930's, survey research

seeks to identify what large numbers of people (mass) think or feel
about certain things. It is used extensively in politics and marketing
(such as TV advertising).Examples of survey research are Public
opinion polls
Mail Surveys
Telephone Surveys
Consumer Surveys (in the Mall)
 Experimental Approach

Experimental Research is designed to assess the effects

of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping
the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at
determining whether and what manner variables are
related to each other. The factor which is influenced by
other factors is called a dependent variable and other
factor which influence is called independent variables.
(Independent variable = Cause, Dependent Variable
= Effect) ex. Agricultural productivity is dependent
ie (Crop yield per hectare) Where as Soil Fertility,
Irrigation, Quality of Seed, Manuring and
Cultivation Practices are Independent.
 Exploratory Research

Exploratory Research is development of

Hypothesis rather than their Testing. It is also
called as Formulative Research here
Preliminary study of an

unfamiliar problem about which the researcher

has little or No Knowledge. It is similar to a
doctor’s Initial Investigation of a patient
suffering from a Unfamiliar malady for getting
some clues for identifying it.
 Clinical or Diagnostic Approach

Clinical or Diagnostic Approach: this

is Similar to Descriptive study but with
a different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why is it
happening and what can be done about.
It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and possible solution for it
 Review of literature
1.The review of literature is not mere reading for reading sake,
it is also not a causal reading like reading of a story or novel.

2.It is focuses and directed towards specific purposes.

3.It is also selective

4.A researcher has to select the kinds of literature to be

reviewed and determine the purposes for which he has to study.

5.The literature review starts with the selection of a problem for

research, continues through the various stages of research
process and ends with report-writing.
Purpose/Need of Review

1.To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

2.To identify the concepts relating to it, potential

relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypotheses.

3.To identify appropriate methodology, research design,

methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis.

4.To identify data sources used by other researchers.

5.To learn how other structured the reports.

Sources
1.Books

2.Websites

3.Government Reports

4.Articles

5.Journals etc
 Note Taking

The most suitable methods of note taking

as explained, is use of cards and a
tentative outline of the key elements
regarding the topic. Though the outline
may undergo revision when the researcher
acquires further insight into his subject, it
useful in deciding which information is
needed and how various bits of
information should be related.
Module – 2:
Selection and formulation of a research
problem, formulation of hypothesis,
operational definition of concepts,
sampling techniques.

Research Design: Meaning, nature,

process of preparation, components of
research design.
 Introduction
1.The first and foremost step in the research process
is selecting and properly defining a research problem.

2.A researcher must find the problem and formulate it

so that it becomes researchable.

3.Selection of research problem is not an easy task.

4.Selection of problem it self is a problem.

5.A problem selected is a amenable to formal

methodological treatment. Vision, an imaginative
insight plays an important role in this process.
6.Though the guide can select the research problem, it is better if it
is chosen by the researcher himself/herself.

7.As Commerce students you can scan the environment of business

and select an appropriate, relevant, strategic and useful topic in the area
Finance, Accounting, Taxation, Banking, Insurance, Costing, HRM,
Marketing, Leadership, Knowledge Management, Hospitality, Travel
and Tourism, Health Care, Tele communication,. etc

8.Research is a goal oriented activity. If the goal itself unknown or

ill defined research operations will leads no-where.

9.It is rightly remarks IF YOU START FROM NO

WHERE, YOU WILL GENERALLY REACH NO WHERE.

 Sources of selection of Research Problem

1.Reading: Books, Journals etc

Experience: Personal experience in his daily life.

2.Consultation: Having discussion with Professor/Experts.

3.Technological Changes: it brings new problems and new opportunities

for research.

4.Unexplored Areas:

5.One’s own interest.

6.Research gaps

7.Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.

8.Education and Training

 STEPS IN RESEARCH / RESEARCH PROCESS

*Formulating Research Problem

*Extensive Literature Survey

*Developing the Hypothesis

*Preparing the Research Design

*Determining the Sample Design

*Collecting the Data

*Analysis of Data

*Hypothesis Testing

*Generalization & Interpretation

*Preparation of the Report/ Presentation of the Results

 *Formulating Research Problem: formulation of
research problem is the first step which further involves
understanding the problem thoroughly

and rephrasing the same in to meaning full terms. Ex A

study of Consumer behavior for the new multi-utility
vehicle car INNOVA’ of Toyota Motors in Bangalore

*Extensive Literature Survey: Literature survey

involves reading and verifying the books, periodicals,
journals, CD- Roms, microfilms on the topic of
research to identify the research gap.
*Developing the Hypothesis: Hypothesis are
tentative statement the validity of which
remains to be tested. It gives direction to carry
out any research programme. There are other
names for hypothesis such as conjecture,
proposition, assumption, presumptions. Ex a
Proper promotion mix helps creation of more
demand for a product.

*Preparing the Research Design:

Research Design is the blue print or frame
work or outline to carryout a research
programme.
*Determining the Sample Design: Sample Design or
Sampling is the technique to draw the sample units
from the universe or population. Probability or non-
probability technique may be used for this purpose

*Collecting the Data: Collection of data involves

gathering the primary and secondary data, for
quantitative and experimental research the former
is
essential to examine the truth of the hypothesis.

*Analysis of Data: Analysis of Data involves statistical

treatment of the data collected on a research topic. It
involves coding, editing, decoding and drawing
inferences subsequently.
*Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is
done through statistical tests such as Chi-
square, t- test and F- test. It will result in
either accepting hypothesis or otherwise.

*Generalization & Interpretation:

Generalization refers to building a theory
after testing hypothesis if any. If the
researcher had no hypothesis then he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some history. It is known as Interpretation.
 *Preparation of the Report/
Presentation of the Results: A
Research Report is the formal
statement of the research process
and
its results. It narrates the problem
studied. Methods used for studying
and the findings and conclusions.
 Formulation of Hypothesis

Once you have identified research question, it

is time to formulate your hypothesis. While the
research question is broad and includes all the
variables you want your study to consider, the
hypothesis is a statement that specific
relationship you expect to find from your
examination of these variables. When
formulating the hypothesis (es) for your study,
there are a few things you need to keep in mind.
Good hypotheses meet the following criteria:

1.Identify the independent and dependent variables to be studied.

2.Specify the nature of the relationship that exists between

these variables.

3.Simple (often referred to as parsimonious). It is better to be

concise than to be long-winded. It is also better to have several
simple hypotheses than one complicated hypothesis.

4.Does not include reference to specific measures.

5.Does not refer to specific statistical procedures that will be used

in analysis.
6.Implies the population that you are going to study.
7.Is falsifiable and testable.
 Meaning of Hypotheses

Hypotheses are the tentative statement relating to the

Phenomenon under study, It containing Independent
and dependent variables. They have to be tested
empirically before we can accept or reject them.

A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a

population parameter. This assumption may or may not
be true. Hypothesis testing refers to the formal
procedures used by statisticians to accept or
reject statistical hypotheses.
 Statistical Hypotheses

The best way to determine whether a

statistical hypothesis is true would be to
examine the entire population. Since that
is often impractical, researchers typically
examine a random sample from the
population. If sample data are not
consistent with the statistical hypothesis,
the hypothesis is rejected.
 The Purpose of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the

relationship between two variables. The purpose of a
hypothesis is to find the answer to a question - a
formalized hypothesis will force us to think about
what results we should look for in an experiment.
 *The first variable is called the independent variable. This is
the part of the experiment that can be changed and tested. The
independent variable happens first and can be considered the 'cause'
of any changes in the outcome. The outcome is called the dependent
variable. The independent variable in our previous example is not
studying for a test. The dependent variable that you are using to
measure outcome is your test score.

*It is important to remember that your hypothesis must be testable.

That is, you can perform a test of how two variables might be
related. This is what you are doing in a real experiment - you are
testing variables. It must also be measurable. If you cannot
measure the results, then the information does not help you
explain why a particular outcome occurred. Let's use the
previous example again to illustrate these ideas. The hypothesis
is testable because you will receive a score on your test
performance.
A hypothesis should always:

1.explain what you expect to happen

2.be clear and understandable

3.be testable

4.be measurable

5.contain an independent and dependent variable

 How to Develop a Hypothesis
*Another important aspect of a hypothesis is that it
should be based on research. Remember that the
purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a
question.

*The first thing you should do if you want to answer a

question is to find as much information on the topic as
you can. Before you come up with a specific hypothesis,
spend some time doing research. Then, start thinking of
questions you still have. After thoroughly researching
your question, you should have an educated guess about
how things work. This guess about the answer to your
question is where your hypothesis comes from.
 There are two types of statistical hypotheses
1.Null hypothesis. The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is
usually the hypothesis that sample observations result
purely from chance.

2.Alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis,

denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that sample
observations are influenced by some non-random cause.

Ho - Null hypotheses = No relationship / No change

Ha – Alternative hypotheses = There is a relationship

1.Type I error = the Null hypotheses is actually true but rejected.

2.Type II error = the Null hypotheses is False but accepted is called

Type II error

Rule of Acceptance or Rejection of Null hypotheses

If Computed value of test statistics is less (<) then the Table value Null
hypotheses is accepted. (0.01 to 0.05) more than 0.05 means rejected.

If computed value of Test Statistics is Greater than or Equal to table value Null
hypotheses is Rejected
Test of Significance

(0.01- 0.05) are called Level of Significant

 RESEARCH DESIGN
Meaning of Research Design
A research design is the "blue print" of the study.

A Research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for

directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of the
study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for
achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you

choose to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
the design decisions are actually with respect of:
*What is the study about?

*The reason why the study being done?

*Where we will perform the the study?

*Which kind of data is needed?

*Where can the necessary data be discovered?

*What time periods will the study contain?

*What will be the sample design?

*What methods of data collection will likely be employed?

*How will the data be analyzed?

*In what style will the report be organized?

Definition of Research Design
*Burns and Grove define a research design as a blueprint for
performing a study with maximum

control over factors which could interfere with the validity of

the findings .

*Parahoo explains a research design as a plan

which explains how, when and where data are to be collected

and analyzed .

*Polit et al define a research design as the researcher’s overall

for answering the research question or testing the research
hypothesis .
The key features of a research design are:

1.It is a plan which describes the sources and kinds of information

strongly related to the research problem.

2.It is a strategy indicating which method will be employed for collecting

and examining the data.

3.It also consists of the time and cost budgets because most studies are
done under these two limitations.

4.In a nutshell, research design must, at least, contain

5.A clear statement of the research problem;

6.Processes and methods to be utilized for collecting data;

7.The population to be researched; and

8.Techniques to be employed in processing and examining data.

Essentials of Good Research Design

1.It is a plan that specifies the objectives of the study

and the hypothesis to be tested.

2.It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of

information relevance to the research questions.

3.It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted

for gathering and analyzing the data.

4.It is a scheme defining the domain of generalizability,

ie. Whether the obtained information can be generalized
to a larger population or to different situation.
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Design is a blue Print or Plan or Conceptual Structure with in

which Research is conducted.

Components are.

*Introduction to the Topic

*Statement of the Problem

*Objectives of the Study

*Scope of the Study

*Review of the Previous study/ Literature survey

*Conceptual Model

*Hypothesis
*Operational Definition of the concepts

*Significance of the Study

*Geographical Area to be covered

*Reference Period

*Methodology

*Sampling

*Tools for gathering the data

*Plan of Analysis

*Chapter Schemes

*Time Budgets

*Financial Budget.
 *Introduction to the Topic:

This part should contain the historical perspective,

overview of the subject such as nature of the topic,
significance, limitations, future trends and the like.
Ultimately, the researcher should reveal the need
and interest on the topic.

*Statement of the Problem:

In this segment the researcher should define

clearly, precisely, the research problem
indicating the core nature and importance of
it.
 *Objectives of the Study:

This component clearly shows the specific objectives and investigative

questions. It gives functional guidelines to the research process. Considering
the various limiting factors it is necessary to delimit the study to a reasonable
number of objectives and questions.

*Scope of the Study:

Researcher under this head must state the demarcated or delimited scope and
dimensions of the study. Further, the breath and depth, geographical area,
reference period, type of organizations, the kind

of respondents are to be clearly stated. To make the study manageable in terms

of the researcher’s aims , interest and

competence available techniques, time, finance, ad facilitates the researcher

precisely spell out all these aspects under the scope of the study.
 *Review of the Previous study/ Literature
survey: This part indicates the information already
available, research gap in the study and how far the
present study
fills the research gap. Further, environmental
differences, time period differences need to be specified.

*Conceptual Model: In this part the formulation and

development of relationships among independent and
dependent variables need to be indicated. Further, the
assumptions used to develop the explanatory framework
are to be included.
 *Hypothesis: Hypothesis is tentative statements
containing independent and dependent variables need to
be constructed. The working hypothesis or proposition
need to be evolved and shown under this head. The
hypothesis should be simple, clear, specific and
investigative.

*Operational Definition of the concepts: It refers to

workable definition of the various important
concepts used in the study. The researcher must
identify the major concepts in the title, its
objectives, investigative
questions, hypothesis and specify the same in
brief under this head.
 *Significance of the Study: To know the
relevance, significance and the value of
findings, the contribution to the development of
a theory, policy formulation, it is necessary to
incorporate the same under this head.

*Geographical Area to be covered: The area

of the study need to be indicated under this
head, that is the territory in which the
respondent are ordinarily reside or the
organizations do the business.
 *Reference Period: Reference period is the
time period during which the research carried
out is specified. Shows when the research
programme has commenced and completed. It is
called as the study 0period.

*Methodology: This part should indicate

the methodology utilized to carry out the
research. It includes the typology of the
research design such as descriptive, survey,
experimental, case study, analytical study,
empirical study, historical study and the like.
*Sampling: It indicates the universe / population
of the study. Also the size of the sample,
technique used to draw the sample that is random
and non-random are specified in this part.

*Tools for gathering the data : There are

various tools that are available to collect the
primary data. The noted among them are
interview schedule, interview guide,
questionnaire, checklist and so on. The
researcher must indicate which tool or medium
he/she availed to gather the data.
*Plan of Analysis : The collected data is usually analyzed with
the help of statistical tools and techniques such as averages,
percentages, dispersion, correlation, regression, multi-variate
regression, chi-square, t-test, F- test , SPSS package etc. further,
wherever necessary to make the data presentable in a lucid
manner tables, diagrams, charts, can also be used.

*Chapter Schemes: It id nothing but organization and

presentation of the project work or thesis under different
amenable and appropriate captions/ titles chapter wise. Usually
the first three chapters speaks about the background of the topic
and subsequent chapters are meant for analysis and interpretation
of the subject data, findings, conclusions and suggestions.
*Time Budgets: This section indicates the time taken at
the different stages of research programme. How much
time was devoted on review of literature, construction
of questionnaire, pilot study, data gathering, analysis
and preparation of final report.

*Financial Budget: This section indicates the total

amount expended by the researcher from the start to
finish of a research programme. Some time the
Institutions such as Government, private , NGOs will
reimburse the project costs if the research problem
where to be of novelty, originality, utility and
social relevance.
METHODS OF SAMPLING ARE

Probability Sampling

1.Simple Random Sampling

2.Systematic Sampling

3.Stratified Random Sampling

4.Proportionate Sampling

5.Disproportionate Sampling

6.Cluster Sampling

7.Multi Stage Sampling

8.Area Sampling

9Sequential Sampling
Non Probability Sampling

1.Accidental Sampling

2.Quota Sampling

3.Purposive Sampling

4.Snow ball Sampling

 MEANING OF SAMPLING

*A Few units in the Universe or Population is called sample.

*Sampling is a Method of Selecting a Portion of the Universe

for the study is known as sampling.

*Sampling Design refers to techniques or Procedure the

researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample from
a given population

*Sampling Design is a definite Plan for obtaining a sample

from a given population or sampling frame
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

It is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling

where each and every item In the population has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample. This sampling technique gives each
element an equal and Independent chance or Probability of
selection.

Ex: In a population of 300 students in a central college

th
under commerce faculty, each student theoretically has 1/300
chance of being selected. This method can be used for
population of any size with homogeneous character.
Three methods can be used to draw sample in this approach.
I LOTTERY METHOD

*Each member of the population is assigned a unique

number *Each member is placed on a similar card or chip
*Cards or Chips are placed in a bowl and mixed
*A blind folded person is asked to select

II SAMPLE WITH RANDOM NUMBER

*The use of the table of random number involves the following steps

*Each member of the population is assigned a separate number

*Table of random member is entered at some random point with a hind mark, at any page of the
table.
*Start selection and stop after the desired size is selected.

USE OF COMPUTERS

Various readymade packages are available in the computers to pick the units randomly giving equal
chance to all the items of given population. The package available are SPSS and XL such others.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING / FIXED INTERVAL SAMPLING

In systematic sampling the first unit is selected randomly and the

remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals.

EX.

th
1.Every 15 Name on a list
th
2.Every 10 house on the side of a street and this method is an Improved
over a simple random sampling.

3.It is easy and less costly method

4.The disadvantage is that if any hidden periodicity in the population,

this method will prove to be an inefficient one.
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

In Stratified Sampling heterogeneous population is first stratified or grouped and then in

each stratum (group), elements are drawn to constitute a sample.

Points to be Remembered

*If Population is heterogeneous stratified sample is used but not for homogeneous population.

*Stratify or Group, the population into a number of sub-groups or strata.

*Each Stratum (group) contains a Number of element/items/members/units.

*Apply the principle of simple random technique to pick up items from each stratum (singular for
group).

*All the units drawn from each stratum is called sample size.

Ex. For stratified sampling

*The population is sub-divided or grouped on certain bases as race, religion, region, caste,
income, age, weight, height, urban, rural, gender, qualification and so on.

*After grouping apply the Principles of Random sampling and units are drawn to constitute the
sample size.
 TYPES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Proportionate Stratified Sampling Ex. 60% Population is

female and 40% is male so Sample is 60:40 the sample are drawn
from each stratum in the same proportion.

Disproportionate Stratified Sampling

A Stratified Sample in which the Number of

elements drawn from the various strata is

Independent of the Size of Strata is called disproportionate

Stratified sample
CLUSTER SAMPLING

Cluster Sampling Involves grouping the population into

sub-groups (clusters) and then selecting the clusters
randomly to constitute a sample.

Ex. A Departmental store wishes to sample its credit card

holders. It has issued 15,000 cards to its customers. It need a
sample size of 450 customers out of 15000 card holders. For this
purpose, the store groups 150 card holders each constituting 100
groups or clusters Now the departmental store randomly picks
up three groups or cluster that means 450 sample size is picked
up from 100 clusters. The three clusters here will provide 450
card holders because each clusters contains 150 card holders.
( 15000/ 100 each group 150 = 3 groups selected.
 AREA SAMPLING

Under Area Sampling we first divide the total

Area with a number of small non overlapping
areas generally called geographical cluster.

Then a number of these smaller areas are

randomly selected and all units in these
small area are included in the sample.
SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

*Under Sequential sampling the samples are drawn as and

when work progresses. But sample size is not fixed in advance.

*In Sequential Sampling Research can go on taking samples

one after another as long as one
*desires to do so.
*Sample size is not fixed or determined in advance

*Sample size increases as work progresses.

*It is used for statistical quality control

NON PROPABILITY
SAMPLING

Non Probability Sampling does not

adopt the theory of Probability and
its does not give a representative
sample of the Population
 Quota Sampling

This is a form of convenient sampling involving

selection of quota group of accessible sampling units by
traits such as Sex, age, social class etc.

Quota sampling is there fore method of stratified

sampling in which selection with in strata in non-
random. The quota are grouped by variables such as
sex, age, social class and religion in specific
proportions, each investigatory may be given as
assignment of quota.
 Snow Ball Sampling

This sampling technique may be used in socio

metric studies. A sample of a special population
by using an initial set of its members as
informants. For example If a researcher want to
study the problem faced by Indian through some
source like Indian Embassy. Then he can ask
each one and continue this procedure until he
gets an exhaustive list from which he can draw a
sample or make a census survey.
Module – 3:

Data: Sources of data, methods of collection; observation,

interviewing, mailing; tools for collection data; interview
schedule, interview guide, questionnaire, rating scale,
socio-metry, check list; pre-testing of tools, pilot study.

Processing of data; checking, editing, coding, transcription,

tabulation, preparation of tables, graphical representation.

Analysis of data; Simple statistical techniques and their

uses, Testing of Hypothesis, Research Applications,

market survey.
 DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is one of the most important stage in

conducting a research. You can have the best research
design in the world but if you cannot collect the
required data you will be not be able to complete your
project. Data collection is a very demanding job
which need thorough planning , hard work,
patience, perseverance and more to be able to
complete the task
successfully. Data collection starts with determining
what kind of data required followed by the selection of a
sample from a certain population. After that, you need to
use a certain instrument to collect the data from the
selected sample.
Meaning of Data

Data is a facts in a raw or unorganized

form such as alphabets, numbers or
symbols that refer to or represent
conditions, ideas or objects.

This represents facts and statistics

which are collected together for
reference or analysis.
Characteristics of Data

1.Data is aggregate of facts

2.Data is affected to a large extent by multiplicity of

factors; (controllable and uncontrollable).

3.Data is estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy:

4.Data is collected is systematic manner for a

predetermined objective:

5.Data must be related to one another:

6.Data must be numerically expressed:

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

*Primary Data Collection: censes survey,

Observation, communication, brand
Awareness.

*Secondary Data Collection : Reports,

Published data, All Department Reports,
Journals, News Paper, Magazines,
Statistical Reports
VARIOUS METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA

*Observations, viewing, lighting, seeing, hearing

*Interviewing

*Mail Survey

*Experimentation

*Questionnaire

*Schedule method
Other Method

*Warranty cards

*Distributor audits

*Pantry audit

*Consumer panel

*Using Mechanical device

*Depth Interview

*Current Analysis
 Methods of Data collection

Data collection method is an integral part

of the design. There are various methods
of data collection, each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Selection of
an appropriate method of data collection
may enhance the value of research and at
the same time the wrong choice may lead
to questionable research findings.
 Observation

Observation is the most commonly used data

collection method in many of the studies relating
to behavioral sciences. Observation is a process
of recording the behavior patterns of people,
objects, and occurrences without questioning or
communicating with them. Observation can take
the place in a laboratory setting or in a natural
setting. Generally there are two ways to conduct
observation, namely non-participative
observation and participative observation.
 Interview Methods and Types

Interviewers choose from different styles and

methods of interviewing. An interviewer wants
to find out as much about a candidate as
possible, including how they might react to
different situations. Different styles and
methods of interviewing enable an interviewer
to do just that: extract from the candidate
important information that could affect the
outcome of the interview.
 Types of Interview Methods

—Behavioral Based Interviews

Behavioral based interviews focus on a person’s specific
past performances and experiences. Questions will

predominately surround past work experiences that can illustrate the

candidate’s competence. For these types of

interviews, the STAR system (Situation/Task, Action, and Result) may be

useful for answering questions. These four titles serve as a framework for
describing work experiences. When relating the facts of your experience,
remember that interviewers are often looking for someone who’s optimistic,
creative, a leader, and a team player. Use examples of when you have made
concrete, positive contributions. This is also a time to remember your resume
and refer to it as you share examples of your successful work experiences.
 Case Interviews

Case questions are most commonly used in consulting interviews.

In this type of interview, the candidate is given

a scenario and is tasked with working through the details. These

interviews highlight a candidate’s analytical ability

and poise. Case questions vary: some may be asked with

the purpose of determining how a candidate formulates
long-term strategy, while others may be asked with the
purpose of determining how well a candidate performs
specific tasks, such as pricing promotions for a product.
Questions may take a half hour to one hour to answer.
 Informational Interviews

Informational interviews are forums by which you can discover

the nature of the industry without performance pressure. This
style of interview allows candidates the opportunity to compare
their expectations with the position. You may have the
opportunity to speak with those currently employed in the
position. Take this opportunity to discover the positive, and less
positive, aspects of the position. For example, if you love books
and decide to pursue employment in the publishing industry, an
informational interview with an honest publisher may reveal
that your love for books would not outweigh your dislike of the
tasks involved in publishing. It is far better for both you and the
employer to discover this early in the process. Informational
interviews are best kept to a half hour or less. As with any
interview, prepare questions beforehand.
 Phone Interview

Despite the fact that a phone interview is the least

formal method of interviewing, phone interviews can be
challenging because of a candidate's inability to sense
subtle non-verbal cues, which would be
otherwise obvious in an in-person setting.

It is important to pay particular attention to the tone of

your interviewer’s voice, and clearly express
excitement or enthusiasm. Additionally, remember to
have a notepad and pen handy during the course of a
phone interview so you can note questions and answers,
and generally track your thoughts.
 Group or Panel Interview

A group or panel interview may be the most

challenging type of interview. This type involves
being interviewed by multiple people
simultaneously. During a group or panel
interview, maintain eye contact with the
speaker or the person whose question you are
answering, think carefully about your response
to each question, and, if needed, ask for time to
consider a question.
 Mail Survey Method

Many businesses and organizations use mail surveys to gauge customer

satisfaction or member satisfaction. Mail surveys are especially helpful due to
their

comparatively low data collection costs and ease of administration.

Specifically, the costs for mail surveys tend to be lower than those
for telephone surveys, and mail surveys are a good strategy for
obtaining feedback from respondents who are dissatisfied with a
service or who have strong concerns.

Market Street Research has conducted mail surveys for many types of
businesses and organizations, such as chambers of commerce, retail and
manufacturing companies, banks, hospitals and educational institutions.
 Experimental Methods

Starting from the general and moving to the more specific, the first concept we need to
discuss is Theory. A theory can be defined as a "general principle proposed to explain
how a number of separate facts are related." In other words, a theory is an "idea about a
relationship." In order to test whether a theory is correct or not, we need to do research.
Theories are stated in general terms, so we need to define more accurately what we will
be doing in our experiment.

To do this, we need to define the variables in our theory so that they are testable, and
every experiment has two types of variables:

o Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

(input variable)

o Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome variable (results of the experiment)

By defining our variables that we will use to test our theory we derive at our
Hypothesis, which is a testable form of a theory.
 Questionnaire methods

A questionnaire is defined as formalized

schedule for collecting data from
respondents. It may be called as a
schedule, interview form or measuring
instrument. Measurement error is a serious
problem in questionnaire construction. The
broad objective of a questionnaire includes
one without measurement error.
Characteristics of Good Questionnaire/ Schedule

8Information required for achieving the research objectives.

*It contains questions relevant to the study and not irrelevant and

unimportant *It should more accurate and effective.

*It should include more clear, no ambiguous

*It contains no open- ended or discussion questions

*It should not contain beyond the memory of the respondents

*It should avoids unwarranted presumption about the respondents.

*Each question limited to single Idea

*Filter questions are used where ever necessary.

*Appropriate introduction and Instructions are included.

*The Instruments has been adequately pre- Tested. *Topic

and Questions are arranged in logical manner

 Schedule Method
A schedule contains a set of questions which
are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face
to face situation with a respondent. It is a
standardized device or tool of observation to
collect the data in an objective manner. In this
method the interviewer puts certain questions
and the respondent furnishes certain answers and
the interviewer records them as in a research
instruments called schedule.
 SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are those data

which have already been collected
and
analyzed by some earlier agency for
its own use, and later the same data are
used by different agency.
Sources of Secondary Data Collection

*Reports of organization, governments.

*Published data,

*All Department Reports,

*Journals,

*News Papers

*Magazines,

*Statistical Reports etc

 PROCESSING OF DATA

INTRODUCTION

After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into

meaningful statement; includes data

processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and

presentation.

Data reduction or processing mainly involves various

manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The
process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It
involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams
 MEANING OF DATA PROCESSING

Data processing refers to the activities of

converting of raw data into meaning full
information. Various activities such as checking,
editing, computing of the scores, preparation of
master charts, etc. an example of data
processing is typing sales numbers into an
inventory control software program. This is a
rapid recording and handling of large amounts
of information as business data by means of
mechanical or especially computer equipment.
 Editing data:

Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.

Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules
may have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or
some questions may be left unanswered. Sometimes information
may be given in a form which needs reconstruction in a category
designed for analysis, e.g., converting daily/monthly income in
annual income and so on. The researcher has to take a decision
as to how to edit it.
Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and
errors are modified. Occasionally, the investigator makes a
mistake and records and impossible answer. How much red
chilies do you use in a month The answer is written as 4 kilos .
Can a family of three members use four kilo chilies in a month?
The correct answer could be 0.4 kilo .
 Coding of data:

Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning

numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a
computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions
given in the codebook. The code book gives a numerical code
for each variable.

According to Bourque Linda B. Coding is the process by

which verbal data are converted into variable and

categories of variable using numbers, so that the data can be

entered into computers for analysis’’.
 Data classification/distribution:

Classification of data is the process of dividing the data into different groups
or classes which are homogeneous within themselves. This is the process of
arranging data into homogenous group or classes according to some common
characteristics.

Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of classification

of scores obtained for the various categories or a particular variable. There are
four types of distributions:

*Frequency distribution
*Percentage distribution

*Cumulative distribution

*Statistical distributions
 Data Transcription

Data Transcription is an integral process in

the qualitative analysis of language data
and is widely employed in basic and
applied research across a number of
disciplines and in professional practice
fields. The methodological and theoretical
issues associated with the transcription
process have received scant attention in
the research literature.
 Tabulation of data:
*Tabulation is the process of arranging data into rows and
column. Rows are horizontal arrangement whereas column are
vertical arrangements. Tabulation may be simple, double or
*complex depending upon the type of classification
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule
is accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put
together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some
*other forms of statistical analysis.
Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers. For a small
study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards. But for a survey analysis involving a large
number of respondents and requiring cross tabulation involving
more than two variables, hand tabulation will be inappropriate
and time consuming.
 Graphs

A Graph is a visual representation of

data by a continuous curve on a
squared ( graph) paper. Like

diagrams, graphs are also attractive and

eye-catching, giving a bird’s eye –
view of data and revealing their inner
pattern
ANALYSIS OF DATA

*Introduction

*Analysis of Data

*Simple Statistical techniques

and their uses

*Test of Hypothesis
 Meaning of Hypotheses

Hypotheses are the tentative statement relating to the

Phenomenon under study, It containing Independent and
dependent variables. They have to be tested empirically
before we can accept or reject them.

A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population

parameter. This assumption may or may not be true.

Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used by

statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses.

Hypotheses should be testable

Hypotheses should be amenable to measurement

 Statistical Hypotheses
The best way to determine whether a
statistical hypothesis is true would be to
examine the entire population. Since that
is often impractical, researchers typically
examine a random sample from the
population. If sample data are not
consistent with the statistical hypothesis,
the hypothesis is rejected.
There are two types of statistical hypotheses

Null hypothesis. The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is usually the

hypothesis that sample observations result purely from chance.

Alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H 1 or Ha,

is the hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some non-
random cause.

Ho - Null hypotheses = No relationship / No change

Ha – Alternative hypotheses = There is a relationship

Type I error = the Null hypotheses is actually true but rejected.

Type II error = the Null hypotheses is False but accepted is called Type
II error
Rule of Acceptance or Rejection of Null hypotheses

If Computed value of test statistics is less (<) then the Table

value Null hypotheses is accepted. (0.01 to 0.05) more than 0.05
means rejected.

If computed value of Test Statistics is Greater than or Equal

to table value Null hypotheses is Rejected

Test of Significance

(0.01- 0.05) are called Level of Significant

Steps in Testing Hypotheses

*State the Null hypotheses

*Select an Appropriate Test Statistics

*Fix the Level of Significance (0.01 – 0.05)

*Compute the Test Statistics

*Compare the computed value of Test Statistics with

Theoretical value of Test Statistical.

*Make decision regarding Acceptance or Rejection

of Null hypotheses.
 Bivariate Data Analysis

Bivariate data is data that has two variables. The

quantities from these two variables are often
represented using a scatter plot. This is done so
that the relationship between the variables is
easily seen.

Independent and Dependent variables.

Comparison of two variables

 Multivariate data analysis

Multivariate Analysis is based on the

statistical principle of multivariate
statistics which involves observation
and analysis of more than one
statistical outcome variable at a time.
 TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

PARAMETRIC TEST

The Parametric Test are more Powerful. But they depend on the
Parameters or characteristics of the population.

Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics which assumes that

the data has come from a type
of probability distribution and
makes inferences about the parameters of the

distribution. Most well-known elementary statistical methods are

parametric.
Important point

*The observation or values must be Independent.ie the selection

of one item must not depend upon the selection of any other item.

*The population from which the sample is drawn on a

random basis should be normally distributed.

*The population should have equal variance.

*The data should be Measured at least at interval level

that arithmetic operation can be used.

The Important Parametric Tests are Z- Test, T-Test, F-Test.

 Z- TEST

The Z-Test has been developed by Prof. R.A.

Fisher.

It is based on the Normal distribution

It is widely used for testing the

significance of several statistics like
Mean, Median, Mode, co-efficient of
correlation and other
One problem on each Mean, Median and mode.
 T-TEST

—The T-Test was introduced in 1908

by William Sealy Gosset, a chemist working for

the Guinness brewery in Dublin,

Ireland ("Student" was his pen name). Gosset had been

hired due to Claude Guinness's policy of recruiting the
best graduates from Oxford and Cambridge to apply
biochemistry and statistics to Guinness's industrial
processes. Gosset devised the t-test as a cheap way to
monitor the quality of stout.
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH

*Good Research is Systematic (no Break up )

Creative thinking

*Good Research is Logical

*Good Research is Empirical

*Good Research is Replicable

Module 4 REPORT WRITING

Report – Writing: Planning report

writing work-target audience, type
of report, style of writing
synoptical outline of chapters;
steps in drafting the report.
 INTRODUCTION

The final and very important step in a

research study is to write its report. Research
report considered a major component of the
research task remains incomplete till the report
has been presented. The report is a means for
communicating our research experiences to
others and adding them to the fund of
knowledge. This chapter discusses the purpose
of research reports, types of reports, plan and
finalizing the report and evaluation of the
research report
 Meaning of Research Report

A Research Report is the Formal

Statement of the research process and
its results. It narrates the problems
studied, methods used for studying and
the findings and conclusions of the
study.
 Purpose of Research Report
The purpose of research report is to communicate to
interested persons the methodology and the results of
the study in such a manner as to enable them to
understand the research process and to determine
the validity of the conclusions. The aim of the
report is not
to convince the reader of the value of the result but to
convey him what was done? Why it was done? What
was its outcome?. It is so written that the reader himself
can reach his own conclusions as to the adequacy of the
study and the validity of the reported result
and conclusion.
TYPES OF REPORT
Technical Report or Thesis

It is a comprehensive report.

It is meant for academic community.

It covers all aspects of research process.

General outline of the technical report

*Summary of the result

*Nature of the study

*Methods employed

*Data collected

*Analysis of the data and presentation of findings.

*Conclusion
*Bibliography

*Index .
Popular Report

Designed for audience of executive / administrators.

*The reader is less concerned with methodological details

but more interested in studying quickly the major findings
and conclusions.

*Emphasis is on practical aspects and policy implications.

*Avoid technical terms.

*Use liberally charts, diagrams , cartoons.

Interim Report

*If the research timing is long, sponsors will lose

interest, hence an interim report is presented without
waiting for final reports and thereby sponsors will take
action in their Endeavour pertaining to the study.

*Ready made progress report submitted to the sponsors

for quick and speedy action.

*This report contains narration of what has been done

so far and what were its outcome.
Summary Report
Prepared for general public

It is a short with 2 or 3 pages, suitable for

publication in daily newspaper. It is written
in non-technical and simple language.
 Research Abstract

It is a short summary of the thesis or technical

report. It is usually prepared by doctoral
students. It is submitted on the eve of submitting
his thesis. It contains brief presentation of the
statement of the problem, objective, methods and
techniques. It enable the examines to evaluate the
research area of the doctoral students.
 Research Article

A Research article is designed for

publication in a professional journal. A
research article must be clearly written in
concise and unambiguous language. It must
be logically organized progressing from
statement of problem and the purpose of
the study, through analysis of evidence, to
the conclusions and implications.
 GENERAL FORMAT OF
RESEARCH REPORT

Preliminary section or front matter

Title of Page, Approval Sheet,

Acknowledgements, Preface or
Forward, Table of contents, List of
Table, List of Figures.
Main Body of the Report

*Introduction
*Review of Literature
*Objectives of the Study

*Statement of the Problem

*Significance of the Problem

*Purposes of the study

*Design of the study

*Collection of data

*Tabulation of data or Analysis of data

*Hypothesis testing
*Presentation and Analysis of data

*Summary & Conclusions

Reference Section

*Bibliography

*Appendix

*index
RESEARCH ETHICS

*Honesty

*Objectivity

*Integrity

*Carefulness

*Openness

*Confidentiality

*Responsible Publications

*Responsible Monitoring

*Respect for Colleagues

*Social Responsibility

*Non- Discrimination

*Competence

8Legality
THANK YOU