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FLUID MECHANICS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is encountered in almost every area of our physical lives. Blood flows through our
veins and arteries, a ship moves through water and water flows through rivers, airplanes fly in the air
and air flows around wind machines, air is compressed in a compressor and steam expands around
turbine blades, a dam holds back water, air is heated and cooled in our homes, and computers
require air to cool components. All engineering disciplines require some expertise in the area of fluid
mechanics.
Fluid mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with
applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two
major areas, Fluid Statics, which deals with fluid at rest, and Fluid Dynamics, concerned with fluids in
motion.
TYPES OF FLUID
Fluids are generally subdivided into two categories: ideal fluid and real fluid
Ideal Fluid
Assumed to have a viscosity(and hence, no resistance to shear)
Incompressible
Have uniform velocity when flowing
No friction between moving layers of fluid
No eddy current or turbulence
Real Fluid
Exhibit infinite viscosities
Non uniform velocity distribution when flowing
Compressible
Experience friction and turbulence in flow
Area, A m2 ft 2
Volume, V m3 ft 3
m ft
Velocity, v
s s
ft
Acceleration, a
s2
Force, F kg.m
s2 or N slug.ft
s2 or lb
The mass per unit volume of material is called the density, which is generally expressed by the
symbol p. The density of a gas changes according to the pressure, but that of a liquid may be
considered unchangeable in general. The units of density are kg/m3 (SI). The density of water at 4°C
and 1 atm (101 325 Pa, standard atmospheric pressure; see Section 3.1.1) is 1000 kg/m3. The ratio
of the density of a material p to the density of water p , is called the specific gravity, which is
expressed by the symbol s:
𝜌
S₌
𝜌𝑊
The reciprocal of density, i.e. the volume per unit mass, is called the specific volume, which is
generally expressed by the symbol u:
1 𝑚3
𝜈₌ 𝜌 (
𝑘𝑔
)
Values for the density p of water and air under standard atmospheric pressure are given in Table 1.3.
If the density of a fluid varies significantly due to moderate changes in pressure or temperature,
then the fluid is called compressible fluid. Generally gases and vapours under normal conditions can
be classified as compressible fluids. In these phases the distance between atoms or molecules is
large and cohesive forces are small. So increase in pressure or temperature will change the density
by a significant value.
If the change in density of a fluid is small due to changes in temperature and or pressure, then the
fluid is called incompressible fluid. All liquids are classified under this category.
1.6 Compressibility, 𝜷
Compressibility (also as the coefficient of compressibility ) is the fractional change in the volume of a
fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant-temperature process
its reciprocal, 𝛽
𝜷 = 𝟏/𝑲 (2.11)
is called the compressibility, whose value directly indicates how compressible the fluid is. For water of normal
temperature/pressure K = 2.06 x 109 Pa, and for air K = 1.4 x 105 Pa assuming adiabatic change. In the case of
water, 𝛽 = 4.85 x 10−10 1/𝑃𝑎, and shrinks only by approximately 0.005% even if the atmospheric pressure is
increased by 1 atm.
Putting 𝜌 as the fluid density and M as the mass, since pV = M = constant, assume an increase in density Δ𝜌
whenever the volume has decreased by ΔV, and
𝚫𝒑 𝒅𝒑
K=𝒑 𝚫𝒑=𝒑 𝒅𝒑 (2.12)
𝒅𝒑 𝑲
A=√ =√ (2.13)
𝒅𝒑 𝝆
Similar to solids (hook’s law), liquids have a property that describes the volume change
as results of pressure change for constant temperature. It can be noted that this property
is not the result of the equation of state but related to it. The bulk modulus is defined
as:
𝜕𝑃
𝐵𝑇 =−𝑣(𝜕𝑣 ) 𝑇 (2.12)
𝜕𝑃
𝐵𝑇 =𝑃(𝜕𝑝) 𝑇 (2.13)
The bulk modulus for several liquids is presented in Table 1.5
Table -1.5. The bulk modulus for selected material with the critical temperature and pressure
na not available and nf not found (exist but was not found in the literature).
In an inviscid flow the effects of viscosity can be completely neglected with no significant effects on
the solution to a problem involving the flow. All fluids have viscosity and if the viscous effects cannot
be neglected, it is a viscous flow. Viscous effects are very important in pipe flows and many other
kinds of flows inside conduits; they lead to losses and require pumps in long pipe lines. But, are
there flows in which we can neglect the influence of viscosity? Certainly, we would not even
consider inviscid flows if no such flows could be found in our engineering problems.
Consider an external flow, flow external to a body, such as the flow around an airfoil or a
hydrofoil, as shown in Fig. 3.6. If the airfoil is moving relatively fast (faster than about 1 m=s), the
flow away from a thin layer near the boundary, a boundary layer, can be assumed to have zero
viscosity with no significant effect on the solution to the flow field (the velocity, pressure,
temperature fields). All the viscous effects are concentrated inside the boundary layer and cause the
velocity to be zero at the surface of the airfoil, the no-slip condition.
1.9 Surface tension
The surface of a liquid is apt to shrink, and its free surface is in such a state where each section pulls
another as if an elastic film is being stretched. The tensile strength per unit length of assumed
section on the free surface is called the surface tension. Surface tensions of various kinds of liquid
are given in Table 2.4.
As shown in Fig. 2.5, a dewdrop appearing on a plant leaf is spherical in shape. This is also because of
the tendency to shrink due to surface tension. Consequently its internal pressure is higher than its
peripheral pressure. Putting d as the diameter of the liquid drop, T as the surface tension, and p as
the increase in internal pressure, the following equation is obtained owing to the balance of forces
as shown in Fig. 2.6:
𝜋𝑑2
𝜋𝑑𝑇 = ∆𝑝 (2.14)
4
∆𝑝 = 4𝑇/𝑑