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Introduction
The Future of Behavior Analysis–Part of
Psychology, or a Separate Discipline?
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The core of the present special issue of prepared according to standard APA 6th ed.
the European Journal of Behavior Analysis format as indicated in our journal” and “us-
consists of two articles that were originally ing your professional judgment as you select
published in the premier issue of the journal the basis for your comments, you may want
Behaviorology in 1993. These two articles are to comment on particular issues raised in one
J.D. Ulman’s article titled “The Ulman–Skin- or both articles.” No procrustean editorial
ner Letters” and B.F. Skinner’s posthumously efforts were made to control the contribu-
published article titled “A World of Our tors’ professional judgment. Nineteen out
Own.” The letters presented in Ulman’s ar- of twenty-one agreed to comment, and their
ticle are concerned with the status of the be- commentaries are arranged in alphabetical
havioral science that Skinner proposed and, order by author. Ulman’s replies follow each
specifically, its relation to psychology: Should of the commentaries and are distinguished by
we put more effort into refined approaches a heading with his initials, JDU’s Reply to X.
aiming to reform psychology–or should we The planning of the current special is-
separate and proclaim the natural science of sue was initiated when a colleague emailed
behavior as a discipline distinct from psychol- the editorial troika and urged us to reprint
ogy? As is perhaps evident from the title of Ulman’s letter exchange with Skinner. After
Skinner’s article, he ended up in favor of the the original journal, Behaviorology, was dis-
second alternative. continued, he was concerned that “a relevant
The two target articles are followed by document on the history of our science might
invited commentaries. Twenty-one distin- not be accessible to current readers, or worse,
guished colleagues were invited. They were even lost (except to some hard working his-
selected because prior publications or public torian of science).” It was an easy decision
utterances, suggested that they might be par- to make, and it soon became clear to us that
ticularly interested in these questions. Hop- in addition to the Ulman—Skinner letters,
ing to get a wide variety of arguments pro and Skinner’s last published article may also be
con the “declaration of independence” of a deserving of more attention.
natural science of behavior from psychology, As was made clear in the original publica-
we made an effort to invite colleagues with tion of A World of Our Own (Skinner, 1993),
supposed different leanings in these matters. the article was based on an address presented
On the formalistic side, we requested that at the annual convention of the Association
“comments be around 1000 words in length, for Behavior Analysis, Milwaukee, WI, May,
1989. The details of how the paper finally
Thanks to J.S. Vargas for the permission to quote from
ended up as a published article became clear
Skinner’s letters and to L. Fraley for permission to draw mate- when I searched the letter archives in the B.
rial from his letters to Skinner.
Correspondence concerning this introduction should be
F. Skinner Foundation. Lawrence Fraley con-
addressed to per.holth@hioa.no tacted Skinner shortly after the annual ABA
7
8 Per Holth
meeting on behalf of the newly formed or- I am working hard on the final version and
ganization, The International Behaviorology hope to have time to finish it.” During a
Association (TIBA). Fraley was preparing the recent search in the archives at The B. F.
journal of the new organization and invited Skinner Foundation, I had his working
Skinner to contribute the text of his ABA talk title confirmed. In a letter to Jack Michael,
to the first issue. Untypical of Skinner, he had dated January 25th Skinner had written: “If
not prepared a written version for that address, I have time, I’m planning to write a paper,
and Fraley offered to have the talk transcribed also, called “Why I Am Not and Never Re-
from a tape recording. Early in July 1989, ally Have Been a Psychologist.” He made
Fraley sent his transcribed copy of the talk to the final edits to the manuscript on August
Skinner and announced that the first issue of 17th, 1990, on his very last evening (Vargas,
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Behaviorology would appear next year. In Oc- 1990), and it was published in the American
tober, Skinner wrote back to Fraley, explaining Psychologist in November that year. Hav-
that he would not be able to do the ABA talk ing used the manuscript as the basis for his
in time for the first issue. His wife had had keynote address when he received the un-
a knee replacement and other assignments precedented Citation for Outstanding Lifetime
could not wait. However, Skinner promised Contribution to Psychology at the opening
to get back to working on the transcript after session of the American Psychological As-
December 1. In spite of the fact that he was sociation’s 98th Annual Convention eight
diagnosed with leukemia around that time, by days before he died, he must have found it
the end of January 1990, he had submitted his slightly awkward to use the working title
manuscript titled “A World of Our Own” to for the article. The final title became “Can
Fraley. The final edits to the proof of the paper Psychology Be a Science of Mind?”
were listed in a letter from Skinner to Fraley, Thus, Skinner remained in psychology
dated March 22, 1990. Thus, by the end of until the very end, but his doubts on whether
March, the article was ready for publication it was the appropriate home for the science he
in the premier issue of Behaviorology. Skinner was trying to establish emerged very early. In
died on August 18th. Curiously, yet another a letter to his parents in December 1928, the
three years would pass before that first issue young Skinner wrote: “But my fundamental
was published–with “The Ulman–Skinner interests lie in the field of Psychology, and
Letters” (Ulman, 1993), along with “A World I shall probably continue therein, even, if
of Our Own” (Skinner, 1993). necessary, by making over the entire field to
Although this was Skinner’s last article suit myself ” (Skinner, 1979, p. 38). Regard-
(thus far) to be published, it was not the last ing his relation to psychology at the time he
one he wrote. During the spring of 1990, finished his postdoctoral work at Harvard,
Charlie Catania told me about Skinner’s he later wrote,
terminal illness but that, in spite of the
illness, he was working on another paper. I spent those five years in the biological labo-
His working title was “Why I Am Not ratories and was really out of touch with psy-
chology. I don’t think Boring or Stevens did
and Never Really Have Been a Psycholo- anything to keep me out of the department.
gist,” thus taking a giant step further than There just wasn’t any room for a person with
“Why I Am Not a Cognitive Psychologist” my interests (Letter from Skinner to Daniel
(Skinner, 1977). In a letter the following Wiener dated August 7th, 1989).
summer, I asked Skinner about the title of
his new paper. In a reply, dated July 12th, Although Skinner’s clear view on whether
he wrote: “I don’t think I will use the title, behavior analysis belonged within psychol-
‘Why I Am Not and Never Really Have ogy became explicit only during his last
Been a Psychologist,’ but that is the gist of it. couple of years, there were hints much earlier
Introduction 9
of what now may appear to have been inevi- In a letter to Charlie Catania, dated Decem-
table. In About Behaviorism, Skinner (1974) ber 12, 1988, he wrote:
had written:
I got a long letter from Jerry Ulman, who is
The first explicit behaviorist was John B. Wat- now on the Board of Behaviorology. I wonder
son, who in 1913 issued a kind of manifesto whether some of us shouldn’t get together and
called ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views see what is to be done about (1) Division 25,
It.’ As the title shows, he was not proposing now that we are all dropping out of the APA,
a new science, but arguing that psychology (2) solving the parallel problem of too much
should be redefined as the study of behavior. applied work in the ABA membership with
This may have been a strategic mistake. (Skin- very little experimental data reported, and
(3) whether something in the new American
ner, 1974, p. 5) Pschological Society might be the way to
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However, in every other class, they were A main goal of the present special issue of the
taught stuff that conflicted with those be- European Journal of Behavior Analysis is to il-
havior principles. Her conclusion was that luminate the pros and cons very broadly–in
learning about behavior analysis was simply order to guide us in making well-informed
too exhausting in between psychology classes. decisions for the future of our field.
A kinship between psychology and behavior
analysis is sometimes proclaimed because Per Holth
they are both concerned with why behavior Guest Editor
occurs. This, however, is a very superficial
resemblance, because their Why questions References:
are very different (Holth, 2013).
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Inspired by the Behavioral Department Epstein, R. (1984). The case for praxics. The
at The University of North Texas, many of Behavior Analyst, 7, 101–119.
our colleagues at Akershus University Col- Holth, P. (2013). Different sciences as
lege in Norway, including Ingunn Sandaker answers to different why questions. Eu-
and Erik Arntzen, have worked to shape up ropean Journal of Behavior Analysis, 14,
a behavioral department. Hence, we do have 165–170.
some limited experience on how behavioral Skinner, B. F. (1974). About Behaviorism.
departments can be established and thrive New York, NY: Knopf.
separated from psychology. Certain benefits Skinner, B. F. (1977). Why I am not a cogni-
are obvious. For instance, very little effort is tive psychologist. Behaviorism, 5, 1–10.
required to correct misunderstandings result- Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behav-
ing from conflicting teaching. On the other iorist. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
hand, when recruiting students, the term Skinner, B. F. (1987). Whatever happened
“psychology” is very valuable. Our bachelor to psychology as the science of behavior?
program in behavior analysis at Oslo and Ak- American Psychologist, 42, 780–786.
ershus University College is titled “Bachelor Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
in Learning Psychology–with an Emphasis European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
on Behavior Analysis.” In fact, very few of 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
our newly recruited bachelor students report 1993, 1, 1–5).
knowing anything at all about behavior analy- Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman–Skinner
sis. “Psychology” is still a student magnet that letters. European Journal of Behavior
may be hard to let go of in the near future. Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
Thus, the question of whether to put Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
additional effort into attempts to reform Vargas, J. S. (1990). B. F. Skinner–the last
psychology–or separate and proclaim the few days. Journal of Applied Behavior
natural science of behavior as a distinct dis- Analysis, 23, 409–410. doi: 10.1901/
cipline is important, but it is not an easy one. jaba.1990.23-409
EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2014, 15, 11–19 NUMBER 1 (SUMMER 2014)
11
Over the course of several years, I exchanged letters with B. F. Skinner about behaviorology.
Although Skinner spent much of his professional career attempting to reform psychology–to
persuade psychologists to study behavior rather than mind or cognition–in his last two years–he
became increasingly disenchanted with the prospect, relating at one point (1993) that he was
wrong to say that the study of behavior was the concern of psychology. He remained undecided
about this historically crucial question, however, ending his final paper (on August 17, 1990, the
day before his death) with the statement, “whether behavior analysis will be called psychology
is a matter for the future to decide” (p. 1210). The letters he wrote to me express some of his
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doubts about this Sisyphean effort to reform psychology as a science of behavior. Here are the
letters, unedited.
Key words: behaviorology, science of behavior, radical behaviorism, behavior analysis, natural
science, cognitive, mentalistic, psychology, psyche, cultural contingencies
Letter from Ulman to Skinner Dated I enjoyed your invited address.4 Please
June 20,1986 send me a copy. It caused me to reconsider
my view on whether radical behaviorists
Dear Fred: should continue to be associated with
Thank you for your sustaining subscrip- psychology or strike out on our own and
tion to Behavior Analysis and Social Action.3 establish a separate discipline (“behaviorol-
You should receive your copy in about a ogy”–or whatever). I’ve reached the conclu-
week. sion that you are entirely correct. We should
continue our struggle for the establishment
1
The personal letters written by B. F. Skinner are of a scientific psychology. Why leave the field
copyrighted by and printed with permission of the B. F. of battle and let the mentalists and cognitiv-
Skinner Foundation. I wish to express my gratitude to the
foundation for this courtesy and thank its president, Julie ists claim the title psychologist? We should
S. Vargas, for her comments. hit them hard.
2
Correspondence about the Ulman-Skinner letters
should be addressed to Jerome D. Ulman, Department of Our BFSA Symposium on “Radical
Special Education, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306. Behaviorism and Materialism: The Hand
3
Behavior Analysis and Social Action was the journal
of Behaviorists for Social Action, a special interest group of in the Glove” went well and the audience
the Association for Behavior Analysis. The journal is now evaluations were very favorable. I thought
entitled Behavior and Social Issues.
4
Address given at the annual meeting of the Associa- you might like a copy of my discussion.
tion for Behavior Analysis (Skinner,1986). He prefaced this
address by informing the audience that he would be giving a
talk at the upcoming meeting of the American Psychological Cordially,
Association and invited suggestions about what he might say Jerry Ulman
to psychologists to pursuade them to make their discipline
more scientific-thus prompting my reply.
Thanks to Behaviorology and to the B. F. Skinner Foundation for the permission to reprint this article in the current
issue of the European Journal of Behavior Analysis. The article was originally published in the inaugural issue of Behav-
iorology in 1993.
Correspondence about the Ulman-Skinner letters should be addressed to Jerome D. Ulman at julman2@bsu.edu.
11
12 Jerome D. Ulman
continue efforts to reform it (in your words, that organization is an increasing “techno-
“to bore from within”). I subsequently read cognitive drift” away from the basic science
your article in the American Psychologist, of behavior and its guiding philosophy of
“Whatever Happened to Psychology as the radical behaviorism. It seems that more and
Science of Behavior?”,6 an eloquent argument more students in behavior analysis programs
for building a scientific psychology. After are being taught how to apply a given set of
discussing your position with several other intervention strategies with different kinds of
radical behaviorists and weighing various behaviors in various settings while the train-
alternatives, I have had to conclude that I ing in the basic science is being neglected.
no longer share that position. It has become For the most part, the latest generation of
increasingly apparent to me that trying to behavior analysts appear to be more techni-
reform psychology is not only a great waste cian than scientist. Perhaps most disturbing
of our time and effort, but sidetracks us from of all, I see cognitive notions being accepted
the mainline of establishing a natural science into the behavioral literature, both basic and
of behavior. applied, with increasing casualness. Overall,
If reforming psychology were simply a my perception is that we can no longer rely
matter of reasoned argument and empiri- on the ABA community as the best protec-
cal demonstration, we should have made a tive social environment for nurturing the
substantial impact in psychology many years science of behavior.
ago. But what do we find today? Division 25 I suggest that we need to reassess the
of the American Psychology Association is situation. You pointed out in your article
moribund; the misrepresentation of behav- that the three obstacles blocking our path-
iorism in psychology textbooks continues humanistic psychology, psychotherapy, and
unabated7 and is even increasing; notwith- cognitive psychology–are formidable. Indeed
standing its development as an advocacy they are! We must then ask, Why are they
organization, the Association for Behavior so formidable and what can we do about
Analysis is not growing as we had anticipated it? A clue to the answer, I believe, is what
as a scientific professional organization; they share in common: the perspective that
relative to behavior analysts, the number of behavior is caused by hypothetical internal
processes. Concomitantly, we must ask why
5
Middletown is the fictional name Robert and Helen the growth of the experimental analysis of
Lynd gave to Muncie, Indiana, in their classic sociological behavior, in spite of the wealth of research
studies of 1929 and 1937. Muncie is the home of Ball State
University were Skinner was awarded an honorary doctoral demonstrating the effectiveness of its prac-
degree in 1983. tical applications, seems to have reached a
6
Skinner (1987)
7
See Todd & Morris (1983) plateau far short of our earlier expectations.
The Ulman-Skinner Letters 13
The answer to this question, it seems to me, to the environment as the cause of behavior.
is but the obverse of the other answer. That Do these facts not speak for themselves? I
is, the science of behavior directs attention believe that we often fail to recognize the fact
to the external environment, both past and that our philosophy of science constitutes an
present, as the cause of behavior. uncompromising challenge to the ideologies
Finally, we must ask why the culture of the status quo and consequently to the
in which we live selects an ineffective if powers that be. When people stop looking
not fantastic hodgepodge of psycholo- in the direction of other worlds (mental,
gies over an effective science of behavior. spiritual, etc.) and begin to analyze the cur-
To my way of thinking, the answer would rent social environment as the cause of their
apply equally to the question–Why do New problems, the powers that be are in trouble.
Age mysticism, fundamentalist religions, In short, it seems that we have not yet appre-
cults, and other cultural practices associated ciated to the full extent the radical implica-
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Behaviorology Association; I hope you will the natural science of behavior, the discipline
forgive my temerity for doing so. As I recall, that emerged out of but is now irrevocably
you did not like the sound of the term behav- separate from the discipline of psychology.
iorology. Historically, I think it is interesting
to note that very similar objections were Cordially,
made when Leslie White tried to popularize Jerry
culturology and earlier when Herbert Spen-
cer introduced sociology (see enclosure).8 Letter from Skinner to Ulman Dated
After a while, however, I have rather grown January 23, 1989
fond of referring to myself as a behavior-
ologist. The name has the virtue of clearly Dear Jerry:
communicating to the populace what we are I’ve kept your long letter for a long
about and how we differ from those profes- time partly because I wanted to wait to
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sionals who give themselves other labels. see how the APS10 shapes up. There is no
Euphonies aside, I believe the critical doubt that behavior analysis is spread over
issue is what we tact when we say “behavio- too much territory at the present time.
rology.” Quoting from the TIBA brochure Division 25 is open only to members of the
(enclosed),9 it is “the name that emerged APA, and one of the virtues of ABA was that
in the 1980s for a science that originated younger people could come and participate.
in the 1930s and which is concerned with APS will be cheaper but still, I suppose, not
the behavior of organisms.” Of particular open to younger people without advance
significance in this regard is TIBA ‘s first degrees. We do need a strong organization
statement of purpose: “to foster the scientifi- and particularly one which doesn’t fall into
cally informed and developing philosophy of the same trap the AP A fell into and be con-
science known as radical behaviorism.” To verted into a professional society rather than
my knowledge no other organization in the a psychological one.
world–including ABA-can honestly make I don’t like the word behaviorology
that claim. [emphasis added] and haven’t gotten used
All things considered, here is the bottom to it yet when I hear Julie and Ernie use it. I
line of my letter to you: At the time, I agreed don’t think there is a chance that colleges and
with your brief comments at the end of your universities will open departments of behav-
1986 ABA talk. I have since read some new iorology at least for a long time to come. At
and, to me, compelling conclusions on this best it will have to be a branch of psychol-
matter. Upon weighing these additional ogy. I imagine there would be no chance to
factors, I am wondering whether or not you get the National Science Foundation to take
might be coming to these same conclusions it seriously either, again for a long time to
as well. If so, I would like to add my voice to come. I prefer to remain a psychologist on the
those of the other TIBA members and invite grounds that it can be defined as Watson did
you to share, even join, our endeavor to bring in 1913. It should be taught as a specialty in
about full recognition of behaviorology as departments of psychology, as ethology, for
example, is taught as a special part of biology.
What is needed, I think, is not so much
9
The brochure was put out by The International Behav- reorganization or a new organization but
iorology Association (TIBA) in 1988. A copy of the current
TIBA brochure may be obtained from the author more active experimental work. There are all
10
APS was the group of roughly 4,000 psychologists kinds of issues that have not been properly
that broke away from APA in January1989 and formed the
American Psychological Society. In March 1989 Skinner explored. In addition, the implications of
opined, ‘’The Psychological Society seems to me to be the a behavioral analysis for a great many areas
natural next step in the furtherance of psychology as a
science” (p. 8). are not yet being very effectively discussed.
The Ulman-Skinner Letters 15
That is the sort of thing I am trying to do in 1950, “appeals to events taking place
myself these days. somewhere else, and measured, if at all, in
I’m afraid this isn’t what you wanted to different dimensions [e.g., in the real ner-
hear, but it seems to me to be all that I shall vous system, the conceptual system, or the
be trying to do for the rest of my life. mind].” You added that the continued use of
such methods should be abandoned. Thus, I
Sincerely, do not understand why you now give cred-
Fred ibility to APS. Any behavioral psychologists
in their ranks (if the behavioral constituency
Letter from Ulman to Skinner Dated approaches even 10%, I would be greatly
February 24, 1989 surprised) simply serve to give a behavioristic
veneer to the ersatz science of psychology.
Dear Fred: In general, our participation in any psy-
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Thank you for your carefully considered chological organization presupposes at least
reply to my letter. As briefly as I can, I would tacit acceptance of a common program.
like to share my thinking about the critically Because psychologists cannot agree on a radi-
important points you raised. cal behavioral program without themselves
You may be right about colleges and becoming something other than psycholo-
universities not opening departments of gists, a psychological organization must of
behaviorology in the foreseeable future and necessity abandon radical behaviorism in
the NSF not taking our discipline seriously favor of theorizing based on mind, cogni-
anytime soon. I will even concede that when tion, and/or the conceptual nervous system.
I first heard it, “behaviorology” sounded a bit In short, the program of the psychologist is
strange. (If I may suggest a remedy: in the the defense of the psyche; the program of the
privacy of your bath, try saying behaviorol- radical behaviorist, its demise.
ogy aloud at least 50 times.) Would that the What must at all cost be defended and
problem was only nominal! nurtured are those cultural contingencies–as
In a more serious vein—if you will allow rare as they are exquisite–responsible for
my bluntness, for it is impelled by what is at the development of the natural science of
stake—I think your confidence in the Ameri- behavior. By comparison, it matters little to
can Psychological Society is badly misplaced. behaviorologists whether we will soon see
In my view, APS is merely a protestant form behaviorology departments sprouting up
of the same old religion, a splinter group around the country or receive a nod of ap-
from the Assembly of the Personal Agency, proval from the NSF. That is, the integrity
consummate defenders of “autonomous of the discipline takes precedence over the
man.” What motivates the overwhelming number of people who may or may not come
majority in APS, I suspect, is opposition to to feel comfortable about recognizing behav-
the exclusive guild concerns of the clinical iorology as an independent life science. What
majority in AP A, not the promotion of a sci- does matter, I am sure, is that our scientific
ence of behavior as you and I understand it. work be carried out within that protective
Given the character of its membership, social environment we call the discipline of
the “science” we can expect APS to advance behaviorology.
is exactly the kind you have argued against Hence, I was quite saddened to learn that
throughout your career—hypothico—de- you plan to devote the rest of your life to try
ductive methodology, statistical inference to reform psychology as a natural science.
rather than experimental analysis, the phi- I am afraid that this travail is Sisyphean
losophy of logical positivism, and the type and will only wear us down and ultimately
of theorizing that, as you so aptly stated exhaust our extremely limited resources.
16 Jerome D. Ulman
We simply cannot afford to continue our Letter from Skinner to Ulman Dated
scientific work as a specialty within the psy- March 6, 1989
chology establishment. To remain there any
longer portends to be a recipe, not only for Dear Jerry:
our continued servitude, but for eventual I agree that behaviorology is not as bad as
extinction of the very contingencies neces- otorhinolaryngology, but the word behavior
sary for the survival of our science and the [emphasis added] falls apart too easily without
philosophy upon which it is based. Yes, as having another part tacked on.
you advise, more active experimental work I am not taking the American Psycho-
is needed, there are many issues that need logical Society very seriously but I still believe
to be explored, and there is much to discuss psychology is the study of behavior; including
about the implications of our work. But the behavior of the brain as part of the thing
psychologists since the time of Watson have called a behaving body, and as an institution it
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not merely ignored us, they have contemp- has a firm hold on our universities. What both-
tuously rejected our experimental research. ers me most is not the need to have another
And there is no apparent reason to suppose organization but to get competent people to
they will behave any differently in the future. attack what is now being done in the name
So with or without your endorsement, of psychology. And behavior analysts are do-
Fred, you can rest assured that your scientific ing a lot of the wrong thing themselves. It is
contributions are in better hands than were hard to find an article that doesn’t report on
Darwin’s with his “bulldog”, T. H. something going on inside the head. A really
Huxley, who–upon reviewing On the strong advocacy program would reinstate the
Origins of Species–wrote of being prepared study of behavior in psychology as an estab-
to go to the stake for it if necessary. Yet Hux- lished discipline and could eventually take
ley never accepted the principle of natural over–at about the time when behaviorology
selection! The founders of The International would have gotten itself included in curricula
Behaviorology Association, in contrast, and support bureaus. We have let cognitive
recognize selection by consequences as the psychologists, with that soundbite about the
most important causal mode in the life sci- death of psychology [sic]11 more or less take
ences and are committed to “pursue the use over the field. I have written three papers at-
of the contributions to behaviorology found tacking cognitive psychology, but who else
in the works of B. F. Skinner for integrating has? And who has spoken to the lay public?
the concepts, data, and technologies of the There is an article in the last issue of the New
discipline’s various subfields.” With rigorous York Review of Books on what could be done
membership qualifications for its leadership, to rescue education in America, and it is one
a newsletter already in production (our first long example of what is wrong with educa-
issue is enclosed), a journal under develop- tion. I should be writing a letter in reply, but
ment, and TIBA chapters forming interna- I simply do not have time. I am writing one
tionally, we are prepared to stay the course. to Science about their complaint that students
I will close with this metaphoric note, are flunking math and science.12
Fred: As you grow weary of your travels I am not trying to reform psychology so
through that vast and scientifically barren far as it concerns what is going on in the black
wasteland called psychology, may you be box. Not at all, I am interested inshowing that
comforted to know that a place has been the answers to the two answers about what
saved for you around our campfire.
11
Clearly, Skinner intended to say “the death of
With fond regard, behaviorism”-J.D.U.
Jerry 12
The letter was not published.
The Ulman-Skinner Letters 17
is going on are really the important part of notion of soul (spirit, god, etc.) is any more
psychology. They are certainly the part that in contradiction to the natural science of
makes a practical application possible. behavior than one based on the notion of
I am grateful for the enthusiasm and loy- psyche. Put another way, if we remove all
alty of the behaviorologists. I’ll try saying the that is behaviorological, neurophysiological,
word to myself in the bathtub and see how and culturological from psychology, in what
good a predictor you are. scientifically important way would psychology
differ from theology?
All the best, Are not both paradigms inherently in-
Fred compatible with the epistemology of radical
behaviorism?
Letter from Ulman to Skinner Dated In The Origin of Consciousness in the
April 28, 1989 Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, I find
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see it, because of such overpowering cultural In sum, as long as we remain within the
contingencies, the more psychologists struggle church, for whatever reason, the longer we
to become free from their quandary about the must abide by its commandments, chief
psyche, the deeper they sink and the more among which is an unquestioning respect for
seductive becomes their sophistry. Hence, the divinity of the psyche (or any of its cognate
our continued dealings with psychology will hypostases-mind, cognition, experience, etc.).
only entangle us further in their metaphysical I feel that we can best move forward, not by
morass. arguing with psychologists about what may
If we are to succeed in convincing our or may not be going on it in the black box;
students to give up the hypothesized ghosts writing letters to hostile, psyche–intoxicated
in evolved matter, we must teach them to editors; nor playing no-win political games
unambiguously discriminate between these in psychology departments. We have done
traditional ways of thinking and scientific all of that for over 50 years and it has gotten
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thinking. It seems to me that this end is not us nowhere. I say, psychologists made their
well served by our continued cohabitation own metaphysical bed, now let them lie in it.
with psychologists and the contingencies We have much more useful things to do;
under which they operate. With the establish- namely, to advance the independent discipline
ment of behaviorology, we have finally broken of behaviology in all of its facets-philosophical,
with that idealistic tradition, an indissoluble analytical, experimental, and technologi-
amalgam of religionist and guild interests. And cal–and, most importantly, disseminate our
with the formation of TIBA, the organiza- successes to the public.
tional umbilical cord has at last been severed. I hope you will forgive my verbosity, for I
In light of this historical context, I have dif- seriously did attempt to be brief! I look for-
ficulty accepting your statement that a “a really ward to seeing you at the ABA meeting.
strong advocacy program would reinstate the
study of behavior in psychology... and could Cordially,
take over–at about the time when behaviology Jerry
would have gotten itself included in curricula
and support bureaus.” Given its importance Note from Ulman to Skinner Dated
in maintaining the status quo, I suspect that May 29,1990
psychology will continue to be the favored
one for some time to come (as it always has Dear Fred,
been) and that allocation of resources for the Congratulations on your declaration of
scientific study of behavior will make relatively independence!13
little headway under the current cultural con-
tingencies.
There are literally millenniums of tradi- 13
My congratulatory note on Skinner’s “declaration
tional thinking about human nature against of independence” was in reference to his keynote address
which behaviorology must struggle. We should delivered May 28, 1989, at the 15th annual convention of
the Association for Behavior Analysis in Milwaukee, Wis-
anticipate that the path forward will continue consin. I had a hint Fred was going to drop the bombshell
to be a difficult one. In reality, I do not see about the science of behavior not being part of psychol-
ogy when-just before going into the ballroom to give his
any easy routes. Most emphatically, remain- address-he said to me, “Listen to what I am going to say
ing within psychology is no shortcut. Rather, today, Jerry. I think you’re going to like it” (implying that
whathe was going to say would serve as his reply to my last
I submit that maintaining a covenant with letter). I was not disappointed. A moment later he told the
organized psychology will serve only to stultify audience: “I tried too long to follow Watson in saying that
psychology is the science of behavior. I am now convinced
our every effort to advance behaviorology, the that that is wrong. Psychology has always been concerned
science for which you have contributed the with internal explanations” (See Skinner [1993], p.3). As
soon as I returned from the ABA meeting, I sent him my
definitive paradigm and guiding philosophy. con-gratulatory note. So ended our correspondence.
The Ulman-Skinner Letters 19
Why do people behave as they do? For but that is the point at which I parted from
more than 2,500 years the answer has been him. I wanted a science of behavior that did
sought inside the behaving person, in what not refer to the mind or to the nervous sys-
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could be seen of an internal controlling self. tem. That was the theme of Chapter 8 in The
Psychology began as an effort to make the Behavior of Organisms. It had been the theme
search scientific. So-called “physiological of two books by Jacques Loeb that I read sev-
psychologists,” such as Wundt and Titchner, eral years before I read Watson. Loeb spoke
trained observers to look at and report their of the behavior of the organism as a whole.
mental processes. William James remained I am not sure where the expression “radical
a philosopher and continued to look only behaviorism” came from, but I have always
casually. used it to mean the study of behavior without
John B. Watson would have none of it. asking about what was going on inside the
He began his famous behaviorist manifesto organism, mental or neurophysiological.
with the assertion that psychology was the I have tried too long to follow Watson
science of behavior. (He could not make a in saying that psychology is the science of
convincing case for it because there was, at behavior. I am now convinced that is wrong.
the time, no such science. There was little Psychology has always been concerned with
more than some studies of habit formation internal explanations. To show how futile
in the maze and, somewhat later, Pavlov’s that is, let us imagine that it has been success-
conditioned reflexes. For the rest of his life, ful. Let us suppose that all those who examine
Watson spoke only of what would happen mental processes introspectively now agree
when there was a science of behavior.) But on what they see. Let us suppose that what
in the first paragraph of that manifesto he they see confirms a set of theories upon which
turned to an attack on introspection, and all cognitive psychologists now agree. And let
there he was completely successful. Psycholo- us suppose that brain science, looking inside
gists no longer train observers to look at their the behaving organism in a different way, has
mental processes. Cognitive psychologists do found what convincingly can be called the
not claim to be able to observe the processes same things. Shall they then have discovered
they make theories about. Instead, they have the causes of human behavior or simply more
turned to brain science where, presumably, about what is behaving? The brain is part of
the processes can be observed in a better way. the body and what it does is part of what the
Watson took that step too, using physiologi- body does. Brain processes do not explain
cal data where behavioral data were lacking, behavior until they, too, have been explained.
To explain them, important questions
Thanks to Behaviorology and to the B. F. Skinner Foun-
must be answered: Where has the body as a
dation for the permission to reprint this article in the current whole, brain and all, come from? And why
issue of the European Journal of Behavior Analysis. does it change, as it does, from moment to
The article was originally published in the inaugural issue
of Behaviorology in 1993. moment? We cannot answer those questions
21
22 B. F. Skinner
by looking inside the body, no matter how by their reinforcing consequences become
complete the sciences of psychology and part of the repertoire of the individual. That
neurophysiology may be. is our world. What should we do about it?
Instead, we must look at three processes I am not too happy with much current
of variation and selection. 1. Natural selec- research. It seems to be still too often directed
tion explains the very existence of the spe- toward discovering what is happening in the
cies that behaves. 2. Operant conditioning mind/brain. Behavior analysts who claim to
explains how the individual changes from be studying the formation of concepts are in
moment to moment during its lifetime. 3. fact studying ways in which organisms come
The evolution of cultures explains the social under the control of subtle contingencies of
environments that account for a large part reinforcement. It is tempting to show that we
of what members of the human species can can handle the facts of cognitive psychology,
learn to do. Those three processes explain but in doing so we are likely to let cognitive
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not so much behavior as the structure that psychology dictate the scope and strategy of
behaves, a structure that has never been our research.
properly observed introspectively, but will I was influenced in my early research by
eventually be known in a different way a textbook on thermodynamics, things like
through biology and biochemistry. the Gas Laws, Willard Gibb’s Phase Rule, and
The process of variation and selection was Carnot’s Cycle–in other words, interrelation-
discovered very late in the history of human ships among variables. I’d like to see more
thought. Until recently, it played no part in of that sort of thing done with behavioral
philosophy. Psychologists like James and variables. An experiment I did years ago was
Thorndike were influenced by evolutionary an example; it showed how extinction curves
theory, but never succeeded in applying changed when the level of deprivation was
variation and selection to the behavior of changed.
the individual. Herbert Spencer’s “survival There are many unsolved puzzles in
of the fittest” was a partial anticipation of the experimental analysis of behavior, the
Darwin applied to the evolution of cultural further exploration of which would pay off
practices and almost immediately misap- handsomely. I reported one in The Behav-
plied. Strangely enough, brain science also ior of Organisms. My first experiments on
seems to neglect the origins of the structures discrimination began with a baseline under
it studies. It turns for its assignments to psy- fixed-interval reinforcement. When I turned
chological theories, especially those that have a light on just before preparing to reinforce a
long been embedded in everyday discourse. response, the rat continued to respond in the
Ethologists study behavior that can be presence of the light but responding slowly
traced to natural selection. Cultural anthro- extinguished in the dark. Discrimination
pology studies the evolution of the social en- was a process of extinction. But I also set up
vironments that vastly extend human behav- a discrimination without extinction. I rein-
ior beyond the scope of operant condition- forced the first response the rat made in the
ing. The “world of our own” in my title is the light, and then turned the light off. Possibly
field that lies between the two–the analysis of because of the change in the situation, the
the behavior of the individual. Selection of rat did not respond in the dark. Five minutes
behavior by its consequences was at the heart later I turned the light on again, reinforced
of Thorndike’s Law of Effect, but Thorndike the first response, and turned the light off.
never explored contingencies of variation Eventually, the rat responded whenever the
or selection. Operant conditioning is not light came on and never responded in the
trial-and-error or goal-directed behavior. dark. There was no extinction. But the rat
It is a process in which variations selected never responded to the light as quickly as
A World of Our Own 23
We should work with ethologists in analyz- have made the same mistake and have spent
ing the extraordinary interaction between a lot of time considering such a sentence
the two. Neuroscientists seem to be flattered as: “This sentence is false.” If it is true, it is
by the attention given them by cognitive false, and if it is false, it is true, but should
psychologists and many have themselves that curious fact really concern us? Could
emphasized the relevance of their work to the sentence ever have been uttered as verbal
ancient theories of psychology, but we have behavior? What sentence could the speaker
the kind of data needed if they are to show have been talking about? The sentence
how the body-cum-brain is affected by itself was not yet in existence. Are there
contingencies of reinforcement rather than really sentences, as Godel is said to have
by thoughts or feelings. Once they have ap- shown, that cannot be proved true or false?
preciated the value of the operant methodol- If so, under what circumstances could they
ogy, they are more likely to become allies in have been said? It is possible to compose
promoting behaviorism as the philosophy “sentences,” as linguists like Chomsky have
of such a science. What we have done in done, by moving words about as separate
pharmacology could be the pattern for the objects, but that is not behaving verbally,
other medical and biological sciences. and there is no point in considering what
I should like to see a closer association the “sentences” mean.
with the other so-called behavioral sciences– Philosophers are beginning to consider
sociology, economics, political science, and some of our problems, but they need help.
all the rest. Their data are almost exclusively Living things originate through variation
behavioral, if historical, but their formula- and selection. The contingencies of selec-
tions are still largely mentalistic. tion, lying in the past, tend to be spoken of
Education and therapy have never as if they were to occur in the future. Once
claimed to be behavioral sciences. It is harder an individual has come into existence, it
to show that the basic facts are behavioral shows the causality of physics and biochem-
and much harder to throw off mentalistic istry. The world of reasons is our world.
formulations. There are other ways in which we can help
We know how American schools could a philosopher. We know the difference be-
be redesigned, at no greater cost, to do the tween an act as an instance of behavior and
job they must do. It is extraordinary how an operant as a probability of behaving, a
few of the facts clearly established in the distinction that cannot be made by viewing
field of learning are familiar to the educa- behavior simply as process.
tional establishment. Equally extraordinary Human behavior is a fascinating subject,
is the extent to which those facts are used and that fact is not overlooked by the media.
24 B. F. Skinner
They talk about it, however, in ways that We have been accused of building our
are intelligible to those immersed in a lay own ghetto, of refusing to make contact
psychology. with other kinds of psychology. Rather than
Anything they might report in the same break out of the ghetto, I think we should
way about astronomy, physics, chemistry or strengthen its walls. No field of science has
biology would be attacked immediately, yet ever been more clearly defined than this
we let them get away with it. Newspapers world of ours. In no other world are there
and news weeklies report that “Chimpanzees more fascinating things to be explored. No
now tell us that they know more than we world has a greater potential for solving the
think,” that “Optimism helps the body’s problems that face the world today, above
defense system,” that “Brain science reveals all saving the planet Earth. Perhaps we have
how the mind has been designed,” and so drifted into this world too easily. I hope we
on. Letters to the editor might make a dif- shall now come under the control of its more
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The nature of behavior analysis, its place better off if it had started there rather than
among other disciplines and even its name within the biological sciences, so it may be
have been often debated. Does our field be- instructive to explore some of the critical his-
long in an academic or professional category torical landmarks of our history in the context
of its own? If so, what should it be called? of one possible alternate history.
If not, which departments should house it? The field has been called behavior analysis
These have been perennial questions. What or the analysis of behavior, but that label gives
follows from the answers to these questions short shrift to the synthesis that occurs when
may determine whether the field retains a sta- new behavior is generated by the application
tus that continues to draw the students who of its principles. Names of parent disciplines
make up its future generations and whether such as biology or psychology are inad-
it can maintain the resources to educate them equate. Terms derived from the Greek such
adequately. What parts of the field should as διαγωγή (diagogí, as conduct or behavior)
constitute its common core and which ancil- or συμπεριφορά (symperiforá, as behavior
lary disciplines should be cultivated? How or movement or attitude) or πραξισ (praxis,
should its basic and its applied dimensions as action) have not gained much traction, nor
be balanced? have terms derived from other languages. Be-
We are all familiar with our history, as haviorology has not taken hold, at least in part
our field emerged from and was sustained by because it jars with its unusual combination
the biological sciences and medicine instead of respective Latin and Greek roots.
of psychology. It is difficult to take seriously It has become more widely accepted that
the suggestion that psychology, under any behavior is fundamental to biology: the mem-
conceivable set of historical contingencies, bers of species survive based on the behavior
could have provided an appropriate scientific of which they are capable. They do not last
environment to nurture its growth. But some if they cannot capture prey and avoid preda-
have speculated that our field would have been tors and locate mates and so on. All of their
organ systems evolved in the service of that
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
behavior. That is why behavioral biology has
dressed to Charles Catania at catania@umbc.edu such a secure place within the larger discipline.
25
26 Commentaries and Replies
Growing ties with the neurosciences have Biology had strong precedents for deriving
been promising and the linkage with anato- principles from research on individual spe-
my as in the behavioral and brain sciences is cies (e.g., Pavlov, 1927; Sherrington, 1906),
valuable, but while we recognize our biologi- but had Skinner conducted his research
cal roots we must also be aware of and beware within psychology it might well have been
of the inclination to look for the causes of regarded merely as an intensive study of the
behavior in nervous systems rather than in behavior of the white rat.
environments. Skinner was of course strongly influenced
These debates make it appropriate to re- by John B. Watson, a psychologist, and
consider our history. Given the strong status by Bertrand Russell, a philosopher. But
of our discipline in these difficult times, it is though Ivan P. Pavlov, one of his scientific
hard to imagine what our situation would heroes, was adopted by the early psycholo-
have been like if just a very few things had gists of learning, Pavlov himself was after all
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gone differently in our earliest years. Our a physiologist. Some of Skinner’s earliest
history seems so powerfully determined that research was in physiology, with Crozier
some may find some suggested alternate and others, so the direction that he took
scenarios too far-fetched. should not surprise us. If Skinner had gone
For example, Hamilton College had on in psychology, he perhaps would have
given Skinner a solid background in science, had even more contact with his long-time
though he was almost diverted by poetry friend and colleague, Fred S. Keller, who did
and creative writing. But what would have his doctoral work in that department. But
happened if, instead of completing his doc- would psychology have provided him with
toral work in the Department of Biology at the support and contacts and exposure that
Harvard University, he had followed through would later be so critical in making behavior
on his initial plan to pursue his studies in the analysis a vital component of the biological
Department of Psychology? Animal research sciences?
would have been acceptable in that depart- The second world war interrupted Skin-
ment, but how nurturing an environment ner’s academic endeavors, but a major fringe
would it have been? benefit was the discovery of shaping in the
We still celebrate Skinner’s early work course of his project on using pigeons to
with rats, which was conducted in a small guide drones to enemy targets (Skinner,
area assigned to him in the Museum of 1960). The analogy between selection at the
Comparative Zoology and which he was level of organisms within species and selec-
able to extend when his appointment as a tion at the level of responses within operant
Junior Fellow allowed him to devote more classes was a fruitful one. Skinner’s extension
time and resources to it. The seminal book of the selection by consequences (Schneider,
that came out of that work, The Behavior of 2012) to behavior as it was passed on from
Organisms (Skinner, 1938), a fitting succes- one individual to another within cultures
sor to The Behavior of the Lower Organisms later provided the precedent for Dawkins’
(Jennings, 1906), provided a firm foundation concept of the meme (Dawkins, 1976). It
for subsequent developments of the field. was also the basis for the mutual support that
How different would it have been if instead he and E. O. Wilson (1975) gave each other
of adopting biological precedents he had when their respective approaches were chal-
been sidetracked by the prevalence within lenged later in their careers (Naour, 2009),
psychology of scientific practices modeled especially by Noam Chomsky, who did not
after physics and if he had sought laws of respond favorably to commentaries on his
behavior (e.g., Hull, 1943) instead of outlin- linguistics in a widely read book review by
ing a new taxonomy of behavioral processes? Skinner.
Commentaries and Replies 27
An early surprise came not long after the In light of Skinner’s earlier assessment of
war, when Harvard extended to Skinner an Chomsky’s transformational grammar, that
invitation to present the William James lec- linguist attempted a critique of Skinner’s
tures. This was a precursor to his subsequent account. Given that he failed to address the
appointment to a permanent faculty posi- implications of evolutionary theory for his
tion. Decades later, when Skinner shared grammatical system and did not recognize
his Nobel Prize with Niko Tinbergen, he that Skinner’s functional account was es-
acknowledged in his acceptance speech the sentially orthogonal to linguistic structural-
significance of these events. Harvard’s Wil- ism, Chomsky’s critique did not fare well.
liam James invitation had earlier been of- Many concluded that he did not even regard
fered primarily to philosophers and psychol- language as an evolved system. He did
ogists, so inviting a natural scientist such inspire the emergence of psycholinguistics,
as Skinner set something of a precedent. and the subsequent cognitive revolution
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facilitated the founding of the Institute for It is fortunate that from its earliest days the
Behavioral Research (Brady, 2007)? teaching of general competencies such as
Another fortuitous event strengthened the study skills was regarded as more critical
position of our field within biology. Psychol- than the teaching of the details of specific
ogy departments began to move away from subject matters. Students who had pro-
their roots in experimental psychology. What gressed through these courses from elemen-
were once courses devoted to animal learning tary school on through high school became
and sensory processes and psychophysics soon independent learners and critical thinkers
became courses devoted almost exclusively to who no longer depended on programmed
statistics and hypothesis-testing experimental materials and who were well-prepared for
designs. In their new incarnation these cours- work at the college level.
es included method rather than substance. Education was just one of many new
Many undergraduate psychology majors behavioral technologies. Given the extensive
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moved on having had little contact with proliferation of behavior analytic services,
signal detection and other key develop- we now take for granted the central role of
ments in what was then called sensation and applications and the interaction of basic and
perception. applied aspects of our science. But it was
The stimulus in the three-term contin- not always so. As the research grew, it could
gency was a critical component of the science not be accommodated in existing biological
of behavior, so when the analysis of sensory journals, and so journals that could focus
processes turned more and more to integrat- more specifically on our discipline were
ing behavioral findings about vision and hear- founded. The Journal of the Experimental
ing and other senses with physiological and Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) was the first.
anatomical approaches, the incorporation of Inevitably submissions grew, and the applied
this field into behavioral biology was a natural work which had until then been included in
step (e.g., Blough, 1958; Catania & Kaas, JEAB found a home in The Journal of Applied
1997). It was not long before it expanded to Behavior Analysis (JABA). Distinctions that
include investigations of motor systems (e.g., had once been unimportant began to matter.
Knapp, Taub, & Berman, 1963), which were Many of our own early researchers did both
relevant to the response term of the three- basic and applied work, as was consistent
term contingency, and motivational systems with the contingencies that operated in
(e.g., Premack, 1962), which were relevant the interaction of biology departments and
to the consequence term. Behavior analysis medical schools and other academic units,
had established its territory. but with the rise of professional issues such as
Education also benefited from the bio- credentialing the two directions of the field
logical foundations of the field, which of- began to diverge. It is of interest that the
fered a cachet that eased the introduction of separation has reached the point where a few
behavioral principles into the classroom. The now take the dichotomization for granted
applications began with mechanical devices and encourage interaction by calling for
that Skinner called teaching machines, which more translational research, in which basic
soon began to be used not only in elemen- researchers explicitly seek out applications
tary schools but also in basic college courses of their findings.
such as Skinner’s own Natural Sciences 114 The field spread to many universities, at
at Harvard. With the advent of computer first mainly in the United States but even-
technology, so that large quantities of data tually throughout the world. Columbia
from individual learners could be handled, University and Indiana University were
teaching has gradually been transformed pioneers, but they were very soon joined
from an art into a science (Skinner, 1968). by many others too numerous to mention.
Commentaries and Replies 29
Associations expanded at local and national But we must be grateful to the parent dis-
and international levels. Soon organizations cipline that nurtured us, and in any case, as
devoted to specialized subareas spun off from this review has shown, we have grown too
their parents (e.g., developmental disabilities, large and too diversified to be managed in
behavior pediatrics, autism, organizational any single academic unit anyway.
behavior, workspace safety, animal training This has been only a very brief recapitula-
devoted to detection of landmines or of tion of the history of our field. Despite the
dangerous materials at airports–the list goes risk of important omissions, it is not feasible
on and on). Applied programs emerged at here to provide a more substantial overview.
many sites (e.g., the behavior program at the Though a more comprehensive treatment is
Kennedy-Krieger Institute), bringing training beyond the scope of the present account, a
to the postdoctoral level. As journals prolifer- work in progress with colleague Victor G.
ated and as the volume of research increased, Laties (The Evolution of a Science: A Brief
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these activities became international. The History of Behavior Analysis in the Twentieth
European Journal of Behavior Analysis is one Century) will later fill in more details of the
important example. story.
In a few instances, departments in other
disciplines, and especially in psychology, em- References
braced the science of behavior, and created
programs that supplemented those within Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1968). The
biology. In Brazil, for example, Fred Keller token economy. New York, NY: Appleton
established a behavioral program within a Century-Crofts.
department of psychology that was created Ayllon, T., & Michael, J. (1959). The psy-
in the new university at Brasilia. In Norway, chiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer.
Sagvolden brought converging approaches to Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
the study of ADHD by creating a network Behavior, 2, 323–334.
of researchers whose collaboration crossed Blough, D. S. (1958). A method for ob-
departmental lines and ranged from neuro- taining psychophysical thresholds from
cellular processes to sociological aspects of the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental
parenting in different cultures. Elsewhere Analysis of Behavior, 1, 31–43.
in Europe, behavioral institutes sprang up in Brady, J. V. (2007). Behavior analysis in the
many settings: Wales, Belgium, Italy, Spain, space age. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8,
Poland, to mention only a few. In Japan, 398–412.
Sato and his colleagues initiated programs in Carroll, S. B. (2005). Endless forms most
several universities and founded behavioral or- beautiful: The new science of evo devo. New
ganizations and journals. The list could go on. York, NY: Norton.
Some have questioned whether our Catania, K. C., & Kaas, J. H. (1997). The
field has been disadvantaged by virtue of mole nose instructs the brain. Somatosen-
its status as a mere component of biology. sory and Motor Research, 14, 56–58.
They have suggested that it should divorce Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by
itself from its parent discipline and become means of natural selection. London, United
an independent department, so that it will Kingdom: Murray.
have more control over its activities and Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man. Lon-
over professional issues. In connection don, United Kingdom: Murray.
with that proposal they have even proposed Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. New
different names for the enterprise. If the York, NY: Oxford University Press.
parent discipline had been psychology, that Dews, P. B. (1958). Analysis of effects of
would of course have been a different story. psychopharmacological agents in behav-
30 Commentaries and Replies
The purpose of this special section was leave not doubting that the parent disci-
to respond to the issue, “Should we put pline of behavior analysis is biology and not
more effort into refined approaches aiming psychology—a theme that clearly emerges
to reform psychology–or should we separate in “The Ulman-Skinner letters” (Ulman,
and proclaim the natural science of behavior 1993/2014) and in Skinner’s “A world of our
as a discipline distinct from psychology”? A. own” (1993/2014). Surprisingly, Catania
Charles Catania apparently takes on this ques- neither references nor even mentions these
tion forcefully, with nothing less than a “very two works—notwithstanding the instructions
brief recapitulation of the [alternate] history given to the invited contributors.
of our field,” which is in fact three times as Why this is so becomes clear at the end of
long as commentators’ instructions called for. his “commentary”; the last paragraph provid-
A natural scientist reading this review would ed a succinct statement of what it’s all about:
Commentaries and Replies 31
“This has been only a very brief recapitulation his objection to the word “behaviorology”
of the history of our field . . . it is not feasible when I pointed out—and provided ex-
here to provide a more substantial overview amples—that many words combined Latin
. . . though a work is in progress with col-
league Victor G. Laties (The Evolution of a and Greek roots.‘ ”
Science: A Brief History of Behavior Analysis in It should be apparent that nothing more
the Twentieth Century) will later fill in more needs to be said about the supposed jar-
details of the story.” ring effect of an “unusual combination of
respective Latin and Greek roots.” (Note
What we have here, then, is basically a the etymology of the term terminology.) I
prospectus for this ongoing work. would think that Catania could provide
Catania’s commentary misses the mark an objection to “behaviorology” with a bit
in neglecting to follow this specific instruc- more substance. On the other hand, with
tion: “Using your professional judgment as due regard for Catania’s sketch of his and
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you select the basis for your comments, you Laties’ book in progress, it holds promise of
may want to comment on particular issues serving Skinnerian science well by fortifying
raised in one or both articles.” Catania raises its biological foundation. I would certainly
only one lone issue: his dissatisfaction with want to add such a book to my professional
the term behaviorology. Giving this term library.
short shift, he then proceeds with a very
weak criticism: “Behaviorology has not References
taken hold, at least in part because it jars
with its unusual combination of respective Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
Latin and Greek roots.” From a conversa- European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
tion he had with Skinner, Ernest Vargas 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
(personal communication) shared with me 1993, 1, 1–5).
a cogent retort to such an assertion when Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman–Skinner
“Fred made the comment about the hybrid letters. European Journal of Behavior
nature of the term to me in conversation. Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
‘Fred at least had the good grace of dropping Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
32 Commentaries and Replies
We have been accused of creating our own The resulting separation could hardly be more
ghetto.... Rather than break out of the ghetto, I stark, with Behavior Analysts and mainstream
think we should strengthen its walls. (Skinner, Psychologists participating in each others’
2014, p. 24)
professional organizations and journals to a
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1969) and choice processes (Critchfield, Pal- (e.g., Gray, Stafford, & Tallman, 1991; Gray
etz, MacAleese, & Newland, 2003; Deluty, & Tallman, 1987; Stafford, Gray, Menke,
1976; de Villiers, 1980), neither is universally & Ward, 1986; Tallman & Gray, 1990).
embraced and theory development has been Unfortunately, we are aware of no published
constrained by a lack of new data. Behav- attempts by Behavior Analysts to test the
ior Analytic research on punishment was relevant models or integrate their underlying
common prior to approximately the 1970s assumptions into Behavior Analytic theory.
but became rare thereafter (Critchfield & A potentially greater oversight concerns
Rasmussen, 2007). All told, in their efforts evidence regarding the neural correlates of
to develop theory by reference to traditional punishment effects. Skinner (1966) once
operant experiments, “Behavior Analysts be- argued that neuroscience was too immature
ing Behavior Analysts” have not succeeded to guide a science of behavior. Some half a
in determining how punishment works at its century later, however, neuroscience has made
most fundamental level. considerable progress–its punishment litera-
In light of this decades-long theoretical ture now dwarfs that produced by Behavior
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stalemate, it would seem reasonable to seek Analysts during the past 50 years -- and a
out additional evidence about punishment second look might be merited. Neuroscience
that might spur theory development. The Be- evidence largely supports Behavior Analytic
havior Analysis literature, however, contains definitions of consequences, with distinctive
few references to punishment research and neural activity associated with the occurrence
theory originating elsewhere. For example, and omission of appetitive and aversive events
reviews of the mainstream Psychology lit- (positive and negative reinforcement and
erature suggest that, in general, “bad events” punishment, respectively), and the magnitude
have psychologically more potent effects than of the neural changes correlates with the mag-
“good events (e.g., Baumeister, Bratslavsky, nitude, certainty of occurrence, and delay of
Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001). Assuming a ten- the consequence (Singer, Seymour, & Dolan,
dency for punishers to be “bad events” and 2007). Importantly, however, it appears that
positive reinforcers to be “good events,” this nonidentical neural circuits form through
suggests that a single punisher should sup- and mediate reinforcement and punishment
press behavior more than a single reinforcer (e.g., Paton & Louie, 2012; Singer, et al.,
increases its probability. Yet despite the fact 2007; Wachter, Lungu, Liu, Willingham,
that Behavior Analysts (e.g., Skinner, 1953) & Ashe, 2009), which could raise questions
have speculated on the relative efficacy of re- about the one-factor theoretical assumption
inforcers and punishers, little contemporary that reinforcement and punishment are part
operant research of which we are aware has of a unitary process.
directly examined this possibility (e.g., see Supporting traditional Behavior Ana-
Critchfield, et al., 2003; Magoon & Critch- lytic assumptions, neuroscience data sug-
field, 2008; Rasmussen & Newland, 2008). gest that behavior acquisition occurs more
Relevant to attempts to integrate pun- rapidly with positive reinforcement of “cor-
ishment theories with quantitative models rect” behavior than positive punishment of
of choice, a group of social psychologists “incorrect” behavior. However, in possible
has for many years been developing choice- contrast with Behavior Analytic assumptions,
based punishment models that are explicitly under some circumstances errors decrease
influenced by the matching law but do not more quickly under positive punishment
fit neatly into the one-factor versus two-factor (Wachter, et al., 2009). Neuroscience data
dichotomy. In some empirical tests, these al- also shed light on counterintuitive situations
ternative models have outperformed models in which outcomes that normally function
based on one-factor and two-factor theories as punishment appear to strengthen the be-
34 Commentaries and Replies
havior they follow (Seymour, et al., 2007). deserve to be carefully considered in creating
Overall, neuroscience has produced much applied guidelines for the use of punishment.
food for thought about punishment mecha- However, very little of the evidence surveyed
nisms, but we are not aware of systematic in these reviews is cited in Behavior Analysis
attempts to update Behavior Analytic theories sources (Critchfield, 2014).
based on neuroscience findings. Whether justified or overblown, cautions
about the deleterious effects of punishment
Application derive mainly from studies of individual
Since basic science helps to establish the behavior. A sizeable body of mainstream Psy-
course of application, it is worth briefly con- chology research focusing on inter-individual
sidering the status of knowledge about using cooperation suggests that punishment may
punishment in applied domains. In an exten- play a critical role in promoting desirable
sive literature review, Lerman and Vorndran social relations. In brief, researchers have
(2002) concluded -- not surprisingly given the found that cooperation is somewhat unreli-
state of basic theory on punishment -- that, able in situations involving only positive re-
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“current knowledge about basic processes is inforcement but increases in frequency when
insufficient for translation to application.” uncooperative behaviors are punished (e.g.,
(p. 456). Gintis, 2008; Gurek, Irlenbusch, & Rocken-
One important concern in applying bach, 2006; for a nontechnical introduction
punishment to everyday problems is that it to this so-called “altruistic punishment,” see
supposedly causes undesirable side effects Critchfield 2014).
(e.g., Sidman, 2000; Skinner, 1953), includ- Neuroscience evidence broadly supports
ing antisocial behaviors (e.g., aggression) behavioral observations by suggesting that
and damage to social relationships. Far from punishment may be more effective than
certain, however, is the external validity of the reinforcement in maintaining adherence to
supporting laboratory evidence, which was social norms or rules, including those govern-
obtained mainly from experiments that were ing cooperation (e.g., Seymour, et al., 2007).
not designed with translational questions in The preceding addresses the effects of pun-
mind (e.g., Cipani, 2004; Critchfield, 2014). ishment on social behavior. Neuroimaging
As Lerman & Vorndran (2002) observed, it studies appear to shed light on the tendency
is currently hard to tell “which findings with of “bystanders” to punish others’ antisocial
nonhumans and response-contingent electric behavior: Neuroanatomical structures that
shock can be extrapolated to the treatment activate when an individual experiences re-
of behavior disorders in clinical populations” inforcement also activate when an individual
(p. 456). delivers punishment to another person con-
Under the circumstances, evidence from tingent on violations of cooperative standards
any quarter that might clarify the role of pun- (de Quervain, Fischmacher, Schellhammer,
ishment in everyday settings might be valued. Schnyder, Buck, & Fehr, 2004). Perhaps not
It is striking, therefore, that the Behavior surprisingly, the tendency to punish social
Analysis literature makes little reference to norm violations appears to be fairly consistent
recent large-scale literature reviews on the use across cultures, whereas other uses of punish-
of mild corporal punishment in child rearing ment vary in frequency across cultures (Her-
(Gershoff, 2002; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005; rmann, Thoni, & Gachter, 2008).
Paolucci & Violato, 2004), which do not While the relevant effects are complicated
point to the dramatic sorts of adverse effects (e.g., Balliet, Mulder, & Van Lange, 2011),
that Behavior Analysts might predict. Such one possible implication is that strategic
findings pose a challenge to those who sug- interpersonal use of punishment helps to ce-
gest that punishment is universally toxic, and ment the many instances in which humans,
Commentaries and Replies 35
together, accomplish greater good than could Where punishment is concerned, at least one
be engineered by any one individual, which accomplishment can be definitively claimed:
in turn raises the fascinating possibility that Behavior Analysts have managed to avoid
punishment could play a useful role in inter- engaging with mainstream Psychology to a
ventions to teach social behaviors. We are, large extent. Table 1 illustrates by showing the
however, aware of no systematic attempts to number of times Behavior Analysis sources
integrate mainstream cooperation research cited selected mainstream Psychology articles
into basic Behavior Analytic theory or Applied addressing aspects of the punishment process
Behavior Analysis. that were mentioned in the present essay. The
table suggests that mainstream Psychology
Concluding Comments has almost no contemporary influence on
Behavior Analysis. Score one for the separat-
It has been said that, instead of engag- ist movement.
ing with mainstream Psychology, Behavior The years since Behavior Analysts began dis-
Analysts “have much more useful things tancing themselves from mainstream Psychol-
toTable 1
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do; namely, to advance the [science of ogy have produced few noteworthy advances
Influence of some mainstream Psychology punishment sources on Behavior Analysis
behavior] in all of its facets–philosophical, in punishment theory and have left Applied
journal articles. Citations of selected mainstream publications by Behavior Analysis
analytical, experimental, and technologi- Behavior Analysts at a loss for translational
articles were determined through a Google Scholar search conducted on June 16, 2014.
cal–and, most importantly, disseminate our guidance regarding the use of punishment
The table excludes the citations of mainstream Psychology sources on the present
successes to the public” (Ulman, 2014, p. 18). interventions (Lerman & Vorndran, 2002).
authors’ own work. “Behavior Analysis articles” are defined as those appearing in
journals featuring primarily Behavior Analysis content. JABA = Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis; JEAB = Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior.
Table 1. Influence of Some Mainstream Psychology Punishment Sources on Behavior Analysis Journal Articles.
Mainstream Punishment Publications
Adverse effects Role of Quantitative Neural
of corporal punishment in models of activation
punishment cooperation punishment during
(Gershoff, 2002) (Gurek et al., (Various*) punishment
2006) (de Quervain,
et al., 2008)
Total times the 1172 490 135 1277
article was cited
Times cited in 2 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
Behavior Analysis
articles (% of total
citations)
JABA 1 0 0 0
JEAB 0 0 0 0
Other Behavior 1 0 0 0
Analysis journals
* Gray, et al. (1991); Gray & Tallman (1987); Stafford, et al., 1990; Tallman & Gray
(1990)
Note. Citations of selected mainstream publications by Behavior Analysis articles were determined
through a Google Scholar search conducted on June 16, 2014. The table excludes the citations of
mainstream Psychology sources on the present authors’ own work. “Behavior Analysis articles”
are defined as those appearing in journals featuring primarily Behavior Analysis content. JABA =
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis; JEAB = Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior.
Influence of Behavior Analysis articles on mainstream Psychology punishment
publications. Sources cited were determined from the References section of the target
articles. “Behavior Analysis articles”
36 are defined
Commentaries as those appearing in journals
and Replies
featuring primarily Behavior Analysis content. JABA = Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis;
Table JEAB =ofJournal
2. Influence BehaviorofAnalysis
the Experimental Analysis of
Articles on Mainstream Behavior.
Psychology Punishment Publications.
Mainstream Punishment Publications
Adverse effects Role of Quantitative Neural
of corporal punishment in models of activation
punishment cooperation punishment during
(Gershoff, 2002) (Gurek, et al., (Various*) punishment
2006) (de Quervain,
et al., 2008)
Total sources cited 477 30 244 41
Total Behavior 1 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 29 (11.9%) 0 (0.0%)
Analysis articles
cited (% of total
sources)
JABA 0 0 0 0
JEAB 1 0 29 0
Other Behavior 0 0 0 0
Analysis journals
Downloaded by [UNSW Library] at 12:50 17 August 2015
* Gray, et al. (1991); Gray & Tallman (1987); Stafford, et al., 1990; Tallman & Gray
(1990)
Note. Sources cited were determined from the References section of the target articles. “Behavior
Analysis articles” are defined as those appearing in journals featuring primarily Behavior Analysis
content. JABA = Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis; JEAB = Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior.
then regular dissemination through main- intellectual alliances, can bring enough to
stream mechanisms seems unlikely. the table of scholarly discourse to appeal to a
Behavior Analysis once incorporated a potential disciplinary partner like mainstream
robust empirical focus on punishment and Psychology.
other aversive control phenomena. The pe-
riod in which independent Behavior Analysis References
institutions began to emerge (late 1950s
to early 1980s) is the very period in which Balliet, D., Mulder, L. B., & Van Lange, P.
aversive control research in Behavior Analysis A. M. (2011). Reward, punishment, and
virtually ceased (e.g., Critchfield & Rasmus- cooperation: A meta-analysis. Psychological
sen, 2007). Regarding this correlation, one Bulletin, 137, 594–615.
thing can be asserted with confidence: For Bjork, D. W. (1997). B.F. Skinner: A life.
too long “Behavior Analysts being Behavior Washington, DC: APA Books.
Analysts” have ignored a critical component Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer,
of their own subject matter, while mainstream C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger
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Psychologists have continued the important than good. Review of General Psychology,
mission of investigating of punishment and 5, 323–370.
related phenomena. Cipani, E. (2004). Punishment on trial: A re-
Science is measured both by its products source guide to child discipline. Reno, NV:
(how well it advances theory, application, Context Press.
and dissemination; Ulman, 1993/2014) and Coryat, T. (1611). Coryat’s crudities, Vol. 1.
its process (how flexibly and energetically it Glasgow, United Kingdom: MacLehose
seeks out insights relevant to topics of choice). and Sons. Retrived from https://archive.
The present discussion of punishment finds org/details/coryatscrudities01coryuoft
contemporary Behavior Analysis wanting on Critchfield, T. S., & Rassmussen, E.R. (2007).
both fronts, bringing into unexpected focus It’s aversive to have an incomplete science
the Skinner (1993/2014) quote that began of behavior. Mexican Journal of Behavior
this essay. Skinner wrote of Behavior Analysts Analysis, 33, 1–5.
creating their own “ghetto” (p. 24), a term Critchfield, T. S., Paletz, E. M., MacAleese,
that denotes an area housing a minority group K. R., & Newland, M.C. (2003). Punish-
and strongly connotes impoverished living ment in human choice: Direct or competi-
conditions.1 Based on the present survey, tive suppression? Journal of the Experimen-
“impoverished” seems as good a word as any tal Analysis of Behavior, 80, 1–27.
to describe Behavior Analytic punishment Critchfield, T. S. (2014). Skeptic’s Corner:
science. In the days since Behavior Analysis Punishment – Destructive force or valu-
began formally separating from Psychology, its able social “adhesive”? Behavior Analysis in
adherents have done too little to advance their Practice, 7, 36-44.
own interests and have shown an unsettling Deluty, M. Z. (1976). Choice and the rate
lack of curiosity about mainstream Psychol- of punishment in concurrent schedules.
ogy’s relevant scholarly accomplishments, thus Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
illustrating how the debate about separation Behavior, 25, 75–80.
of Behavior Analysis and Psychology may de Villiers, P. A. (1980). Toward a quantitative
have been misconstrued. In our view, the theory of punishment. Journal of the Ex-
concern is not whether Psychology qualifies perimental Analysis of Behavior, 33, 15–25.
as a worthwhile disciplinary partner. Rather, Dinsmoor, J. A. (1954). Punishment I: The
following years of potentially damaging isola- avoidance hypothesis. Psychological Review,
tion, one wonders whether Behavior Analysts, 61, 34–46.
should they choose to pursue interdisciplinary Dinsmoor, J. A. (1998). Punishment. In W.T.
38 Commentaries and Replies
O’Donohue (Ed.), Learning and behavior Paton, J. J., & Louie, K. (2012). Reinforce-
therapy (pp. 188–204). Needham Heights, ment and punishment illuminated. Nature
MA: Allyn & Bacon. Neuroscience, 15, 807–809.
Gershoff, E.T. (2002). Corporal punishment Rachlin, H., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1969). He-
by parents and associated child behaviors donism revisited: On the negative law of
and experiences: A meta-analytic and effect. In B.A. Campbell & R.M. Church
theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, (Eds.), Punishment and aversive behavior
128, 539–579. (pp. 83–109). New York, NY: Appleton-
Gintis, H. (2008). Punishment and coopera- Century-Crofts.
tion. Science, 319, 1345–1346. Rasmussen, E. B., & Newland, M. C. (2008).
Gray, L. N., Stafford, M. C., & Tallman, Asymmetry of reinforcement and pun-
I. (1991). Rewards and punishments in ishment in human choice. Journal of the
complex human choices. Social Psychology Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 89,
Quarterly, 54, 318–329. 157–167.
Gray, L. N., & Tallman, I. (1987). Theories Sidman, M. (2000). Coercion and its fallout
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of sanctioning institutions. Science, 312, eny of behavior. Science, 153, 1205–1213.
108–111. Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
Larzelere, R. E., & Kuhn, B. R. (2005). European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
Comparing child outcomes of physical 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
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behavior disorders. Journal of Applied decisions, and problem-solving. Annual
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Magoon, M. A., & Critchfield, T. S. (2008). Thorndike, E. L. (1913). Educational psychol-
Concurrent schedules of positive and neg- ogy, Vol. 2: The fundamentals of learning.
ative reinforcement: Differential-impact New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
and differential-outcomes hypotheses. Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner let-
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of ters. European Journal of Behavior Analysis,
Behavior, 90, 1–22. 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
Mowrer, O. H. (1940). An experimental 1993, 1, 47–54).
analogue of “regression,” with incidental Vollmer, T.R. (2002). Punishment happens:
observations on “reaction formation.” A response to Lerman and Vorndran’s re-
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, view. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
35, 56–87. 35, 469–473.
Paolucci, E. O., & Violato, C. (2004). A me- Wachter, T., Lungu, O.V., Liu, T., Willing-
ta-analysis on the affective, cognitive, and ham, D.T., & Ashe, J. (2009). Differential
behavioral effects of corporal punishment. effect of reward and punishment on pro-
The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary cedural learning. Journal of Neuroscience,
and Applied, 138, 197–221. 29, 436–443.
Commentaries and Replies 39
and technological–and, most importantly, dis- and mental health,” however. My point is that
seminate our successes to the public” (Ulman, there’s nothing preventing behavior analysts
2014, p. 18). from searching through psychological journals
for pertinent articles. If doing so will help
Immediately following this quote, they behavior analysts advance research on the
state sardonically: “Where punishment is use of punishment in applied settings, I say:
concerned, at least one accomplishment can “Go for it!”
be definitively claimed: Behavior Analysts Likewise, whether or not a behavior analyst
have managed to avoid engaging with main- is a faculty member in a psychology depart-
stream Psychology to a large extent.” The ment, and a mainstream psychologist just so
implication here is clear—Ulman exhibits the happens to be doing research on punishment
same anti-psychology orientation as others that is relevant to the behavior analyst’s work,
who are responsible for behavior analysts not there should be no problem collaborating.
engaging with mainstream psychology. What More power to them! Furthermore, being a
Critchfield and Farmer-Dougan don’t do is behaviorologist does not mean that one is an
quote the preceding part of that paragraph anti-psychologist. Nothing I ever said about
from my letter: psychologists suggests that we should not col-
laborate with them if we find it helpful. And
In sum, as long as we remain within the I oppose comments that disparage psycholo-
church, for whatever reason, the longer we
must abide by its commandments, chief gists just because they’re psychologists (e.g., a
among which is an unquestioning respect for rabid behaviorists actually proposed making
the divinity of the psyche (or any of its cognate a bumper sticker that insult psychologists.
hypostases—mind, cognition, experience, However, I do have two major problems with
etc.). I feel that we can best move forward, not psychologists: (a) how they think/theorize,
by arguing with psychologists about what may
or may not be going on it in the black box; and (b) how they treat behavior analysts. We
writing letters to hostile, psyche-intoxicated are all familiar with the former—a repertoire
editors; nor playing no-win political games of explanatory fictions. What I mean by the
in psychology departments. We have done all latter pertains to department chairs’ mistreat-
of that for over 50 years and it has gotten us ment of behavior analysts, but also includes
nowhere. I say, psychologists made their own
metaphysical bed, now let them lie in it. (p. 18) what they say and write about us. For evidence
of such treatment, read some of the com-
There is no difficulty in locating a rel- mentaries in this issue. Generally speaking,
evant article on punishment appearing a given our anti-mentalism and opposition
40 Commentaries and Replies
A Marriage of Convenience
John W. Donahoe
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
Behavior analysis differs fundamentally ion—the true nature of the forms that pro-
from almost all of psychology. The central duced them. For mainstream psychology, the
difference is that behavior analysis is selec- true forms are entities such as memory and
tionist, not essentialist (Palmer & Donahoe, knowledge in cognitive psychology, habits
1992). That is, the object of study for be- and associations in learning, attitudes and
havior analysis is behavior itself whereas for traits in social psychology, and so on.
mainstream psychology behavior is merely Many specific differences arise from
a means for drawing inferences about pre- the selectionist-essentialist distinction.
sumed underlying structures and processes. First among them is that behavior analysis
For essentialist psychology, behavior is akin regards selection by reinforcement as the
to the shadows on the walls of Plato’s cave key insight into the origins of behavior.
that revealed—in partial and distorted fash- For behavior analysis the following anal-
ogy holds: Reinforcement is to behavior
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- analysis as natural selection is to evolution-
dressed to John W. Donahoe at Department of Psychological
and Brain Sciences, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts/ ary biology (Donahoe, 1983). Mainstream
Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003 or by email at jdonahoe@ psychology lacks overarching principles.
psych.umass.edu
Commentaries and Replies 41
In their stead, domain-specific inferred enti- unchanged: This allows reliability of infer-
ties are proposed of which behavior is the ence to be mistaken for validity of principle.
reflection. From the selectionist perspective, In short, although behavior analysis and
the population of variants upon which rein- mainstream psychology may address the same
forcement acts is the behavioral repertoire subject matter—the behavior of organisms—
of a single individual. From the essentialist their approaches are irreconcilably different.
perspective, the inferred entities are revealed
by averaging measures of performance across What to Do About Irreconcilable
groups of individuals. Individual differences Differences?
simply obscure the inferred entities. It is iron-
ic that mainstream psychology has adopted In spite of the far-reaching differences
methods appropriate for studying the effects between behavior analysis and mainstream
of natural selection--average measures of the psychology, I oppose trying to institutional-
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Bennett and Hacker, 2003). and memory: Was the cognitive revolution
a mistake? In D. E. Meyer & S. Kornblum
References (Eds.), Attention and performance XIV (pp.
358-391). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bennett, M. R., & Hacker, P. M. S. (2003). Palmer, D. C. & Donahoe, J. W. (1992). Es-
Philosophical foundations of neuroscience. sentialism and selectionism in cognitive
Malden, MA: Blackwell. science and behavior analysis. American
Bowler, P. J. (1983). The eclipse of Darwin- Psychologist, 47, 1344-1358.
ism. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New
University Press. York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Donahoe goes on to maintain that the Doing so has nothing to do with whether or
experimental analysis of behavior be situated not Skinnerian scientists and practitioners
within the appropriate academic environ- are housed in separate departments, in a
ment if the behavioral researcher is suffi- single department, or elsewhere. What does
ciently acquainted with another discipline matter is the extent of administrative power
such as neuropsychology, neuroscience, or that psychologists hold over behavior analysts
computer science. Moreover, he adds, it under them.
could be mutually advantageous if these dis- Donahoe appears not to appreciate how
ciplines worked with behavioral researchers bureaucratic power held by a department
who are interested in selectionism, replacing chair or higher-level administrator may not
the essentialism of mainstream psychology. be exercised in the best interest of behavioral
I would concur that such collaboration— faculty members or advancement of the be-
whether it’s with a psychologist who is willing havioral program. As an example (details of
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to set aside theorizing about homunculi or a which will not be disclosed): In a certain
neurobiologist interested in studying behav- college of education, a department chair ap-
ioral processes at the neuronal level—could pointed an influential faculty member as the
yield amazing results. Perhaps Donahoe is director of the graduate program in autism
generalizing from his personal experiences at and applied behavior analysis, even though
his university. Yet, he has not made a global that appointee was a psychologist with little
case for either separating from, or combining or no formal training in behavior analysis, let
with, psychologists in conducing behavioral alone not being a Board Certified Behavior
research. It should be apparent that condi- Analyst. It wasn’t very long thereafter that
tions might vary radically from one university there was a 30% drop in the number of
to another. online graduate students passing the BCAB
With regard to the purpose of the com- exam. QED.
mentaries, Donahoe apparently did not grasp In sum, Donahoe makes an excellent
the theme that the Ulman-Skinner letters case that the two sciences—psychology and
convey. My letters to Skinner expostulated Skinnerian science—are radically different
that attempts to reform psychology—to in conceptual framework such as essentialist
transform it into a natural science in which versus selectionist, experimental technique,
there were no supposed inner agencies postu- and the like and are irreconcilable. But he
lated to explain behavior—was a futile effort. ends up by stating that he opposes “trying to
Our time would be better spent advancing institutionalize their separation.” Too late!
the science of behavioral contingencies— There are already several departments of be-
what I prefer to call behaviorology—concep- havior analysis—institutionalized separation
tually, experimentally, and technologically. has already occurred.
44 Commentaries and Replies
As the natural sciences emerged, roughly had been made with respect to behavioral
between the 16th and 20th centuries, their phenomena. As an aspect of that accom-
advocates struggled to establish the natural modation, physics, chemistry, and biology
sciences as tolerated aspects of the culture, retreated into their own academic niche,
including the naturalistic philosophy that withdrawing as unthreateningly as possible
informed them—a substantial challenge from the sociopolitical stage while relying
insofar as those sciences from their outset on the growing utility of their products to
resulted in contradictions to the supersti- ensure their protection within the culture.
tious ideas that pervaded the culture. The The demarcation of objective and
fate of Giordano Bruno implied the kind of superstitious forms of inquiry remained
sociopolitical contingencies with which early sufficiently blurred for some superstitious
members of the natural science community people to remain in the organized natural
had to contend. Eventually, products of the sciences via an approach that has been
natural sciences proved so practical that those called “compartmentalization”. Their ob-
sciences became invaluable even to people jective scientific activities simply pertained
whose lives were much influenced by super- to issues that remained largely irrelevant
stitious alternatives to scientific objectivity. to the forces of organized superstition to
Over time the two sides tended philo- which their often more fundamental loyalty
sophically to purify their ranks, although pertained. As long as their professional
with only partial success. As the seperated scientific operations seemed to be without
the natural sciences and organized super- adverse implications for the superstitious
stition were increasingly recognized to be ideology that controlled other important
philosophically incompatible, and they aspects of their lives they could operate
eventually drifted into what amounted to comfortably within a scientific community
a kind of tacit compromise that emerged that tended to tolerate their presence with
as a natural characteristic of their troubled equanimity.
relation: Human behavior, as a phenom- However, when eventually, during the
enon, was more or less ceded to the forces first half of the 1900s, the natural science
of organized superstition, which had long community began to make progress toward
maintained a kind of cultural strangle-hold a natural science of behavior, an old if often
on it anyhow. That was an easy give-away latent and quite troublesome ethical issue
for the natural science community, insofar as began to be highlighted in an increasingly
up to the early 1900s, little scientific progress unavoidable way. Many individuals, who
were superstitious in some very fundamen-
tal ways that pertained to human behavior,
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Lawrence Fraley at lfraley@citlink.net had nevertheless been attempting to claim
Commentaries and Replies 45
natural science credentials in some non- control of the “social sciences,” in part by
behavioral field of inquiry. However, as a indorsing their preferred secular founda-
natural science of behavior emerged, such tional “science,” which, around the start of
people, while openly pursuing their own in- the twentieth century, began to emerge from
nocuous natural science specialization, were philosophy under the rubric of psychology.
more frequently revealed to be completely In academic institutions Psychology depart-
disrespectful of the work of natural science ments, located among the Social Sciences,
colleagues who were toiling in behavior- provided a foundational or basic “science”
related specializations. A question was thus for the forces of organized superstition and,
raised, in general, throughout the natural sci- within academia, remained somewhat isolat-
ence community: How are members of the ed from the existing natural sciences, which
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natural science community to regard the sci- typically were housed elsewhere on campus
entific and professional status of a colleague as part of a different administrative chain.
who lives a substantial aspect of his or her life A few decades later the fledgling Skinnerian
in superstitious disregard of the respectable science began to develop within psychology,
work of natural science colleagues in certain but with relatively few advocates it remained
other fields? …Or, what should be the status politically too weak to disrupt the scheme
within the natural science community in of the ongoing sociopolitical arrangement.
general, of a colleague who disrespectfully The physicists, chemists, and biolo-
rejects a whole behavioral field of natural gists, while enjoying their organization-
science in favor of some superstitiously in- ally protected isolation within academic
formed alternative that purports to account institutions, were mostly left alone merely
exclusively for behavioral phenomena? to grumble ineffectively about the “soft sci-
During the past century both sides ences,” a euphemistic phrase that connotes
have moved vigorously to consolidate their inferior intellectual quality.
respective cultural domains. Those natural Perhaps the most encompassing charac-
scientists who focus on behavior have moved teristic of the developing psychology field
aggressively on two fronts: The neural was its multidisciplinary inclusiveness, a
physiologists have worked, primarily at the characteristic that precluded disciplinary
analytical level of physics and chemistry, to integrity in that field. Within academic in-
explain how behavioral events occur within stitutions, where subject matter has tended
the bodies that mediate them, while another to trump personal philosophy, the typically
group of natural scientists, working from few philosophically objective naturalists
foundations adduced largely by B. F. Skin- who studied environment-behavior rela-
ner and operating primarily at a correlative tions were routinely relegated to those dis-
level of analysis, has explained in ever greater ciplinarily motley psychology departments.
detail why behavior occurs. Others, also with an interest in the “causes”
At the same time, the forces of organized of behavior, whose professional activities
superstition, operating with a substantial occurred under the control of superstitious
majority, have consolidated their grip on ideology and typically forming a substan-
human culture. Throughout the past cen- tial majority, were also placed within the
tury they have invested heavily in their own purview of psychology as fully credentialed
academic institutions, the curricula in which academics. In some cases they entertained
remain tightly controlled to insure their hew common secular versions of superstitious
to a prescribed unobjective ideology. In ad- foundations, the supernatural aspects of
dition, their largely successful infiltration of which went largely unnoticed (as when the
more secular educational institutions was ac- agential soul is replaced by an equally mysti-
complished by acquiring informal academic cal agential self ).
46 Commentaries and Replies
collection of theories that respectively are environment relations into transferring the
informed by diverse philosophies. Ongo- long-standing name of their field (behavior
ing scientific operations may be informed analysis) to organized psychology. Arguably,
by assumptions derived either mystically that label will not readily be returned to an
or objectively. But above all, a psychology independently organizing group of natural
department is a political instrument by scientists in any divorce settlement with psy-
which faculty members who operate ac- chology. After all, that name will be needed
cording to objectively informed science are for those behavior analysts whose allegiance
rather easily kept to a politically ineffective is too much to the cultural mainstream to
minority simply by allocating to them their deviate independently from its course and
“fair” number of the available positions, therefore will remain cautiously under the
which translates to “few.” This tactic is psychological yoke.
facilitated by relegating the natural science Genuine natural scientists of behavior/
of environment/behavior relations to the environment relations arguably should stop
status of “another psychological theory” the embarrassing the organized natural science
followers of which are then entitled to their community and move decisively away from
(small) place among all of the other resident psychology. They will be welcome to join
theorists. This kind of resolution tends to those who left years ago to establish a fully
be enforced by administrators at all levels. independent natural science field. With
In such settings of philosophical disparity, respect to academic affiliation, the natural
the objective arguments that characterize the science of behavior/environment relations
natural sciences remain ineffective insofar as belongs with the other natural sciences—an
that form of persuasion requires a common establishment from which it can serve as the
philosophical foundation. valid and comprehensive foundation for ap-
The field of psychology, in which some plied social sciences, which thereby would
natural scientists of behavior have long become worthy of that categorization.
Lawrence Fraley begins by placing the the struggle to establish the natural sciences
development of the natural sciences and within a culture imbrued with superstition.
their philosophical foundations within the This promising beginning suggests a discus-
context of cultural evolution. He alludes to sion of the conflicts between contemporary
Commentaries and Replies 47
psychology and the natural science of be- low church attendance, the great majority
havior. But then Fraley proceeds to mention of people continue to hold supernatural
organized superstition repeatedly, but with- beliefs (e.g., creationism)—especially in
out giving it much of an account—convey- the United States—irrespective of scientific
ing the impression of some kind of specter evidence to the contrary. With the growth
that stymies the development of the natural of capitalism and its ever-expanding drive
sciences. Just how this comes about is not for profits—and, hence, increased produc-
mentioned. Conversely, he discusses con- tivity—the development of the natural
comitant advances in the natural sciences sciences continues to accelerate. And
and their guiding philosophical precepts. concurrently, the social sciences continue
The nature of the culture remains an empty to expand; largely, they help maintain the
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abstraction. The focus of this review is to status quo (e.g., clinical psychology sees
suggest some content to fill in this abstrac- mental illness largely as a disease rather than
tion, something beyond a vague “organized a dysfunctional social system.
superstition.” Like intelligent-design creationism and
In general, Fraley’s account of the Darwinian theory, the gulf between psy-
cultural evolution of the natural sciences chology and behavior analysis/behaviorol-
leaves out their common ground: the ma- ogy remains unbridgeable. For psychology,
terial conception of the world, an evolving it is an agency (whether called person, self,
conception that goes back to the ancient ego, or any such) with its attendant features
Greeks—richly expressed in the epic poem of mind, consciousness, intentions, and so
The Nature of the Universe by the Ro- on. For behaviorology, our subject matter
man poet and philosopher, Lucretius, in is the contingent relations between proper-
50 BCE. The conflicting coexistence of ties of actions and other events. So what
organized superstitions are not free float- are the basic differences? Examples help.
ing entities within an evolving culture, but Here is one that Phillip Hineline (1984)
part of an ideology that supports control found: “For cognitivists, functional rela-
exercised by the rulers of given society, tions between environment and behavior
the antithesis of which is the materialistic are not explanatory. No amount of order
philosophies emerging from the develop- among observables will satisfy the desire to
ment of the natural sciences. In short, discover internal processes, through which
the age-old struggle between materialistic the environment influences behavior (Wes-
and idealistic philosophical perspectives. sells, 1982, p.75)” (p. 98). Wessells argues
Marxist materialistic dialectics has an apt that just as investigations of the relation-
term for this struggle: the interpenetration ships between physiology and behavior are
of opposites. In this case it is the ongoing complementary undertakings, so are those
conflict between organized superstition and between psychology that supposedly un-
knowledge of the real world illuminated by derlie behavior—both are presumed to be
scientific advancements. distinctly complimentary. Hineline refutes
Consider the greatest transformation of this claim without question: “When inter-
the means of production in human history, preting within one rubric, one is not inter-
the sanguinary change from feudal to bour- preting within the other” (p. 98). While
geois society—from the dominance of the this obscurantism expands, the character
Catholic Church through the middle ages, of the natural sciences becomes more and
followed by the Renaissance and Protestant more compelling—and the divide deepens.
Reformation, to the capitalist society to the To conclude, within the community
present day. Still notwithstanding the explo- of behavior analysts there are a variety of
sion of scientific knowledge, and in spite of philosophies that purport to be the one
48 Commentaries and Replies
and only valid guide for the science that terialistic and selectionistic (contra mecha-
Skinner launched. In reality, it’s a hodge- nistic) behaviorism. However, an adequate
podge of contradictions, beginning with explication of behavioral materialism—the
Willard Day’s (Leigland, 1992) argument name of the scientific philosophy that guides
that the foundational philosophy underly- behaviorology—must await another time.
ing Skinner’s science is pragmatism. The big
ideological advantage of pragmatism is that References
only practical consequences count regardless
of the objective reality. At the other extreme Hineline, P. N. (1984). Can a statement in
is mechanistic version of radical behavior- cognitive terms be a behavior-analytic
ism, essentially a contemporary version of interpretation? The Behavior Analyst, 7,
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In the subtitle of that book, Skinner identi- probably guaranteed that the name behavior
fied the method of his science as experimental analysis would be used to cover all work in
analysis. Following publication of the book, a the Skinnerian tradition: basic research, ap-
number of young experimental psychologists plied research, philosophy of that science,
gravitated to Skinner’s science of behavior–at scientific interpretation, history of the field,
first, mostly at Teachers College, Columbia and interventions based on operant research.
University (Keller, 1986). They were soon The annual gathering of people with this
called operant psychologists to distinguish broad range of interests, having in common a
them from the majority of experimental psy- commitment to Skinner’s science, suggested
chologists and their subfield became known to many that a new discipline was being born.
among psychologists in general as operant Indeed, Nathan Azrin said as much in his 1975
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ing Skinnerian-style research and spawning standards have been revised and improved
Skinnerian-style technologies. Ulman’s view since that time. From the perspective of this
was that psychology was never going to be a writer, a well-established accreditation process
natural science so if Skinnerian style research may be the best way to insure behavior analysis
and technologies were going to thrive, they continues its march toward disciplinary status
would only do so by distinguishing themselves in higher education.
from psychology. A few universities have established Depart-
The second component of the debate ments of Behavior Analysis, which may be
pertained to the realities of academia. Most the beginnings of the academy’s recognition
Skinnerians had appointments in psychology of behavior analysis as a discipline. It must
departments and that is where most of the ex- be said that institutional resistance to new
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perimental analysis of behavior was conducted. disciplines in general, and perhaps to behavior
Faculty were obtaining research funding under analysis in particular, means that opportunities
the name of “psychology” and applied work to establish such departments may be few, at
derived from behavior principles was ongoing least in the near future. However, opportu-
in various “subfields” of psychology (clinical, nities do arise and awareness (or creation) of
educational, etc.). In short, the Skinnerian them requires openness to the possibilities.
program was being kept alive mostly by psy- There will likely be fewer such opportunities
chologists, and psychology departments were in the conservative bastions of Tier 1 univer-
the academic homes of most of them. Skin- sities than in institutions with less to lose by
ner’s points in Ulman (1993/2014) recognized investing in controversial upstarts.
these realities.
A Path Forward
Academic Homes for Behavior Analysis
Circa 2014 In the 1993/2014 posthumous publica-
tion, Skinner declared his acceptance that
Although behavior analysis has features of a psychology was not going to be “made
coherent discipline, it is a long way from being over”. His solution was to reverse course:
recognized as such in higher education. Rather “We have been accused of building our
than having a home of its own in academia, own ghetto, of refusing to make contact
parts of the discipline have been adopted by with other kinds of psychology. Rather than
a variety of other academic homes including break out of the ghetto, I believe we should
education, clinical psychology, behavioral strengthen its walls” (p. 24). Note that he
medicine, social work, rehabilitation, and still refers to “other kinds of psychology.”
special education. On the positive side, this Earlier in the same paper, he recommended
has the effect of increasing the number of “a closer engagement with the other so-called
graduates with at least rudimentary knowledge behavioral sciences–sociology, economics,
of behavior analysis. On the negative side, political science, and all the rest” (p.23). It is
the drift that Ulman already saw in 1993 hard to believe that Skinner imagined any of
may continue in this potpourri of academic those “other behavioral sciences” were more
homes until nothing but the name of behavior likely to be made over than psychology was.
analysis remains. As he pointed out, “Their formulations are
One way to nudge self-identified behavior still largely mentalistic” (p.23). Wasn’t that the
analysis programs to offer a disciplinary curric- problem he (and Ulman and behavior analysts
ulum is to develop criteria for such programs. in general) had with psychology?
The Association for Behavior Analysis be- I think that the solution to the problem
gan such a program in 1993 by establishing of how (and whether) to engage with non-
minimal accreditation standards, and those behavior analysts is to seek relations with
Commentaries and Replies 51
that go back to the ancient Greeks (Novack, creating one of these exceptions: the Depart-
1965). When we refer to Skinnerian science ment of Behavior Analysis at the University
as a natural science, it implies that it is a of North Texas—one of a very few such
materialistic science; whereas, because of its departments in the world (fewer than fingers
inherent agencyism (behavior under the con- on my left hand). Although the program
trol of hypothetical homunculi), mainstream includes a course in the experimental analysis
psychology is an idealistic science (“science” of behavior, I didn’t find mention of operant
in the sense of its methodologies). lab experience—due most likely to a lack of
Suggestion: Return to Glenn’s commentary funding; unfortunately, an endemic problem
now and try reading it from the foregoing that is chronic across graduate program in
standpoint. Doing so should clarify the behavior analysis. In my doctoral program I
“behind the scene” role these two perpetually had the good fortune of having this operant
clashing ideologies exhibit, the psychology lab experience. What a shame these labs are
versus Skinnerian science enmity. One addi- so rare today! Something else I noted about
tional point: Throughout history, the power the UNT program: two behavioral courses
of the state has—for the most part—been on autism. I mention this because I think
supported by idealistic philosophies along it’s another important factor adding to the
with its repressive apparatus. And that is not continued growth of our science—making
going to go away anytime soon. the public aware of the effectiveness of our
Glenn’s commentary begins with the for- technology and, hopefully, its underlying
mation of The International Behaviorology discipline. But we still have a long way to
Association, the purpose of which was, in go from here, just as Glenn observed about
her words, concern “about Skinner’s science being recognized by higher education (i.e.,
failing to thrive in psychology— and need to the administrators and the politicians who
establish an independent identity.” When we control the institutions). Relatedly, I agree
take into account the origin of psychology— with Glenn’s statement: A “well-established
a residual theme from earlier times when accreditation process may be the best way
psyche was synonymous with soul—it estab- to insure behavior analysis continues its
lishes an independent identity that makes march toward disciplinary status in higher
eminent sense. From there on, we see our education.”
science gradually, step-by-step, evolve into In the third (last) section, A Path Forward,
an independent discipline; to wit: its own Glenn makes another important point, with
basic and applied research journals (largely which I also agree: We should seek and join
due the fact that psychology journals repeat- forces with scientists in other disciplines
edly rejected behavior analytic research), its whose work can be integrated with our
separate and independent organization (be- behavior analytic framework. Glenn ends
cause the American Psychology Associations by referring to Schneider’s The Science of
Commentaries and Replies 53
uncontestable reality of operant processes as 11–20). New York, NY: Cambridge Uni-
the subject matter of our science, along with versity Press. (Original work published
the effectiveness of its technology, its con- 1981)
tinual evolution should come as no surprise. Ulman J. D. (2009). Behaviorology in the
Furthermore, why wouldn’t scientists in those postmodern period. Bulletin of Novosi-
related natural science areas be interested in birsk State University. Series: Psychology,
our science? 3, 2–40.
The letter exchange between B. F. Skin- behavior of the individual” (Skinner, 2014,
ner and J. D. Ulman (Ulman, 1993/2014), p. 22). In addition, Skinner specified that
leading up to Skinner’s keynote address at
the Association for Behavior Analysis in Operant conditioning is not trial-and-error
Milwaukee in 1989 (Skinner, 1993/2014), or goal directed behavior. It is a process in
which variations selected by their reinforcing
documents how Skinner’s long held view consequences become part of the repertoire
that Psychology is the science of behavior of the individual. That is our world. (Skinner,
eventually gave way to the view that behav- 2014, p. 22)
ior analysis is or should be separate from
Psychology. Skinner succinctly defined the In the Department of Psychology, at Uni-
“world of our own” as “the analysis of the versity of North Florida, where I have worked
for nearly 30 years, there is a huge poster in the
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
corridor that says “Department of Psychology.”
dressed to Iver Iversen at iiversen@unf.edu A drawing under the title is a human head
54 Commentaries and Replies
with an open skull featuring an intact brain The project was eventually very successful
with odd lines radiating out from the brain. (Birbaumer et al., 1999). However, debate
The message conveyed by the image is that ensued about the terminology used for the
Psychology is about the mind and the ner- method. Professor Birbaumer had coined the
vous system. The radiating lines seem to term “the thought-translation device” as an
suggest that the mind or brain controls or easy, short-hand expression for the whole,
explains behavior. Skinner wanted a science fairly complex situation of converting EEG
of behavior without such reference, a science signals to letters (after substantial patient and
where the focus is on relating behavior to staff training). I objected to the term because
controlling variables in the environment of of the unclear reference to thoughts. But even
the individual. With only few exceptions, to friendly colleagues it was not possible to
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modern behavior analysts have a degree convey the core of behavior analysis and that
in Psychology and work at a Department in spite of the success that the methods of
of Psychology. Given the historically well- behavior analysis had brought to the project.
established view that Psychology is the study Essentially, by conditioning the EEG signals
of the mind, a possible universal separation or we were treating the brain activity as a depen-
break of behavior analysis from Psychology is dent variable (the letters on the monitor or
probably unrealistic in the foreseeable future on paper were an incidental outcome hard-
because academic politics at universities are wired by the methodology), but in publica-
rooted in tradition and serve mainly to main- tions and presentations, the brain was offered
tain status quo. Instead, a more universal as the independent variable that controlled
science of behavior may over time grow from the letters–the paralyzed patient’s thoughts
cumulative strength created by scientific find- made the letters appear on the monitor. Be-
ings that eventually may necessitate separate cause I had worked hard to enable infusion
departments or even colleges. of single-case methodology to the project, I
The continuing hegemony of brain con- proudly joined as a coauthor on a paper by
trol in Psychology came close to home some the team even though I reluctantly had to
years ago when I was invited to participate swallow the title: “The thought-translation
in an interesting project to teach totally device (TTD) for completely paralyzed
paralyzed ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) patients” (Birbaumer et al., 2000). I learned
patients to communicate using their brain- that it was necessary, temporarily, to adapt
waves. The patients were outfitted with scalp to unwanted terminology in a complex aca-
electrodes, and their EEG (electroencepha- demic situation to have some part of behavior
lograph) signals were translated by software analysis methodology contribute positively to
to up-down movements of a computer that same situation (Iversen, 2013a). Indeed,
cursor. The patients could, with individual- methodology and vocabulary from behavior
ized training over time, learn to control the analysis was eventually adopted by several of
movement of the cursor by altering their the colleagues. Similarly, a recent interview
EEG and thereby select information on the with Dr. E. Taub, who developed refined be-
computer screen, such as letters; this learned havioral methods for rehabilitation of stroke
ability enabled them to write sentences, al- victims, illustrates how he had to adopt
beit very slowly. As part of a large research terminology from neuroscience to have his
team, composed of people with very diverse purely behavioral methods accepted within
backgrounds, I had to adapt to their way of that area of application (Iversen, 2013b).
talking about the brain; the team in turn had Contemporary behavior analysis is a high-
to adapt to what I could bring from behavior ly diversified field of study within which one
analysis such as information about method- finds several seemingly conflicting approaches.
ology, single-case designs, and data analysis. Just two examples are provided here.
Commentaries and Replies 55
One example is the contrast between the ad- While it is unlikely that any new depart-
vocates for the use of response-independent ment will be named “Department of Single-
reinforcement delivery to suppress undesir- Case Designs,” it is through development of
able behavior and the advocates for the use sound single-case methodology that behavior
of response-dependent procedures to create analysis advances. Eventually, through col-
desirable behavior, which in turn may sup- laborations between behavior analysts and
press undesirable behavior. Using response- scientists in other disciplines, as the example
independent procedures actually fly in the above suggests, behavior analysis methods
face of Skinner’s long held view that the become better known and find use in diverse
ethical treatment of children with disability areas of application. And that is maybe the an
is to provide them with behavior that can de- effective way to present Our World to others.
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Iver Iversen begins where Skinner left off, Remember that the psych in psychology
concurring with Ulman’s (1993/2014) view comes from psyche, a term from ancient
that the science Skinner began will inevitably Greece meaning whatever left a warrior
separate from psychology and become an when he was slain on the battlefield (see
independent science, standing on its own ma- Jaynes, 1976). Thus, by understanding
terial foundation. Meanwhile, because of its the role ideology plays in maintaining the
history, Skinnerian science exists for the most status quo in this society, we may come to
part as an adjunct discipline, most commonly comprehend why psychology as well as the
in psychology departments. We don’t speak psychological content in present-day social
the same language, manipulate the same sciences continue to exist as they do.
kinds of independent variables, measure the Similar to Iversen’s view, I think that
same kinds of dependent variables, or even eventually, through collaborations between
have the same conceptions of causation. There Skinnerian scientists and other natural
are a couple of reasons to remind ourselves scientists, we will become better known
of the parallels we have with biology; better and more widely accepted by the popula-
yet, remind ourselves that our science in fact tion. What will pave the way is that we
derived from biology. First, it will keep us all are natural scientists and essentially
going in spite of the alien environment in speaking the same language—that is, the
which we may have to work—again, typi- variables that control operant behavior
cally in psychology departments. Second, be may be physical, chemical, biological, and
assured that eventually—although there is not even sociocultural, if they are conceptually
crystal ball to let us know as to when—what grounded materialistically. Of course, when
I prefer to call behaviorology will stand on its the variables we are investigating happen to
own, just as biology does. be the subject matter of a given natural sci-
It may require profound social changes, ence, we will be employing that discipline’s
but because behaviorology is the study of rela- scientific terminology and knowledge of the
tions between actions of living organisms and phenomenon of interest. That means Skin-
events, such study will be ongoing. Further- nerian science and these other sciences are
more, these relational actions, the combined naturally interrelated—the interpenetration
result of natural selection and contingency earlier mentioned in another commentary.
selection (including verbal relations), will Perhaps this is the most effective way to dis-
persist as long as the human species exist. seminate Our World to others who would
On the other hand, there is nothing assur- appreciate what we do.
ing us that psychology and the related social Equally important would be a wider
science will continue to exist as disciplines. recognition within our society of the mag-
Commentaries and Replies 57
Behavior analysis is not just the collective Gross, A. M., & Drabman, R. S. (Eds.).
rivaling preferences or pet theories of the (2005). Encyclopedia of behavior modifica-
particular scientists or practitioners in the
area. More broadly, behavior analysis is a set tion and cognitive behavior therapy, Vol.2:
of methods to study and modify behavior. Clinical child applications. Thousand
Those methods get refined and strengthened Oaks, CA: Sage
with use and eventually transcend individual Herson, M., & Rosqvist, J. (Eds.). (2005).
people and particular contemporary issues Encyclopedia of behavior modification and
and survive past the short life of theories
(Sidman, 1960) cognitive behavior therapy, Vol.1: Adult
clinical applications. Thousand Oaks,
Iversen also emphasizes the importance CA: Sage
of our methodology (e.g., single-subject Jaynes, J. (1976). The origin of consciousness
experimental designs) in achieving these in the breakdown of the bicameral mind.
outstanding achievements. I will end here NY: Houghton Mifflin.
with a question worth pondering: Why Jensen, R., & Burgess, H. (1997). Mythmak-
is it that the scientific and technological ing: how introductory psychology texts
advances such as those of the NASA space present B.F. Skinner’s analysis of cogni-
program receive such notoriety, while so tion. Psychological Record, 47, 221–232.
many people require an explanation when Sugai, G., & Horner, G. (Eds.). (2005). Ency-
we tell them we are behavior analyst or clopedia of behavior modification and cog-
behaviorologist? Ironically, the application nitive behavior therapy, Vol. 3: Educational
of our science and technology to everyday applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
problems can offer so much to the public, yet Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
the public knows so little about it. We should letters. European Journal of Behavior
ask, what are the primary sources from Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
which the public “learns about” Skinner Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
and the science he brought into existence. Yabuki, K. (2014). Skinner’s science and
A significant factor to consider is that psychology. Operants, Quarter 1, 12–16.
58 Commentaries and Replies
ronments. I was first introduced to behavior reasons are based primarily on contemporary
analysis studying under the lone behaviorist circumstances and pragmatism. Actually,
in a department of psychology. My world I am of the belief that a natural science of
changed dramatically when I left to pursue behavior generally, and operant conditioning
a master’s degree in the first accredited de- specifically, is probably best placed within
partment of behavior analysis, which was the realm of physiology. After all, operant
completely divorced from the department of behavior is a physical/biological process. As
psychology. After that, I returned to a psy- the story goes, it was merely an accident of
chology department to complete my Ph.D. history (and a superior workshop) that led
but was largely protected within an area of Skinner, while a graduate student at Harvard,
behavior analysis. Most recently, I assumed to make his initial discoveries of operant
a junior faculty role in a highly productive conditioning in E.G. Boring’s department
and dynamic medical school. Each experi- of psychology rather than W.J. Crozier’s de-
ence has shaped my repertoire in unique and partment of physiology (see Skinner, 1979).
important ways, which forms the basis of my Since then, operant conditioning has always
concerns regarding an isolationist approach. found a suitable, albeit sometimes uncom-
In short, we need a strong presence in all are- fortable, home within psychology, much in
nas that involve behavioral science including, the same way as Pavlovian conditioning and
but not limited to, departments of behavior psychophysics. And I’ll argue here that given
analysis, economics, education, ethology, recent advancements in neuroscience, there
evolutionary biology, pharmacology, psychol- are more reasons today for behaviorists to
ogy, special education, and medical schools. stay aboard than ever before.
As readers of this journal will surely agree, My biggest concern with an isolationist
basic behavioral processes are ubiquitous approach is not that it will impede specialized
and, therefore, behavior analysis should be behavioral research or clinical endeavors. The
everywhere. But this sentiment alone does first half of my graduate training convinced
not quite capture the deliberations within me of the profound benefits of a singly-
the target articles by Ulman (1993/2014) minded environment. My worry is if we in-
and Skinner (1993/2014). tentionally divorce ourselves from the wider
If the pointed question is whether be- establishment (i.e., psychology), we will
havior analysis is a part of psychology or a miss opportunities to engage and influence
the current zeitgeist of behavioral science
which, whether we like it or not, maintains
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Brian D. Kangas, Ph.D. Harvard Medical School, a significant emphasis on neuroscience.
McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, To be clear, I am not suggesting the role of
USA, Phone: (617) 855-2148, bkangas@mclean.harvard.edu
Preparation of this manuscript was supported by grant behavior analysis is to follow the latest whims
K01-DA035974 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. of neuroscience, rather the other way around.
Commentaries and Replies 59
Skinner clearly recognized the important in- and drive us towards academic isolationism.
terplay between behavior and physiology (re- As the inventor and entrepreneur Charles F.
viewed in Morris, Lazo, & Smith, 2004; see Kettering (1876-1958) once remarked,
also Skinner, 1966) but, more importantly, “First they tell you you’re wrong, and they
he understood the trailblazing role behavior can prove it. Then they tell you you’re right,
analysis would command in this relationship. but it’s not important. Then they tell you it’s
Unlike other approaches, including highly important, but they’ve known it all along.”
speculative cognitive science, basic operant More often than ever before, when I visit
principles are steadfast in delivering highly elite neuroscience laboratories I observe seas
replicable, quantitative, and material units of white cubes they refer to as Skinner Boxes.
of behavior that are particularly amenable to And I listen to earnest discussions of condi-
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functional neural analysis. Toward the end tioning processes that, although established
his autobiography’s final volume, Skinner and well-studied in the behavioral literature,
(1983) stated, have been re-discovered by researchers un-
aware of the experimental analysis of behav-
Direct observation of the nervous system ior. I am left with the feeling that behavior
called for special techniques, and I was con- analysis is currently somewhere between
tent to leave it to the physiologists. Meanwhile
an experimental analysis of behavior would Kettering’s second and third stage. We must
give them a correct assignment, whereas not let this opportunity pass.
cognitive science sent them looking for things Behavior analysts have made many of
they would never find (p. 367). their most important advances through the
empirical validation of behavioral methods
These special techniques for direct ob- and apparatus development which directly
servation of the central nervous system have resulted in the identification of powerful
improved dramatically over the past few environmental contingencies. To compete
decades and continue to be refined. Electro- successfully in these times of scant support
physiology and single-neuron recordings, and funding, indeed no small feat, we must
ultra high field imaging and spectroscopy continue in this tradition and with a strong
techniques, precision gene editing, optoge- emphasis on collaborative endeavors. We
netics, etc. provide increasingly sophisticated have a lot to offer, and perhaps even more to
means to manipulate and measure biological gain, by collaborating with neuroscience and
substrates of behavior. And neuroscientists beyond. Endeavors of this sort not only serve
have recently, in increasing numbers, be- to expand the purview and authority of the
gun to recognize the empirical advantages behaviorist through collaborative work but
of studying basic behavioral processes and also, importantly, offer additional opportuni-
contingencies operating on simple organisms ties to study and understand basic behavioral
that behavior analysts have long been focused processes. Again, there is enormous value
on. The most obvious example is work by in the experimental analysis of behavior in
Eric Kandel, recipient of the 2000 Nobel its own right, and pure behavioral research
Prize in Physiology. His prize-winning re- should continue. However, communication
search on the physiological basis of neuronal and collaboration should also be encour-
learning in the Aplysia was first demonstrated aged to better inform the functional units
using standard Pavlovian arrangements and, of substrate needed to be accounted for at
more recently, standard Skinnerian operant the neural level. I am of the opinion that
arrangements (reviewed in Kandel, 2001; see this is paramount, not only for discovery of
especially Hawkins, Clark, & Kandel, 2006). behavior-brain relations but, ultimately, for
It would be a mistake to let frustrations important public health concerns that will be
of the past temper our collaborative efforts ameliorated by these advancements.
60 Commentaries and Replies
(2005). Whether, when, and why Skin- Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
ner published on biological participation letters. European Journal of Behavior
in behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 28, Analysis, 15, 11–19 (Reprinted from
169-179. Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Brian Kangas’ commentary advocates Contrary to his view, I would argue that
that behavior analysts need a strong presence our contact with neuroscience should not
in all kinds of behavioral science settings; be conjoint with cognitive/mentalistic psy-
or, as he puts it, “behavioral processes are chologists. We must critically evaluate what
ubiquitous and, therefore, behavior analysis it means when a psychologically oriented re-
should be everywhere.” His particular inter- searcher “maintains a significant emphasis on
est lies in interdisciplinary collaboration in neuroscience.” Just how would that emphasis
the field of neuroscience. He expresses in- advance the integration of neuroscience and
creasing interest in behavioral research at the Skinnerian science? Ironically, Kangas cites a
neurological level; specifically, involving the review by Morris, Lazo, and Smith (2004) to
study of respondent and operant processes support the fact that Skinner was well aware
at the level of neurons—undoubtedly, an of the interrelationship between behavior and
intriguing area of investigation. physiology. The review discusses a wealth of
However, my reply begins with Kan- concrete evidence that such is the case. The
gas’ research perspective: “If the pointed authors subsequently published an article
question is whether behavior analysis is a titled “Why Morris, Lazo, and Smith (2004)
part of psychology or a separate disciple, Was Published in The Behavior Analyst.” These
my contention is that it should be a part authors attempted to submit their paper to
of psychology.” He adds, “My worry is if five different journals, four published by the
we intentionally divorce ourselves from American Psychology Association and one
the wider establishment (i.e., psychology), nonhuman animal behavior journal. Not only
we will miss opportunities to engage and were their manuscripts rejected, but also the
influence the current zeitgeist of behavioral editors didn’t even send then out for review.
science which . . . maintains a significant The comments by the editors of these presti-
emphasis on neuroscience.” gious psychology journals are quite revealing:
Commentaries and Replies 61
An editor offered, “We can accept only The psychologists’ explanation: The rats
articles that are of interest to a broad range of learned to “think through” pressing the bar.
psychologists and have broad consequences But what, prey tell, are thinking-through rats?
for the science and practice of psychology” Vargas provides a behaviorological answer:
(p. 170). Continuing, “A likely question “They are fictional agencies inserted as ante-
for a reviewer or reader would be, ‘Now, cedent independent variables to explain the
that we know Skinner thought more about firing neurons. The psychologists fail to credit
biology, how does that change the nature of the postcedent water-delivery as the crucial
his theories and their ability to contribute independent variable.”
to comparative psychology” (p. 171). The In preparing my reply, my first step was to
editor then asserts: “The paper also assumes become more familiar with the work behav-
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that the reader is fully familiar with the na- ior analysts have done in the area of neurosci-
ture of the charges that Skinner’s work was ence. What proved enormously helpful is a
un-biological” (p. 171). Morris, Smith, and special section in the November 2005 issue of
Lazo also found that the editors were imply- the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Be-
ing that Skinner was no more than history: havior; especially the introductory article by
Timberlake, Schaal, and Steinmetz (2005);
A still more general source of the view that and the closing piece by Schaal, (2005), a
Skinner is history may lie in today’s norma- review of a book on the “conceptual analy-
tive scientific and professional psychology.
Among the accepted views is that behavior- sis to appraise the theoretical language of
ism was overthrown by a cognitive revolution modern cognitive neuroscientists” (p. 683).
. . . . in part because Skinner denied biology. Both articles provide a general, nontechni-
This view appears in books, journals, and cal treatment in relating behavior analysis
journals by psychology’s leading associations and neuroscience. Here is the highlight of
and societies. (p. 175)
the parts I found most relevant to this re-
ply: Skinner’s goal—as Timberlake, Schaal,
We shouldn’t fret about separating our-
and Steinmetz put it—was “to establish
selves from psychologists. Unless there is
an independent science of the control and
convincing evidence to the contrary (which
dynamics of behavior, separate from neural,
there is not), we should be doing exactly that.
physiological, and cognitive references and
Just glancing at the titles of neuroscience
speculations; and then, to bridge the gap
articles by psychologists (e.g., “Controlling
between behavior and neurobiology by a
robots with the mind”) would make any
comprehensive integration” (p.305).
Skinnerian scientists wary that the territory
What is most relevant here is that Skin-
is vitiated by agencyism.
ner’s experimental methodology has been
Julie Vargas’ commentary provides a
and is widely used within the neuroscience
revealing example of a psychologist’s ap-
community, some influenced by Skinner
proach to a neuroscience investigation of
directly and others indirectly. In short, Tim-
the bar-pressing behavior of rats (Nicolelis
berlake, Schaal, and Steinmetz state, “there
& Chapin, 2002). The researchers shaped
is considerable evidence for the existence
a bar press in rats, using water delivered
of independent sciences of behavior and of
by a robotic arm as reinforcement. With
neurobiology, and there is research that com-
electrodes inserted into the rats’ brains, it
bines aspects of both. What is missing is the
was found that a set of neurons would im-
broad conceptual integration. . . . Further,
mediately fire just prior to overt bar presses.
the potential for integration will be greater
Then water delivery was made contingent
as experimenters use causal manipulations
solely on the neuronal firing—discon-
and analyses that consider both neuroscience
necting the bar had no neuronal effect.
and behavior.”
62 Commentaries and Replies
On the other hand, Schaal (2005) re- culture in which we live and do our research.
lates: “For behavior analysts interested in In doing interdisciplinary research, not only
neuroscience, the current state of neuro- must we avoid wasting our valuable time
scientific theory is unfortunate [emphasis on those who have a dualistic (mind-body)
added]. Despite a pleasing ring to the phrase perspective on behavior, but also be leery of
‘behavioral neuroscience,’ what exists instead agencyism creeping into one’s own work. For
is a thoroughly cognitive neuroscience. He behaviorologist, anti-agencyism is at the core
notes, “the central error of cognitive neu- of our philosophy of science.
roscientists is to commit the mereological
fallacy, the tendency to ascribe to the brain References
psychological concepts that only make sense
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when ascribed to whole animals” (Schaal, Morris , E. K., Smith, N. G., & Lazo, J. F.
2005, p. 683). With humans, they typically (2005). Why Morris, Lazo, and Smith
ascribe psychological attributes (e.g., reasons, (2004) was published in The Behavior An-
intentions, purposes, goals, values, and rules) alyst. The Behavior Analyst, 28, 169–179.
to the brain and its parts so as to explain the Morris, E. K., Lazo, J. F., & Smith, N. G.
possession of these attributes and the exercise (2004). Whether, when, and why Skin-
of cognitive power. As one philosopher put ner published on biological participation
it, “Stomachs don’t eat lunch // . . . [and] in behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 28,
brains don’t think. They don’t learn, imagine, 153-169.
solve problems, calculate, dream, remember, Nicolelis, M. A. L. & Chapin, J. K. (2002).
hallucinate or perceive [People do that.]” Controlling robots with the mind, Scien-
(A. Brown, http://andersonbrownphiloso- tific American, 287, 46–53.
phy.blogspot.com/2011/10/mereological- Schaal, W. D. (2005). Naming our concerns
fallacy-and.html). about neuroscience: A review of Bennett
To conclude, neuroscience is in itself and Hacker’s Philosophical Foundations of
an interdisciplinary field of science. The Neuroscience. Journal of the Experimental
point here is not to cast aspersions on Analysis of Behavior, 84, 683–692.
psychologists, but to be circumspect about Timberlake, W., Schaal, W. D., & Steinmetz,
teaming up with neuroscience researchers J. E. (2005). Relating behavior and neu-
whose specialty area is in another disci- roscience: Introduction and synopsis.
pline—keeping in mind that mainstream Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
psychology continues to dominated the Behavior, 84, 305–31.
Commentaries and Replies 63
Many of the points made by Ulman in the (Kuhn, 1970) through having a paradigm,
Ulman-Skinner letters (Ulman, 1993/2014) a conventional framework which determine
are well-expressed and incisive; it is thus de- the issues addressed by practitioners and
pressing that, 20 years on, they seem so topi- the type of theoretical model employed in
cal. In my view, however, the best solution is explanation, which in due course is replaced
not to abandon the debate with mainstream by a new, quite different paradigm with its
psychology about a possible agreement on a own typical or normal science. In promot-
framework for a shared discipline. Rather, ing the idea that we need a new paradigm
we should find new ways to advance that within behaviour analysis, Baum (2002)
debate and seek to integrate our views with says, “Every scientific paradigm includes
those of others. both epistemological claims—claims about
There are many academic disciplines knowledge, such as what it is and how it is
concerned with human behaviour, and they obtained—and ontological claims—claims as
are mostly easily distinguished by the central to what we are to know about (Kuhn, 1970).
research questions they address. In one of the In paradigm clashes, ontological claims often
target papers, Skinner (1993/2014) starts matter most.” He goes on to point out that
with the question, “Why do people behave there are never critical experiments which
as they do?” and we can readily agree that this settle the competing claims of alternate para-
is the central question for us, as behaviour digms. What we are concerned about here is
analysts. However, it could also be said to not the paradigm within behaviour analysis,
be the central question for the discipline of but whether we should continue to dispute
psychology, typically described as the science with psychologists whether a behavioural
of mind, or mental events, and behaviour, or or cognitive framework or paradigm is ap-
human behaviour. Scientific disciplines are propriate for psychology as a whole. Raising
usually defined by such central questions, that question confirms that psychology is not
rather than the methods they use or the type a mature science, but our claim is that the
of theory that is typical. Mature sciences, cognitivist’s alternative framework is not ac-
however, are more cohesive with a current tually scientific, so it seems intellectually im-
overarching theoretical framework and a portant that we should continue the debate
range of typical methods. “Mature science”, and seek to contribute to the establishment
is of course a term borrowed from Kuhn’s of a scientific discipline of psychology, even
account of how sciences develop and change though that goal seems far off.
Although winning, or at least progressing
Correspondence concerning this article should be with, the debate is important for intellectual
addressed to Julian C. Leslie at School of Psychology, Uni- reasons, I also agree with view of Ulman,
versity of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA , Northern Ireland,
UK, email: jc.leslie@ulster.ac.uk shared implicitly by Skinner within Ulman
64 Commentaries and Replies
(1993/2014), that there are also key consid- As Hineline (e.g., 2010) points out, we are
erations of professional politics and strategy. dealing with a multifaceted phenomenon
We need to decide whether it is professionally with many subtle and often unperceived
worthwhile to prolong this debate. Clearly, aspects. We should cast our net as widely as
we have used up time and energy on this possible in finding common cause with those
over many years, but I don’t agree with in other disciplines that share our concerns
the conclusion that we should concede that or write popular science that addresses these
there are two incommensurable paradigms usually neglected issues. Some candidates
and that we should let the psychologists and are:
neuroscientists get on with being cognitiv- 1. Noë (2009), a philosopher who
ists, while we do our own thing. The stakes maintains that consciousness can only be
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are too high: we have spent many years understood in terms of the interaction of
complaining about being ignored as well as the individual with their social environ-
misrepresented in those two very large and ment and that consciousness is not located
ever-growing disciplines. If we announce in the head (see also much recent work on
that we are not interested in resolving our so-called embodied cognition, e.g., Borghi
conceptual differences with them, this will & Cimatti, 2010).
simply be grounds for our views seeming 2. Barrett (2011), an anthropologist who
to be even more irrelevant to them. Rather, rejects our tendency to view the abilities of
we should spend time identifying linkages. other species as inferior versions of human
That is, areas of existing research that are intelligence, and who shows how different
not contested (i.e., not necessarily written species are adapted through their bodies and
up within the behaviour analysis paradigm) behaviour to succeed in diverse environmen-
should be interpreted to make it clear that tal niches.
psychologists–and people in general–tend to 3. Schenider (2012), who writes for a
unreflectively use ineffective explanations ap- popular science audience, and illustrates the
pealing to internal causes of behaviour, and power of selection by consequences across
that real progress can be made by identifying many domains.
and correcting this flaw. Finally, we should develop our capacity to
Exemplary work of this kind has been write “outside the box” ourselves (see Morris,
done by Hineline (e.g., 1980, 1992, 2010; 2014). Diversity brings strength.
Field & Hineline, 2008), developing his
account of how the social psychology of at- References
tribution reveals our bias towards appealing
to internal causes. The term, “fundamental Barrett, L. (2011). Beyond the brain: How
attribution error” refers to the tendency for body and environment shape animal and
people to overestimate the importance of human minds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
dispositional factors relative to contextual University Press.
influences when determining and explaining Baum, W. M. (2002). From molecular to
the causes of another’s’ behaviour and, since molar: A paradigm shift in behavior
Jones and Nisbett’s (1971) classic paper, it analysis. Journal of the Experimental
has been extensively studied in social psy- Analysis of Behavior, 78, 95-116.
chology. Hineline’s careful analyses reveal Borghi, A. M., & Cimatti, F. (2010). Em-
many ways in which we neglect external bodied cognition and beyond: Acting
influences in everyday language and even and sensing the body. Neuropsychologia,
when, in attribution theory, we are en- 48, 763-773.
gaged in scientific analysis of biases towards Field, D. P., & Hineline, P. N. (2008). Dis-
internal or intrinsic causes of behaviour! positioning and the obscured roles of time
Commentaries and Replies 65
and the obscured roles of time in psy- brain, and impact our world. Amherst,
chological explanations”. Behavior and NY: Prometheus Books.
Philosophy, 38, 61-81. Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (1971). The European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
actor and the observer: Divergent percep- 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
tions of the causes of behavior. In E.E. 1993, 1, 1–5).
Jones et al. (Eds.) Attribution: Perceiving Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
the causes of behavior (pp. 79-94). Mor- letters. European Journal of Behavior
ristown, NJ: General Learning Press. Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Julian Leslie raised an interesting issue: But given that the definition of psychology
is the study of mind and behavior—this
The best solution is not to abandon the debate discipline’s conception of behavior, usually
with mainstream psychology about a possible accompanied by the mental, is not at all
agreement on a framework for a shared dis-
cipline. Rather, we should find new ways to comparable to that of Skinnerian science.
advance that debate and seek to integrate our For mainstream psychology, which is almost
views with those of others. all of it, behavior is merely a means to get at
its subject matter—the mind and all its attri-
But I see this proposal as an invitation to butes. (Even institutionally, is there a depart-
walk a tightrope. At a minimum, unless one ment of behavior analysis within psychology,
is well acquainted with Skinner’s (1974) About or something comparable—or merely a few
Behaviorism, it’s just too easy to fall into a behavior analysis perspectives scattered here
tangle of explanatory fictions. and there among all its multitude of depart-
I agree with Leslie that Skinner (1993/2014) ments throughout the world?)
is correct—our central question is: “Why do Earlier, Skinner (1971) wrote about the
people behave as they do?” And to some degree, worsening world conditions, that we may
Leslie and I concur that this is also the central not survive if we continue on our present
question for the discipline of psychology. course; expanding population, environ-
66 Commentaries and Replies
Skinner asks: Why are the behavioral sciences old paradigm with a crisis ensuing in scien-
not more effective? (The title of his article.) He tific explanations; and (3) a new paradigm
avers that to come to grips with the world’s emerges as the scientific community strives
problems, all that the behavioral sciences in to resolve the crisis. I went on about psychol-
general have to offer is: “There is something ogy’s paradigm being transformational, based
wrong with people who behave that way” (p. on a Cartesian dualistic assumptions about
468). From my perspective, there is a superior reality—that is, the conceptual transforma-
way to combat the worsening of world condi- tion of behavioral data into mental or cogni-
tions, one that incorporates both Skinnerian tive processes existing in some non-spatial-
and Marxist theories: see Ulman’s (1991) temporal dimension within the individual.
“Toward a synthesis of Marx and Skinner.” Notwithstanding the aforesaid difficulties,
In Skinner’s view, this is the problem with to some degree Kuhn’s theory is still useful
the behavioral sciences: here, even though historians of science have
largely trashed it. (If it were possible today,
The traditional view misrepresents our task. I would probably expunge Kuhn’s stuff from
It suggests that by changing an environment my 1991 article.)
we first change feelings or states of mind, and
that these, in turn, determine what a person From a contemporary perspective,
does. The feeling or state of mind seems to however, we can view Kuhn’s theory in a
be a necessary link in a causal chain, but the somewhat different light: First, psychol-
fact is that we change behavior by changing ogy is still in the stage of discussing proper
the environment, and, in doing so, change procedures, so no revolution could have oc-
what is felt. Feelings and states of mind are
not causes, they are by-products. (p. 469) curred. Second, as Holth (2013) observe, if
incommensurable paradigms
Leslie, of course, has no fantasies about
boil down to asking, and replying to, different
psychology. He writes: “It is clear that psy- Why questions, there should be little reason
chologists—and people in general—tend to for conflict. As long as everyone recognizes
unreflectively use ineffective explanations that explanations are only appropriate for
appealing to internal causes of behaviour, and the Why question with which one started,
that real progress can be made by identifying cognitive, neurophysiological, and behav-
ioral perspectives might coexist as different
and correcting this flaw.” To say that he has perspectives, or as different sciences. (pp.
work cut out for him is a huge understate- 169–170)
ment.
Leslie then brings into the discus- Holth ends with this sound conclusion:
sion Kuhn’s (1970) Structure Of Scien- “Perhaps all of the disciplines would be
tific Revolutions so as to enter into debates better off by, instead of insisting that those
with psychologists in an effort to, in his other explanations are not explanations at
Commentaries and Replies 67
all, simply accepting that they are answers ropean Journal of Behavior Analysis, 14,
to different Why questions” (p. 170). And so 165–170.
shall I—and thus, simply continue to make Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific
the point that, therefore, they are different revolutions, (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Uni-
disciplines; that is, different aggregates of sci- versity of Chicago Press.
entists working together to foster the answer Skinner, B. F. (1971).Why are the behavioral
to their particular Why questions. How keen sciences not more effective? In B. F. Skin-
would any of these aggregates be to another ner, Cumulative record (Definitive ed.,
kind of answer? Much less, and show—as pp. pp. 467–474). Acton, MA: Copley.
they have—even less enthusiasm for another Skinner, B. F. (1974) About Behaviorism.
kind of question. We can easily observe the New York, NY: Knopf.
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answer to the prior question (even in some Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
of the commentary). European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
References 1993, 1, 1–5).
Ulman, J. D. (1991). Toward a synthesis of
Holth, P. (2013). Different sciences as Marx and Skinner. Behavior and Social
answers to different why questions. Eu- Issues, 1(1), 57-70.
bers, divided among 19 divisions, or areas of behavior analysis for no other reason than
specialization. Since then, the organization that it is convenient and fulfills a distribution
has exploded in size and in the number of requirement—or perhaps because they have
topics embraced. Its members now number heard from their fellows that the course is
over 130,000 divided among 56 areas of effectively taught. Only a small proportion
specialization, ranging across topics as diverse of our students go on to become behavior
as psychology law, hypnotism, aesthetics, analysts, but the remainder leave our courses
and public service. Psychology, then, is not with altered repertoires, almost invariably
a coherent discipline, a bossy monolith that altered in ways that we would regard as an
stands for or against any one position; it is improvement. The opportunity to influence
an amorphous mélange of disciplines, and these students is psychology’s gift to behavior
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havior is often affected by incipient or latent our reach into the vast literature of behavior
response tendencies. Hineline has found in all its forms.
that work in social psychology helps explain References
why behavioristic locutions are alien to the
naïve ear (Field & Hineline, 2008). John Donahoe, J. W., & Palmer, D. C. (2004).
Donahoe and I have attempted to provide a Learning and complex behavior. Rich-
behavioral interpretation of complex behav- mond, MA: Ledgetop Publishing (Origi-
ior that draws in part on the literatures of nally published in 1994).
neurophysiology, cognitive psychology, and Bergen, B. K. (2012). Louder than words:
adaptive network simulations (Donahoe & The new science of how mind makes mean-
Palmer, 2004). In each case, we have prof- ing. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Downloaded by [Ecole Hautes Etudes Commer-Montreal] at 12:30 21 August 2015
ited from our association with professionals Field, D. P. & Hineline, P. N. (2008).
in related fields, usually fellow members of Dispositioning and the obscured roles
psychology departments. of time in psychological explanations.
Like retrograde politicians, psychology Behavior and Philosophy, 36, 5-69.
may sometimes embarrass or exasperate us, Palmer, D. C. (2009). Response strength
but while asking for little in return, it pro- and the concept of the repertoire. Eu-
vides us with a steady stream of students and ropean Journal of Behavior Analysis, 10,
a supply of colleagues who greatly extend 49-60.
Dave Palmer relates that associating Palmer does commiserate with “Ulman’s
with professionals in different fields—psy- more realistic dream of seceding from the
chologists in particular—has proven to be field of psychology.” This statement, however,
profitable in helping him advance his work is misleading. I said nothing about withdraw-
in his area of interest: exploring the extent to ing from psychology as an organization; but
which basic operant principles of can explain rather, giving up the “Sisyphean effort to
complex human behavior. Although he does reform psychology as a science of behavior”
not identify himself as a behaviorologist, he (Ulman, 1993/2014). Palmer goes on to
is keen about giving no quarter to agency- explore a difference between our viewpoints.
ism; that is, rejecting all hypothetical inner He states, “Psychology has no power to tax,
agencies purported to explain behavioral regulate, control, or interfere with behavior
phenomena. I think it is quite admirable analysis. Nor is psychology even a coherent
that he can learn from his colleagues who are entity from which one might measure ad-
psychologists as well as search psychological ministrative or intellectual distance.” I agree
research and discover concepts and empirical with the second sentence but not the first.
reports that lend themselves to investigation Granted, psychology is not a government
within the operant framework. institution with the power to tax, etc. How-
Although neither “The Ulman-Skinner ever, psychology is a powerful force within
letters” (Ulman, 1993/2014) nor “A world this society, its power issuing from its reac-
of our own” (Skinner, 1993/2014) are cited, tionary ideology—an unceasing torrent of
70 Commentaries and Replies
Additionally, I do not concur with and flourishing right around the corner from
Palmer’s assertion that psychology does not Palmer and his psychology colleagues.
interfere with behavior analysis. This may be In sum, not to detract in the slightest
the case at Smith College—but is it? One per- from how he has gained from his interactions
son cannot teach the totality of our science, with his psychologist colleagues—what we
encompassing its conceptual, experimental have here, I’m afraid, is a case of making the
(which should require a laboratory) and best of a hopeless situation and one behind
applied (which requires a clinical setting) the curve of current disciplinary occurrences.
components. Has Palmer been able to bring
in other behavior analysts to teach a further References
complement of courses in our science? If
not, students are being short-changed. Two Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
or three courses in physics, all taught by the European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
same person, does not begin to address the 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
understanding of that science. 1993, 1, 1–5).
Palmer’s complaint about his academic sit- Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
uation is that psychologists in his department letters. European Journal of Behavior
have misconceptions about behaviorism and Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
are sometimes embarrassing or exasperating. Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Commentaries and Replies 71
bestowed significant benefits to the culture adversary, Thomas Hobbes. Wallis went on
at large. In the interim, the discoverers are to found the Royal Society of London and
often maligned and even ostracized (e.g., his mathematical contributions set the stage
Semmelweiss). We cite as examples Galileo for Newton and Leibnitz
and Darwin, but many more can be brought B.F. Skinner clearly belongs on the
forth from history to illustrate the point. aforementioned company. He transgressed
For example, Alexander (2014) recounts the in both domains: his work challenged not
history of the mathematics of the infinitely only the prevailing assumptions regarding
small, first explored by Galileo, Toricelli the role of the mind in determining behav-
and Cavalieri in the early 17th century. The ior, but the methodological orthodoxy of
Church so strenuously objected to this ap- establishment psychological science. Small
parent contradiction of the order imposed wonder that he is assailed by both phi-
by Euclidian geometry and Aristotelian losophers and social scientists. As Ullman
physics that they barred further teaching (2014) observed, (p.13), “…our philosophy
of the concept. The preeminence of Ital- of science constitutes an uncompromising
ian science thus yielded to the north as challenge to the ideologies of the status
Leibnitz and Newton went on to develop quo and consequently to the powers that
the calculus. be.” But, as we suggest, with the passage of
A corollary observation was that the de- time, the intensity of the derision should
gree of calumny heaped upon the innovator diminish in proportion to the absorption
varied directly with the extent to which the by the culture of the practical implications
scientific advance collided with or called of his work.
into question established practices or the We are fortunate to have in these docu-
foundations of authority for management ments durable testimony to the intellectual
of the culture. (see above) Thus, Galileo anguish which Skinner surely endured dur-
and Darwin endured more lasting denigra- ing his lifetime. As his following slowly
tion than did, say, Einstein although the grew, so did the opposition to his ideas as
latter’s contribution may eventually lead manifested by the actions of the academic
community in particular. It was Psychology
that was most acutely offended by Skinner’s
work since he was one of its own, after all.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Henry S. Pennypacker at hsp@mammacare.com It may be argued that had Skinner found
72 Commentaries and Replies
a home in, say, zoology, most of the furor that time to the present and draw a few
would have been obviated. conclusions concerning the issues they were
From the publication of Behavior of wrestling with.
Organisms in 1938, Skinner’s, natural sci- By the time the Ulman-Skinner exchange
entific approach to the study of behavior, occurred, Skinner’s influence on contem-
one organism at a time, was not accepted by porary thought was already evident. As we
the community of psychological scientists. noted above, fledgling applications and
His growing group of followers was finally technologies were already beginning to ap-
obliged to form their own journal in 1958. pear. During the period since the exchange,
Already, however, his methods were extended however, there has been an explosion of ap-
into such fields as pharmacology and animal plication in a variety of areas. Let us consider
training where their effectiveness led to com- a few:
mercial success. In the late 1950s Ayllon
extended Skinner and Lindsley’s laboratory Human Services
demonstrations of operant conditioning
of the behavior of psychotics to practical By the mid 90s, behavioral programs
European Journal of Behavior Analysis 2014.15:71-76.
application in a psychiatric setting. By the were normative in the treatment of the de-
early 1960s behavior modification began to velopmentally disabled. As autism grew as a
emerge as a challenge to traditional clinical specific developmental problem, so did the
practice by psychiatrists and psychologists. numbers of behaviorally oriented programs
Again, the greater effectiveness led to com- and specialists. The rapid expansion of the
mercial application, especially in the care of Behavior Analysis Certification Board and
the developmentally disabled. its credentialing process gave economic
We can trace the beginnings of Skin- value to the specialized training required for
ner’s influence on the larger culture to the certification. This led to pressure to expand
last half of the 20th century, beginning with educational resources to meet the growing
the publication of Walden II in 1948 and training needs of these individuals. Recog-
Science and Human Behavior in 1953. The nition by insurance companies that Applied
criticism these works received was largely Behavior Analysis was the best method of
from the traditional literary and social scien- treating autism only intensified the demand.
tific community. The publication of Verbal
Behavior in 1957 was especially upsetting Education
to the social scientific and humanistic
communities because it demonstrated that Behavioral approaches to education began
Skinner’s approach was not, as they were to emerge and encounter intense resistance
fond of asserting, limited to animals and the from the educational establishment. Such
intellectually disabled. It could confront that innovations as Programmed Instruction, Pre-
most uniquely human activity -speech- as a cision Teaching and Direct Instruction were
subject matter amenable to the methods of beginning to produce results that could no
the natural sciences. longer be ignored and many people adopted
It has been 75 years since B of O was these technologies as central to the operation
published. The materials we are consider- of private or charter schools. Again, the Skin-
ing appeared roughly 2/3 of the way along nerian emphasis on direct measurement of
that time line. These documents provide an behavior change fueled their success as people
enriching and entertaining glimpse into the have begun to realize the potential of these
dynamics of a conversation that has been approaches to education to produce more
ongoing since the early 1950s if not before. effective results than traditional methods.
It is useful to project the state of affairs from Concurrently, military trainers were discov-
Commentaries and Replies 73
ering that these methods were producing recognize and accommodate the implica-
superior performance at less cost than tradi- tions of his contributions. Thus we have
tional classroom approaches. In particular, Ulman and Skinner agonizing over the dis-
Programmed Instruction developed in part ciplinary identification of those who would
by Frances Mechner and adopted by trainers profess allegiance to the new science and its
in industry, opening the door to additional technology.
applications in that realm (Hain & Holder, I have elsewhere (Pennypacker, 1992)
1962). discussed the contingencies that prevail in
various organizations. As is the case with
Business and Industry single organisms, the contingencies respon-
sible for survival of an organization are of
Beginning in the 1960s a small number foremost importance in the management of
of people began applying Skinnerian prin- that organization.. Skinner’s contributions
ciples to problems of management and pro- were as disruptive to the security of main-
ductivity in business and industry. Pioneers stream Psychology as were Galileo’s to the
like Tom Gilbert and Aubrey Daniels showed Church. As adoption of the technological
European Journal of Behavior Analysis 2014.15:71-76.
lum (as they were called then) whereupon, For me, as its name denotes, psychology is
a few days later, he died—apparently the the study of the psyche; . . . and, I am con-
result of a severe beating from the guards. vinced, it always will be. True, psychology
deals with the behavior of the individual
On this medical hero’s website I found but so does theology . . . . I fail to see how a
this gem: The Semmelweis reflex (effect)— paradigm based on the notion of soul is any
“a metaphor for the reflex-like tendency more in contradiction to the natural science
to reject new evidence or new knowledge of behavior than one based on the notion of
because it contradicts established norms, psyche. (Ulman, 2014, p. 17).
beliefs or paradigms.” An experience not
unknown among Skinnerians! Hence, the Jaynes’ discovery is in accord with Penny-
acceptance of a scientific advance may be packer’s description of the spread of behavior
delayed, not only by the length of time analysis, despite the ideological odds. Penny-
required for the general public to begin en- packer notes the various institutional settings
joying its benefits, but even more so when it such as business and education where the
contradicts the dominant ideology pervad- application of Skinnerian science (however
ing one’s sociocultural milieu. As additional named) has made an impact; which, to some
European Journal of Behavior Analysis 2014.15:71-76.
examples, need we any more than mention extent, induces its public acceptance—irre-
the Church’s treatment of Giordano Bruno spective of how much it disturbs the status
and Galileo Galilei in 1600 and 1633, and quo of pervasive superstitions. Pennypacker
others as mentioned by Pennypacker. even notes that psychology is hopping on the
What about our sociocultural context? bandwagon—a blatant act of opportunism,
One might assume that significant ad- given Jensen and Burgess’ (1997; also see
vance in applied behavior analysis would their interview: Yabuki, 2014) description of
be widely accepted by the general public, what is currently being taught about Skin-
such as parents learning to employ contin- nerian science in introductory psychology
gency management in raising their children. textbooks. In any case, Pennypacker makes
Unfortunately, this behavioral technology it clear that the bandwagon has left the old
is largely ignored. Worse yet, for example, corral. I would agree, and so would anyone
John Rosemond, a public icon who, writes who gives but just a glance at the increasing
a weekly syndicated column that advises number of master’s and doctoral programs
parents on how to manage their children’s in behavior analysis, plus departments of
misbehavior (rarely does he target desired behavior analysis (e.g., in Norway at Oslo
behavior). He not only recommends and Akershus University College with Arn-
aversive measures, but also spurns the use tzen and colleagues, and in the US at the
of positive reinforcement—the spare-the- University of North Texas with Glenn and
rod-and-spoil-the-child way of thinking. colleagues). Given the analysis Pennypacker
Fundamental Judeo-Christian (we could makes of the socio-cultural milieu, he more
also add Islamic) ideology continues to be than hints of the continuing triumph of
influential in our culture—the very anthesis behavior analysis.
of the applications of Skinnerian science. At the time Skinner and I exchanged let-
Resuming our discussion of the so- ters, the trends were not as clear, either within
ciocultural context within which Ulman or outside of psychology departments. Skin-
and Skinner exchanged letters, lets follow ner’s problem was clearly expressed in the let-
Jaynes’ (1976) study of our cultural roots ters he sent to me; that is, “his doubts about
as it relates to psychology. Going back to this Sisyphean effort to reform psychology as
ancient Greece, he establishes how psyche a science of behavior” (Ulman, 2014, p. 11).
came to be synonymous with soul. From (He certainly was correct about the Sisyphaen
here, this is what I shared with Skinner: problem.) This problem was resolved in 1989
76 Commentaries and Replies
when he declared publicly, “I tried too long Norway and Texas mentioned earlier) are in-
to follow Watson in saying that psychology is stitutionally independent of psychology and
the science of behavior. I am now convinced seem to be striving to encompass the overall
that that is wrong. Psychology has always power of Skinnerian science. It is gratifying
been concerned with internal explanations” to see this. I am pleased that Pennypacker
(Skinner, 2014, p. 21). I agreed, “It has be- provided part of the story of how we got
come increasingly apparent to me that trying where we are.
to reform psychology is not only a great waste
of our time and effort, but sidetracks us from References
. . . establishing a natural science of behavior”
(Ulman, 2014, p. 12). Jaynes, J. (1976). The Origin of Consciousness
I identify myself as a behaviorologist for in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind.
three reasons: (1) it unambiguously specifies New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
the domain of endeavor—which is not the Jensen, R., & Burgess, H. (1997). Mythmak-
psyche; (2) behavior analysis seems still too ing: how introductory psychology texts
attached to the institutional arrangements present B.F. Skinner’s analysis of cognition.
European Journal of Behavior Analysis 2014.15:71-76.
of psychology, which presents a dead end to The Psychological Record, 47, 221–232.
Skinner’s science; and (3) behavior analysis Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman–Skinner let-
seems too focused on the technology part of ters. European Journal of Behavior Analysis,
the science, with insufficient attention to its 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
conceptual and experimental foundations 1993, 1, 47–54).
and formulations. Now, the degree granting Yabuki, K. (2014). Skinner’s science and
behavior analysis programs (such as those of psychology. Operants, Quarter 1, 12–16.
Psychology as Nonbehavior
Kurt Salzinger
Hofstra University
They tell the story about Nat Schoenfeld, You’re a nonbehaviorist, you study nonbe-
the co-author with Fred Keller (1950) of Prin- havior?” It is my contention that to leave
ciples of Psychology, the book that was used psychology by adopting a special name
to educate freshmen in psychology taught for what we study is to suggest that cogni-
from the point of view of behavior analysis. tive psychologists are getting by in their
At a party of psychologists, someone went career without having to involve behavior.
over to him saying, “I understand you’re I’m as eager as the next behavior analyst
a behaviorist.” Schoenfeld is said to have to make fun of cognitive psychologists,
replied, “Yes, I am a behaviorist and you? but, when they do their memory studies
or problem solving, etc. are we suggesting
Correspondence concerning this article should be
that they are getting data in their stud-
addressed to Kurt Salzinger at kurt.salzinger@hofstra.edu ies without having their subjects behave?
Commentaries and Replies 77
Whether that is by repeating words they til you become aware of the absence of the
heard before or pointing to them with their cognitive speculation.
fingers or being able to solve a problem by On the other hand, I managed with
having the words they emitted earlier emitted my colleagues, e.g., Salzinger and Pisoni,
at the right time or whether they respond to 1958, 1960, to publish a number of papers
some other stimulus? To be sure, cognitive with cumulative curves and the behavior
psychologists insist on speculating about analysts’ often disparaged group statistics
what’s inside the behaving organism and that in APA journals, running each individual
grates on (the nerves of?) all of us behavior subject for a period of time but proving the
analysts (not “behaviorologists” a term that point we wanted to, both for the individuals
grates on our nerves, pace Skinner), but the and the groups we were comparing. Both
cognitive psychologists who seceded from normal and schizophrenic subjects could
the APA and formed the Association for Psy- have their verbal behavior conditioned but
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chological Science or those that stayed put, schizophrenic subjects extinguished faster.
do in fact all follow scientific protocols even No cognitive speculation was engaged in,
though they are not ours and their specula- nor required, to have the papers published
tion or interpretation does indeed follow ob- in the “nonbehavioral” literature.
serving behavior on the part of their subjects. Ulman’s (1993/2014) pessimistic view of
They also use complicated statistical analyses the place of behavior analysis in psychology
for groups of subjects but occasionally study appears to be buttressed by a development
single subjects, (viz. , an early cognitive psy- that should have made him more optimistic
chologist, Ebbinghaus) and although they about it, namely what he calls the “techno-
often do not understand radical behavior- cognitive drift” away from the basic science
ism or think it dead, they are the ones who of behavior when in fact that development of
use methodological behaviorism religiously applied behavior analysis has shown increas-
for all their studies. They measure behavior ingly that basic behavior analysis applied is
by examining reaction time or frequency of not only effective with some very difficult
response or ability to match stimuli, etc., and and seemingly unchangeable behaviors as
they collect all of these measures in precise in autism but stands out as the only form of
ways. They obtain reliability measures on all therapy to be so effective! Basic and applied
the responses that they collect. Do the sta- science interact in a productive manner
tistics that these cognitive (methodological) when the principles can be shown to be not
behaviorists (for that is what they are before only relevant to their application but to be
they start leaving the responses that they col- so relevant as to produce an effective thera-
lect so reliably) employ, invalidate the data peutic result!
that they collect? Does the speculation that The exchange of letters between Ulman
they engage in make their behavioral data and Skinner unfortunately confuses the
“nonbehavioral”? clinical experimental disagreement with the
Towards the end of his life, Skinner cognitive behavioral controversy. Skinner is
lamented the absence of the cumulative bothered by the fact that articles in psychol-
curve in JEAB but he too has not always ogy all refer to the insides of the behaving
employed it, e.g., Skinner’s (1959) examina- organism but what he dismisses because there
tion of Gertrude Stein’s writing, his study is so much discussion of all that is the fact
of Shakespeare’s sonnets (Skinner, 1939) that most, if not all, experimental papers do
with respect to alliteration. Schoenfeld and in fact start with the measurement of behav-
Cummings (1973) worked on information ior. Indeed, there is no alternative to that.
theory and word guessing. These studies That is what I started with at the beginning
sound very much like cognitive studies un- of this article and that is what I must end on.
78 Commentaries and Replies
No matter how much speculation each psy- during the clinical interview. Journal
chologist engages in, he or she cannot escape of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 57,
from the fact that in order to do what they 84-90.
believe is the important part of what they Salzinger, K. & Pisoni, S. (1960). Reinforce-
do, they must study behavior. It is up to us, ment of verbal affect responses of normal
the behavior analysts, to sift the literature subjects during the interview. Journal
of psychology and to find the behavior that of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60,
gives rise to all the physiological and cogni- 127-130.
tive speculation. We must sift the dross to Schoenfeld, W. N. and Cummings, W. W.
find the behavioral gold that constitutes our (1973). Verbal dependencies in the analy-
interest and our definition of psychology as sis of language behavior: Experiment 1.
the study of behavior. In K. Salzinger & R.S. Feldman (Eds.),
It will not do to cry over all the dross; we Studies in verbal behavior: An empirical
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must review the literature and find the gold approach. (pp. 246–274) New York, NY:
that is hidden there. Using that gold, we can Pergamon Press.
then go on to study psychology as we define Skinner, B. F. (1939). The alliteration in
it, namely as the study of behavior. Shakespeare’s sonnets: A study in literary
behavior. Psychological Record, 3, 186-192.
References Skinner, B. F. (1959). Has Gertrude Stein a
secret? In B. F. Skinner (Ed.) Cumulative
Keller, F. S. & Schoenfeld, W. N. (1950). record. (pp. 261–271) New York NY:
Principles of psychology: A systematic text Appleton-Century-Crofts.
in the science of behavior. New York, NY: Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner let-
Appleton-Century-Crofts. ters. European Journal of Behavior Analysis,
Salzinger, K. & Pisoni, S. (1958). Reinforce- 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from Behaviorol-
ment of affect responses of schizophrenics ogy, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Kurt Salzinger provides the reader with independent science, named differently
a valuable service by reminding us that psy- and based on his analysis of contingent
chologists engage in all the protocols of sci- behavioral phenomena? Why has there been
entific work. They observe behavior, count such an extraordinary exodus by so many
it in natural settings, and experiment with from the discipline of psychology? Whether
it in laboratories. At least, many of these trained in its scientific or clinical aspects,
actions occur in psychology’s nonclinical now renamed professionals, they left to
side. In short, though, at least one set of its start and currently to maintain and expand
professionals—cognitive (methodological) their own science and discipline—behavior
behaviorist—could be designated as hav- analysis. It is not a question of whether
inga science. I would agree with Salzinger. it will happen. It has happened. There are
Why, then, all the fuss? Why did Skin- degree-granting programs in behavior
ner and I originally debate—or perhaps analysis throughout the world, and there
more accurately—discuss the merits of an is legal recognition, certification boards,
Commentaries and Replies 79
and disciplinary organization, along with difficulties with some of the data their col-
professional journals. To put the original leagues collect. But that is an issue within
question forward again but more gently, psychology. The larger issue here is between
why? Such splits do and have occurred in the the two sciences: that of psychology with its
past, such as the Galileans and Aristotelians. interpretation of behavior as a convenient
Both studied physical phenomena. But they inference to mental states, and that of behav-
differed in how it was to be interpreted. ior analysis with its study of action as only
Through his delightful story about Shoen- a part of a contingency relation that is the
field and “nonbehavior,” Salzinger points to focus of concern.
the reason why. With Salzinger’s help, I shall There certainly is no problem using re-
make the reason a bit more explicit. As with spectable data from whatever sources and
the early natural philosophers (as physicists whatever science. But returning to what
were then called), the difference between Schoenfeld said, it certainly wasn’t just any
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their analysis of mental events by observing It is the framework of analysis that dis-
actions. Or put another way, cognitive psy- tinguishes the sciences, not the domain of
chologists do not notice nonbehavior. That study.
said, how do behaviorologists (in name and/
or practice) view cognitive psychologists? References
There is no better source for the answer than
Skinner’s (1977) article, “Why I am not Aronow, E. , Rezikoff, M., & Moreland, K.
a cognitive psychologist.” A major reason L. (1995). The Rorschach: Technique or
behaviorologists find cognitive psychology psychometric test? Journal of Personality
problematic is because appealing to cognitive Assessment, 64, 213–228.
states is a diversion from advancing Skinner- Keller, F. S., & Schoenfeld, W. N. (1995).
ian science. Thus, consider the cognitive term Principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA:
intention. As Skinner notes: The B. F. Skinner Foundation. (Original
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As Skinner points out, verbal behavior, like It is strange position for a selectionist
other behavior is selected by its consequences, scientist to accuse the contingencies or the
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and so is the verbal behavior of scientists. environment for not selecting their science.
So far, the variation of verbal behavior by A variation is selected by the current contin-
cognitive psychologist seems to have a better gencies, or it is not. I do not think writing
fit with the selecting contingencies than the correctional letters to editors who publish
verbal behavior ofa our scientific community. stories from lay psychology is a viable strategy
The one notable exception is the treatment of for making behavior analysis more influential.
autism. I will not comment on the reason why Punishing leading representatives in the en-
experimental and applied behavior analysis vironment for lacking the technically correct
within the field of autism has been such a vocabulary is a very bad idea for anyone pre-
global success, but it is thought-provoking. tending to be specialist in behavior analysis.
I will, however, comment on whether or not
we should break out of the so -called ghetto In What Kind of Ecology Will Behavior
or strengthen its walls, as Skinner formulates Analysis Survive and Expand?
it in the article “A World of Our Own”
(1993/2014). The obvious answer to the general question
The premise seems to be that the behavior of whether a species or a system can survive
analyst community is more or less a closed lies in the strength of the functional relations
system. Like all living organisms and systems, between the system and its environment.
the behavior analysis community is dependent Either the system adapts (changes) to its en-
on energy. Closed systems that do not match vironment, get extinct or the species or the
the complexity of their environments will die system moves to another habitat where the
(Bar-Yam, 1997). Thus, whether behavior system–environmental contingencies, offer
analysis should become an open system is matching levels of complexity.
not the issue. The complexity of our societal The question of strengthening the walls or
challenges calls for variation. Closed systems coming out of the ghetto, addressed by Skin-
that do not interact with their environment ner, is a question of whether to adapt to the
will not be selected. The question is rather; in verbal community in which we are a part, or
what kind of habitat can the endangered species looking around for a better fit in some other
best survive and expand? The editors raise the ecology.
question of whether that should be together Adjusting to our current ecology by
with psychology, or as a discipline on our own. adapting parts of the cognitive approach is
a risky business. Our empirically based con-
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
ceptual framework from the philosophy of
dressed to Ingunn Sandaker at ingunn.sandaker@hioa.no radical behaviorism is our scientific heirloom.
82 Commentaries and Replies
I completely agree with Skinner that we shall rigor of behavior analysis, the philosophy
not compromise when it comes to the rigor and the science. I will also strongly support
of the philosophy and science of behavior. Skinner in his view on expanding the scope
Skinner refers to research on thermodynam- of behavior analysis. He takes the position
ics, which might serve as an example on that we should improve our contact with
classical conceptual framework refined and the other behavioral sciences. In an increas-
adapted to the study of new phenomena. The ingly complex world, societal challenges calls
concepts of classical mechanics were initially for complementary solutions rather than
used to describe quantum phenomena that antagonistic or fragmentary approaches.
were far beyond the scope of classical physics, Instead of asking whether behavior analysis
developed to answer very different questions should be part of psychology or a discipline
(Bohr, 1954/1990, p. 88). on its own, we should ask: How do we con-
In contrast to many social sciences, be- tribute to and strengthen a unified science
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Ingunn Sandaker takes a unique approach organisms, does not match the complexity
in writing her commentary: complex system of its environment.” She emphasizes that
theory—where a complex system is a group whether our science should be an open or
or organization made up of many interacting closed system is not the question. Noting
parts (e.g., global climate, economies, ant that a closed system not interacting with its
colonies, immune systems, and evolution). environment will not be selected—she asks,
Thus, in terms of complex system theory, she “As an ‘endangered species,’ should we ‘be
begins by referring to her understanding of together with psychology, or as a discipline
Skinner’s perspective on our science: on our own?’ ” Moreover, “Does being a
discipline on our own mean not participating
The behavior analyst community is more or in any interdisciplinary research?”
less a closed system. Like all living organisms While I appreciate how Sandaker has
and systems, the behavior analysis community
is dependent on energy. Closed systems that applied her specialty—complex systems
do not match the complexity of their envi- theory—to the issues discussed in the
ronments will die (Bar-Yam, 1997). Thus, Ulman-Skinner letters and in Skinner
whether behavior analysis should become an (1993/2014), I am not very well acquainted
open system is not the issue. The complexity with complex system theory. Nonetheless,
of our societal challenges calls for variation.
Closed systems that do not interact with their there are statements in her commentary that
environment will not be selected. The ques- need to be addressed from a behaviorological
tion is rather; in what kind of habitat can the standpoint. First, there are some statements
endangered species best survive and expand? that I just don’t understand, and would be
remiss for not mentioning them. Starting
According to Sandaker, the authors with the first paragraph, in what ways do
(Skinner, 1993/2014; Ulman, 1993/2014) cognitive psychologists, through variation
raise the question of whether we should be in verbal behavior, “have a better fit with
together with psychology, or as a discipline the selecting contingencies than the verbal
on our own. Well, we certainly don’t want to behavior of our scientific community”? What
be a closed system that does not match our is the mystery about why the “field of autism
environment! She offers, “Supposing that the has been such a global success”? In the third
behavior analyst community is somewhat paragraph, Sandaker exclaims, “It is strange
of a closed system, and as such, like living position for a selectionist scientist to accuse
84 Commentaries and Replies
the contingencies or the environment for assuming that such a community of hetero-
not selecting their science.” Behavior analysts dox economists would have an evolutionary
and behaviorologists are certainly selectionist understanding of culture, and therefore a
scientists. But we don’t accuse contingen- close affinity with the behaviorological view
cies of anything. Contingency relations are of culture. In my initial reading of the in-
the subject matter of our science, what we stitutional economics literature, I remember
systematically investigate. However, the ques- becoming quite excited when I read in one
tion posed is at the cultural level, at which book (Dugger, 1992): “The institutional
metacontingencies and macrocontingen- approach takes the psychological perspective
cies apply; but I am not aware of any such of behaviorism . . . . Behaviorism grounds
an investigation. An excellent preliminary the roots of human action in institutional
way to explore this issue, though, is in your structures rather than in individual prefer-
hand—this special issue of the European ences” (pp. 77-78); assuming, of course,
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B. F. Skinner, Psychologist
Henry D. Schlinger, Jr.
California State University, Los Angeles
For his entire professional career B. F. man’s letters) are intended to make Ulman’s
Skinner behaved as a psychologist. He earned case that because psychology is forever mired
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his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard; and in dualism, it will never become a natural
he was a member of the American Psycho- science of behavior.
logical Association (APA) until his death, Skinner (1993/2014), in an article titled,
having not only given talks at their annual “A world of our own,” finally agreed with Ul-
conventions, but also published many of his man that psychology is not a natural science
articles in the American Psychologist (and other of behavior. Skinner conceded that although
psychology journals), including his very last Watson was successful in purging introspec-
one. (The APA also bestowed upon Skinner tion as the main method in psychology,
numerous awards over the years, including its neither he nor Watson had been successful in
first lifetime achievement award.) He always purging psychology of its reliance on internal
taught in psychology departments (Harvard, events both as objects of study and as explana-
University of Minnesota, and Indiana Uni- tions of behavior. He seemed to suspect this
versity, where he was also chair). And he was failure fairly early on when he wrote:
president of the Midwestern and Eastern
Psychological Associations. But, despite being Those committed to sequestered faculties and
solidly ensconced as a psychologist, Skinner thought processes are not likely to feel at home
in the analysis of behavior itself and may,
always directed his behavior at achieving Wat- therefore, find it inacceptable as an alternative
son’s (1913) desire that psychology should be explanation (Skinner, 1963, p. 507).
a natural science whose theoretical goal is the
prediction and control of behavior. And, he was not too happy with recent de-
Ulman (1993/2014) wrote several letters velopments in his own field. After delineating
in which he tried to persuade Skinner that the subject matter of operant learning—the
no amount of reasoning or empirical findings “process by which variations selected by their
would ever convince psychologists to adopt reinforcing consequences become part of the
a natural science perspective, and that a new repertoire of the individual,” the “world of
discipline—behaviorology—was called for. our own”—and placing it between ethology
Skinner’s response to Ulman suggested that and cultural anthropology—the other two
he believed that psychology would eventu- disciplines which study variation and selec-
ally come around and that he did not like the tion—Skinner (1993/2014) bemoaned the
term behaviorology, despite the fact that his fact that recent research in behavior analysis
daughter and son-in-law had adopted it. These had been directed at answering questions
Ulman-Skinner letters (which are mostly Ul- framed by cognitive psychology (e.g., concept
formation).
Without commenting on the value of
Correspondence concerning this article should be replacing the name behavior analysis with
addressed to Henry D. Schlinger, Jr., 5151 State University
Dr., Los Angeles, CA, 90032. Email: hschlin@calstatela.edu behaviorology, Skinner (1993/2014) stated
Commentaries and Replies 87
that behavior analysts should strengthen is somewhat awkward, and usually needs to
the walls of their own self-made ghetto and be explained. However, the disadvantages,
rather than continuing to make contacts some mentioned by Skinner (1993/2014),
with “other kinds of psychology,” they are practical ones and still outweigh the
should build alliances with other behavioral advantages.
sciences, including ethology, neuroscience, Those disadvantages relate to the profes-
sociology, economics and political science, sional contingencies that operate for behavior
and they should return to basic experimen- analysts. For one, most doctoral-level behav-
tal analysis to address the many remaining ior analysts have degrees in psychology. If
“unsolved puzzles.” But until the end, he they are interested in pursuing an academic
maintained that behavior analysis would career, then they will most likely work in
Downloaded by [Texas A & M International University] at 12:38 21 August 2015
If faculty with EAB training can also set up Friman, P. C. (2010). Come on in, the water
experimental laboratories, then perhaps they is fine: Achieving mainstream relevance
can tackle some of the “unsolved puzzles” through integration with primary medi-
noted by Skinner. ABA students need quality cal care. The Behavior Analyst, 33, 19-36.
instruction in all facets of behavior analysis, Madden, G. J., Platt, K. P., Jewett, D. C., &
not just its application, so that they may be Morse, L. A. (2004). A forgotten resource
more effective as applied behavior analysts. critical to the future of behavior analysis:
An unintended dividend of more be- Undergraduate psychology majors. The
havior analysts in universities is that other Behavior Analyst, 27, 33-41.
academicians will learn more about behavior Michael, J. (1980). Flight from behavior
analysis, which can hopefully change their analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 3, 1-21.
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to the term when I advised: “If I may sug- be more to come, and in the near future.
gest a remedy: in the privacy of your bath, (Schlinger did not mention doctoral degrees
try saying behaviorology aloud at least 50 in behaviorology, so I’m adding it here.)
times”(Ulman, 2014, p. 15); he replied: “I Second, he correctly notes that there are no
am grateful for the enthusiasm and loyalty of departments of behaviorology, nor is it likely
the behaviorologists. I’ll try saying the word that granting agencies would “recognize a
to myself in the bathtub and see how good brand new discipline”—issues that Skinner
a predictor you are” (p. 16-17). also raised in his letters. In my letters, the
Schlinger: “The main issue for this set of term behaviorology was never promoted as a
commentaries is nothing less than the future “brand name.” Rather, I take the long view
of behavior analysis, whatever we call it.” of history and project that sooner or later the
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He goes on to ask, rhetorically: “whether term will come to replace behavior analysis.
behavior analysts should continue to oper- It has so much going for it, as Schlinger so
ate within the literal and figurative walls of astutely observes.
psychology or stake out a new terrain and Ending his commentary, Schlinger
hope that the family of natural sciences and examines “what behavior analysts can do
the institutions in which they operate begin to further their discipline wherever they
to recognize it.” He adds: “The answer is not reside”—which I also fully endorse. Addi-
an unambiguous one.” It may not be unam- tionally, I would urge that we should work
biguous for Schlinger, but it is for me. First, toward decreasing the “techno-cognitive
I’m assuming he means behavior analysts drift”: (a) the unintended use of cognitive
should stay right where they are within the terms in clinic settings when describing
walls of psychology, and not risk moving in their clients’ responding to behavior-change
with natural scientists. What makes his as- programs; and (b) where graduates from
sertion ambiguous is his failure to consider a behavior analysis programs know too little
third alternative: to operate within the walls about the experimental analysis of behavior.
of behavior analysis (or behaviorology when Although the recent addition of “Functional
the time is ripe) by succeeding in establishing Knowledge” to the Behavior Analysis Certifi-
our own departments; to wit—the Depart- cation Board’s BACB Fourth Edition Task List
ment of Behavior Analysis at the University is a definite improvement; albeit, not having
of North Texas; Department of Behavior the experience of working with nonhumans
Analysis at Simmons College, Boston; the in an operant chamber is an unfortunate loss
Department of Behavioral Science at Oslo (an experience I valued highly in my doctoral
and Akershus University College; and En- work at Southern Illinois University in the
dicott College (soon to be a university with mid-1970s).
a Ph.D. program in behavior analysis). My So ends my commentary on Schlinger’s
point: There’s no debate about behavior commentary. It was an enjoyable read.
analysis separating from psychology—it has
already happened! Hopefully, more will be References
on the way soon.
Schlinger: “Let me begin by commenting Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
on the term ‘behaviorology.’ ” He starts with European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
a discussion of the advantages of the term, 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
with which I hardily agree. Then he discusses 1993, 1, 1–5).
the disadvantages, with which I take issue. Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman–Skinner
First, Slinger writes, “until very recently, there letters. European Journal of Behavior
were no institutions that granted Ph.D.s in Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
behavior analysis.” I wager that there will Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Commentaries and Replies 91
APA or ABA?
Murray Sidman
Sarasota, Florida
The basic question asked by Skinner specifiable conditions. I was, however, just a
(1993/2014) and Ulman (1993/2014) is young student. I was seeing new aspects of
whether or not the study of behavior should behavior determined by new kinds of variables
be part of Psychology. A long time ago, based but this was happening in a course labelled
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on personal experiences, I came to a quite Psychology 1-2, which was taught by profes-
definite conclusion about where the study sors in the Psychology department of a great
of behavior belongs. No matter what one university. Although what I was seeing was
believes the place of an analysis of behavior new to me, I was seeing it under the guidance
should be, it has actually never been nor will of people who called themselves psychologists.
it ever be in Psychology. The best justification I knew I was seeing new developments but
I can give for my position will be to relate I thought, naively, that these were advances
some aspects of my own history which I in an already established scientific field. I as-
believe have been the most relevant of the sumed that we were not only learning new
variables that have determined my own be- things about behavior but that we were
havior with respect to the question at issue. actually changing the science of Psychology.
When I took one of the earliest versions Although we had strong support from
of Keller and Schoenfeld’s introductory some of the Psychology faculty, it became ap-
Psychology lab course (Keller & Schoenfeld, parent quickly that most of the pychologists
1949), I realized quickly that I was seeing would have preferred us to go away. They tried
things I had not seen before in any lab course to restrict our access to the department’s ani-
in any traditional science. The little animal I mal care facility and to remove the laboratory
worked with did everything the lab manual from the elementary course, returning it to the
(which was still being developed) said it standard lecture format. The opposition to a
would do if I also did what the manual told behaviorial orientation also received consid-
me to do. The animal behaved in particular erable support from faculty in other depart-
ways under particular environmental condi- ments. To them, behaviorism was a threat to
tions more reliably than I had become ac- the deeply entrenched conception that human
customed to seeing in my physical, chemical, behavior was only a manifestation of assumed
biological, and psychological laboratories. internal entities like the mind, cognitions, the
When I did what Skinner (1938) had done, intellect, the inner person, and for some, even
my little subject did exactly what Skinner’s the soul. Behaviorism had no place in it for a
had done. mind or a soul. It was therefore assumed to be
This was new and thrilling to me: pre- empty; students were not to be exposed to it.
dictable behavior of a living organism under Well, I was a brash young man and I just
assumed that these opponents of behavioral
analysis were just a few old-timers who were
Correspondence concerning this article should be not keeping up with progress. I was really
addressed to Murray Sidman at 3435 Fox Run Road, Unit
347, Sarasota, FL 34231. Email: murraysidman@comcast. brought up short, however, when I submit-
net. Phone: (941) 923 7525 ext. 347 ted my dissertation to a psychology journal.
92 Commentaries and Replies
I begin to realize that psychology’s opposi- These were highly successful and were joined
tion to behavior analysis was widespread, later by many other journals with behavioral
deep, and merciless. The initial editorial orientations. People ask me sometimes why I
reactions to my dissertation were so strongly publish only in those journals. They make the
negative that I reacted in a way that I am good point that non behaviorally oriented psy-
sure the editors did not expect from an un- chologists need to know what we are accom-
known. I even accused them of personally plishing. My reply was—and remains—that
insulting my dissertation sponsors, whose even if the standard psychology journals did
theories my data were supporting. I made accept my work, none of their readers would
a folder of this correspondence that I called pay any attention to it. Behavioral research
my poison-pen file. deals with variables, procedures, concepts, and
The journal editors initially accepted nei- goals that most psychologists find unfamiliar
ther what I had done nor how I had done it. and to which they react with hostility. The
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After much back and forth correspondence, founding of the behavioral journals was the
it became clear to me that my work was be- product of necessity. Without publication,
ing rejected because the editors—powerful which permitted us to build on each other’s
determiners of what was to become part of research and theorizing, our work would have
the science of Psychology—did not want to remained essentially undone.
inform others about either my data or my There are, of course several fine behavioral
data gathering procedures. Eventually, how- researchers who still call themselves psycholo-
ever, I agreed to a compromise, part of which gists and publish in psychological journals.
required me to eliminate the introduction This is inevitable because if a researcher is to
that described the new avoidance procedure have a paying job that allows him/her to live a
I had developed. I had no problem publish- reasonably comfortable life and to raise a fam-
ing the introductory procedures and data ily, there are very few university departments
instead in the prestigious journal, Science of behavior analysis. To do behavioral research,
(Sidman, 1953). they must give themselves labels like “behav-
My difficulties with the principal psy- ioral psychologist” and then, some university
chological journals continued, but probably departments of Psychology are willing to have
because of my refusals to accept rejection, I one of them as a member, just as they have one
did publish additional papers there. But it of each of many psychology subdivisions, each
soon became apparent that I was almost the quite independent of the others. They remain
only radical behaviorist who succeeded in together only by refraining from dealing with
doing so. It turned out that the journal, Sci- each other’s subject matter.
ence, was receptive to our work and several An example: After twenty years during
of us published there. Eventually, however, which I was required only to do research, I
that changed; Science began rejecting our joined the Psychology department of a non-
work. This was coincident with the rise of medical college. There, I was assigned the di-
cognitive psychology from which Science rection of the graduate proseminar, which took
began to draw its reviewers. They rejected up successively each of the types of psychology
everything behavioral, succeeding so well in in the department. I made the mistake of at-
their opposition that they eventually boasted tending all the proseminar sessions and taking
that behaviorism was dead. part in the discussions. As a consequence,
Publication was, of course, essential. A the faculty attempted to deny me the tenure
group of us therefore founded the Journal they had promised to give me at the end of
of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior my first year. They did not want their subject
(JEAB), which was joined later by the Jour- matters to be infected by behavioral thinking.
nal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA). Because of the turmoil this caused among
Commentaries and Replies 93
the students, the dean eventually fired the names what we do: We analyze behavior.
department head and gave me the promised I usually tell people who ask that I am a
tenure. From then on, I made no attempts to behavior analyst. That sometimes requires
display interest in the various nonbehavioral explanation but it is more truthful than to
forms of psychology that were represented call myself a psychologist.
in the department.
Psychology is well established in posi- References
tions of power in most universities. Where
applied behavior analysis has been obvi- Keller, F. S., & Schoenfeld, W. N. (1949).
ously effective, psychologists keep trying The psychology curriculum at Columbia
to get laws established that would require College. Americal Psychologist, 4, 165-
behavior analysis to be practiced only by 172.
psychologists, even though psychologists Sidman, M. (1953). Avoidance conditioning
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get no training in applied behavior analysis. with brief shock and no exteroceptive
Academic Psychology will never recognize warning signal. Science, 118, 57-58.
Behavior Analysis except as a threat. I be- Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organ-
lieve that attempts by behavior analysts to isms: An experimental analysis. New York,
change Psychology are doomed. The energy NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
of behavior analysts should be directed in- Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
stead to establishing behavior analysis as an European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
independent discipline. 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
As for what that discipline should be called, 1993, 1, 1–5).
Behaviorism represents a philosophy, and Be- Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
haviorology is so general that it could include letters. European Journal of Behavior
Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
almost anything. Behavior Analysis, however, Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Now I must move on to discuss a state- revised to read: “any of the sciences (as phys-
ment Sidman made that needs further ics, chemistry, biology, or behaviorology . .
consideration, especially since it requires . .” Why my confidence? These four natural
guessing what may be best for the future: sciences have more in common than “that
“As for what that discipline should be called, deal with matter, energy, and their interrela-
Behaviorism represents a philosophy, and Be- tions and transformations or with objectively
haviorology is so general that it could include measurable phenomena.” Viewed from the
almost anything. Behavior Analysis, however, perspective of the cosmos, the natural sci-
names what we do: We analyze behavior.” A ences explain the emergence of the material
reasonable position, but one problem with world. Taken together, these natural science
the term behavior analysis is that it connotes disciplines specify how one phenomenon
our methodology, not our subject matter. emerged from the preceding phenomenon—
Another problem is that there is such a physics, chemistry, biology, behaviorology,
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The question for discussion in this issue The first time I heard about the idea of
of EJOBA is appropriate as well as important behavior analysis becoming a separate field of
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and needs discussion. Of course, noone can study, separate from psychology, was in 1985
know exactly what the future of behavior when I heard and read about praxics (Ep-
analysis will be, it will depend on so many stein, 1984). The case for Praxics was a very
variables, but we who work in the field today convincing one indeed, I found it so then and
must have a vision of what we want it to be I still do today. However, the attempts and
in the future without forgetting our past. If steps reported in the article as having been
we don´t have a vision of where the field is taken in order to establish the new scientific
heading and of possible consequences of our field of praxics did not flourish. Some years
choices, both good and bad, we might not get later, I think in 1991, I came across the term
anywhere. Having a clear vision we can per- Behaviorology. I did not however, become
haps, if and when possible, take steps towards familiar with the writings on Behaviorology
that end. If our efforts are coordinated, we are until more than a decade later. The ideas
more likely to achieve our goal or at least get behind both Praxics and Behaviorology are
closer to the vision we have for our field. First very similar, give or take a few issues. The ar-
we need to discuss the matter, then create a guments for the establishment of a new field
vision that we agree on, and then we can start with a new name are the same, namely that
taking steps towards that end. psychology still offers mystical explanations
I have often speculated about the correct of behavior and is therefore not a natural sci-
path to follow with regard to this issue in the ence and that a science of behavior, namely
past almost 30 years and have not yet arrived the science established by B. F. Skinner, does
to a final conclusion that I feel very strongly offer explanations of behavior that are built
about. Ulman (1993/2014) makes a strong on a natural science approach. I don´t think
case for Behaviorology. I see both pros and there are any basis for disagreement here.
cons to both remaining part of psychology and It is interesting that in a recent article by
to divorcing psychology, I do however share Ledoux (2012), he writes about the field of
the dream with many colleagues of seeing be- Behaviorology as an already established field
havior analysis recognized, accepted, credited, which is remarkable in light of the fact that
well represented, correctly understood and Behaviorology has had very few followers
growing. Will this remain a dream or can we among the thousands of behavior analysts.
make it happen by parting from psychology? I am not sure why. It is indeed impressive
how many books have been written about
Correspondence concerning this article should be Behaviorology, the fact that a journal has
addressed to Dr. Zuilma Gabriela Sigurðardóttir, zuilma@ been regularly published for many years, the
hi.is or Faculty of Psychology, Oddi, University of Iceland,
101 Reykjavík, Iceland. yearly meetings, and the fact that courses
96 Commentaries and Replies
on behaviorology have been and are being MS graduates of mine select jobs in the
taught at a university. I applaud the efforts pre- and elementary school system or social
but wonder about the effect it has had. welfare system with families. They don´t see
themselves as traditional pedagogues or social
What Has Been Done? workers, they see themselves as behavior ana-
lysts. Nevertheless, except for the formal de-
Both Epstein (1984) and Ledoux (2012) velopments that have taken place in applied
emphasize the need to establish depart- behavior analysis by establishing the BACB,
ments of praxics/behaviorology in natural later licencing efforts, and by establishment
science departments, for example in biology of the Association of Professional Behavior
(Ledoux, 2012). I wholeheartedly agree with Analysts, very few formal and massive at-
them. In a way, one could argue that with the tempts have been made to establish behavior
developments that have taken place in the last analysis as a separate dicipline from psychol-
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15 years with the Behavior Analyst Certifica- ogy, so many of us still work within the realm
tion Board (BACB) and board certification of psychology, trying to reform it, as Watson
of behavior analysts (BCBA), which in some and Skinner did for so long (Epstein, 1984;
states of the United States has now become Skinner, 1993/2014; Ulman, 1993/2014). It
the basis for licencing of behavior analysts, so often feels like a waste of time.
a movement towards a new dicipline has
already started. The number of university What Do We Need to Do?
programs with pre-approved courses by the
BACB that have the purpose to prepare The establishment of study programs
students for taking the certification exam, in behavior analysis around the world that
has grown tremendously, and they are not offer courses that have been pre-approved
found only in the United States as was the by the BACB has been amazingly success-
case prior to the establishment of the BACB, ful and has had a very rapid growth. Most
but around the world. I recently had the likely this is mostly due to the great and
experience of hearing about a young man in growing demand for BCBAs globally. This
Massachusetts, who was about to finish his is key. BCBA programs of study are not
college degree and was considering becom- necessarily in psychology departments, they
ing a behavior analyst. He had even applied are also in education departments (where
for a summer internship at a place where he we are not popular either and where we also
could work with BCBAs and get to know struggle for reform) and research institutes.
their jobs. He did not aim to be a psycholo- The focus of these programs, however, is in
gist, he wanted to become a behavior analyst! applied behavior analysis, mostly in the area
This young man was looking for graduate of developmental disabilities. Their focus
programs that would allow him to become is not on research, i.e., on producing new
one and had found several. This is surely a knowledge about behavior. Thus, despite the
sign that a new field is born. Likewise, in unprecedented dissemination and increase
my position as teacher of behavior analysis, of study programs in behavior analysis in
I work with students who graduate with a BS universities in the last 15 years, these efforts
in psychology and some do not want to be- will not suffice for the survival of behavior
come licenced psychologist but wish instead analysis in universities, without a science,
to work with behavior- or learning problems. i.e., search for new knowledge, the field
Those come to study with me and finish a will perrish. If behavior analysis is going
research MS degree in psychology instead to survive, instead of disolving slowly into
of the typical Scandinavian Cand.Psych. other fields due to lack of knowledge about
degree required for licencing as psychologist. its breath, depth, and its philosophy, due to
Commentaries and Replies 97
misuse and misunderstandings, and mix and But it may become available when students
match with other incompatible approaches will be in long lines waiting to be able to
to behavior, we need to establish university enter a program of study where they will be
programs in the science of behavior, under- able to search for and produce themselves
graduate and graduate programs. We have new knowledge about behavior. We can
more than enough material to teach at all start small and then grow. Of importance
levels both in the experimental analysis of is the education of students in order to give
behavior and the other fields of behavior them the necessary background to create
analysis. We need to educate future behavior motivation for the future. Ledoux (2012)
scientists about the philosophy behind the even encourages teaching behaviorology
science of behavior and how that philosophy at the pre-university level. We can divorce
is different from other philosophies about psychology and go our own way, create our
human nature and human behavior. We own path, put our efforts there, but if and
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have to educate them about the history when we do we have to have a plan of action
of both the philosophy and the science, that must be carried on by our coordinated
about the different research fields of the efforts, not concentrate on a new label that
experimental analysis of behavior, about only a few know about.
methodology, about how that methodology
differs from other methods commonly used References
in other behavioral sciences, about applied
behavior analysis and the fields of applica- Epstein, R. (1984). The case for praxics. The
tion that have been developed but also about Behavior Analyst, 7, 101-119.
possible new fields of application that do Ledoux, S. F. (2012). Behaviorism at 100.
not yet exist. We have to talk to students American Scientist, 100 (1), 60-65.
not only about what we know and can do Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
in applied settings but more importantly European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
about what we don´t know and have yet to 21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
discover. In this way we may create demand 1993, 1, 1–5).
for graduate education in the experimental Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
analysis of behavior. This can be done as letters. European Journal of Behavior
praxics, behaviorology, or behavior analysis. Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
Funding is of course an issue, it always is. Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
Capturing the thrust the this special issue vision of what we want for our future. But
of the European Journal of Behavior Analy- without a vision of where the field is heading,
sis, Zuilma Gabriela Sigurðardóttir raises she observes,“ we might not get anywhere.”
important questions about what the future Perhaps true, but problematic.
of behavior analysis may hold. Recognizing Whether we are treating children with
that a multitude of variables are involved, autism, conducting applied behavioral re-
she perspicaciously advises that we must, search in a clinic, teaching students about
without forgetting our past, have a clear behavior analysis in the classroom, carry-
98 Commentaries and Replies
ing out basic research in an operant lab, or the blue, another participant—who just hap-
writing articles on the conceptual analysis of pens to be the chair of a graduate program in
behavioral phenomena—the subject matter behavior analysis—said, and these are his exact
with which we deal (the behavioral deficits words: “Skinner’s dead, get over it!” I would
of our clients, the progress of our students, like to think that such a bias is one in a hun-
analysis of the data we collect in the lab, or the dred among instructors in behavior analysis.
behavioral literature we peruse and critically But I wouldn’t bet on it, especially with those
evaluate) keep us going, not just reliance on having backgrounds primarily in psychology.
a vision—however substantial that many be. What, then, can we learn from the eclipse
Whether a “plan of action . . . must be carried of Darwinism? In his review of The Eclipse of
on by our coordinated efforts,” or whether or Darwinism, Catania (1987) explores some
not to “concentrate on a new label that only parallels between natural selection and be-
a few know about” are issues by the wayside. havior analysis suggested by The Eclipse of
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Unless the professional work we do has rein- Darwinism (Bowler, 1992). At the beginning
forcing effects, little or perhaps none of the is an overview of what, in the history of science
rest matters. In everyday terms, “It’s not a literature, is called the eclipse of Darwinism—a
matter of needing to, but wanting to.” The term coined by Julian Huxley, a proponent of
rest flows from that. natural selection—to describe the situation
To approach the many problems that Sig- at the end of the twentieth century when
urðardóttir raises, we need to consider them biologists came to ignore selectionism. That
globally within the context of the history of period ended in the 1940s with the “modern
the natural sciences; as an exemplar, the sup- synthesis,” the combining of natural selection
posed eclipse of Darwin’s theory of evolution. and Mendel’s theory of genetics. Catania ad-
For the next decade or so, can we rule out with duces: To the extent that Bowler’s book “paral-
assurance the possibility of an eclipse of Skin- lels the history of behavior analysis, it merits
nerism? Yes. In spite of the fact that Skinner’s our attention” (p. 249). However, the term
achievements are not as widely recognized as “eclipse” is ill-suited for either Darwinism or
they once were. Some will recall the annual Skinnerism.
conventions of the Association for Behavior In his scholarly chapter titled “The So-
Analysis in those years when Skinner spoke Called Eclipse of Darwinism,” Largent (2009)
in the hotel’s largest meeting room, always recommends that we abandon the metaphor
so crowded that the audience spilled out into of eclipse as grossly inappropriate.
the hallway provided with a speaker system. It
was also a time when leading magazines such A vestigial structure of the modern evolu-
as Times featured Skinner’s picture on their tionary synthesis, and the historians who
unquestionably adopted the term from their
front cover. historical subjects have not yet adequately
Today many graduate students in programs challenged their subjects’ depictions of the
emphasizing behavior analysis have had little research that preceded them. The term is a
or no exposure to the rigor of basic operant lingering relic that is no longer necessary . . . to
research. We should also be concerned about depict twentieth-century evolutionary biology
. . . We need a new term and a new concep-
how today’s students in behavior analysis tion of the work done in evolutionary biology
programs are being taught about Skinnerian between 1880 and 1940, one that analyzes early
science. An outrageous event directly encoun- twentieth-century evolutionary biology on its
tered will illustrate this point only too well. own terms, not merely in the context of what
At the annual conference of a state chapter of followed it. (p. 18)
the Association for Behavior Analysis Interna-
tional (ABAI), I was participating on a panel By the same token, then, we should not adopt
about the future of the science when, out of the metaphor the eclipse of Skinnerism. Largent
Commentaries and Replies 99
conceptual, experimental, and technological. Descended from Darwin: Insights into the
It is precisely our participation in this vast history of evolutionary studies, 1900–1970
activity that will keep both our science and (pp. 3–21). Philadelphia, PA: American
ourselves moving forward. Philosophical Society.
At the onset, I believe it will be helpful if latter part of the 19th century, psycholo-
I state that Frode Svartdal and I both write gists have debated about whether its proper
in English but our scientific dialects hardly subject matter consists of behavioral events
overlap. I also think it will be helpful if I or mental events” (p. 79). Svartdal titles his
begin by stating precisely what I mean when commentary “Reforming behavior analysis:
I use the term behaviorology. Below is the The third way.” So, what is the third way?
abstract from my article, “Behaviorology: The He begins by quoting Skinner where he
natural science of behavior” (Ulman, 2004): states that he would “prefer to remain a
psychologist . . . as Watson did in 1913. It
Behaviorology is the natural science of con- should be taught as a specialty of psychology,
tingent relations between actions and events. [just] as ethology [is taught as a] special part
Filling the gap between biology and the
materialistic study of sociocultural phenom- of biology” (Ulman, 2014, p. 14). Skinner
ena, behaviorology investigates the genetic, continues: “What is needed, I think, is not
physical, and cultural variables that determine so much reorganization or a new organiza-
behavior, both human and nonhuman. Like tion, but more active experimental work”
that of evolutionary biology, behaviorology’s (p. 14). Svartdal then relates that Skinner’s
paradigm is selectionistic: certain consequent
events select (reinforce) behavior. Behaviorol- strategy actually redefines the problem raised
ogy’s guiding philosophy, behavioral material- by Ulman and suggests that the position “in
ism, holds that (a) no inner agency initiates need of reform may be behavioral psychol-
actions and (b) all actions relate contingently ogy itself.” Granted, in my initial letter I did
to physical, biological, and behavioral events. write: “We should continue our struggle for
(p. 79).
the establishment of a scientific psychology”
(p. 11). About four months later I made a
Thus, it should now be clear where I’m
complete about-face: “It has become increas-
coming from. I will then proceed with my
ingly apparent to me that trying to reform
perspective on psychology: “Ever since psy-
psychology is not only a great waste of our
chology emerged from philosophy in the
Commentaries and Replies 103
time and effort, but sidetracks us from the In his Behavior section, Svartdal writes:
mainline of establishing a natural science “We should take a closer look at the meaning
of behavior” (p. 12). Thereafter I have of ‘behavior’.” He mentions Skinner’s state-
consistently referred to myself as a behav- ment that behavior should be understood
iorologist. as behavior in the organism as a whole,
The purpose of all the foregoing quotes which he deems as peculiar in 1993, but it
and discussion is to set the stage for replying is simply wrong today. Of course, there was
to Svartdal’s argument. In the interest of co- very little collaboration between behavior
herency, I will reply with my understanding analysis and neuroscience then in compari-
of the meaning of his third way as eclecti- son to today. Svartdal’s assertion that “radical
cism; that is, the theory or practice of an behaviorism” studies don’t ask about what
eclectic method: “selecting what appears to is going on inside the organism, mental or
be the best in various doctrines, methods, or neurophysiological; oddly, he doesn’t men-
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styles (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate, 2003, tion how the mental is investigated. Again,
p. 394).” On the plus side of eclecticism is no criterion is specified. Curiously, in the
variation, the core of selectionism. Just as same section, he refers to the “top 100 list
with natural selection and survival of a spe- of important contributions to cognitive sci-
cies, the greater the variation, the better the ence” that lists Skinner twice: in 16th place
chance of obtaining the adaptive end result. (“A review of Skinner’s ‘Verbal behavior’ by
Okay, let’s see how this third (eclectic) Noam Chomsky, 1959) and 94th place (“The
way works. In his Ideological limitations sec- operational analysis of psychological terms”
tion, Svartdal writes, “Compared to research by B. F. Skinner, 1947).
in other psychological sub-fields, behavior Going on in the same section, he asserts
analysis does not seem to foster the creative, that one problem with “behavior analysis at
original research necessary for progress.” the outset [is that it] rejects the idea that be-
With eclecticism, the criterion for success havior can be explained in terms of internal
is determined by the eclectic—in this case, factors” (which is false). But again, Svartdal’s
Svartdal. So, what is the criterion? Because third (eclectic) way fails us; he doesn’t say how
“creative, original research necessary for the third way would do it.
progress” is not specified, this assertion is In the Theory and hypothesis testing sec-
meaningless. For me, examples of progress tion, he writes: ‘Skinner favored an inductive
are the plethora of research-based interven- approach to research, but time has come for
tions available for our use, such as those that a closer examination of effective strategies. .
were so effective when I worked as a clinical . . Hypothesis testing is an effective way of
director in a center for children with autism. shaping beliefs by bringing them in contact
Next, Svartdal writes: “the strict ideological with reality. In contrast, inductive reasoning
regime within radical behaviorism regarding may be more susceptible to errors in inference
the subject matter and its measurement (rate because there is no good mechanism for cor-
of response), design (N=1), data analysis rection. His third way neither explains why
(visual, qualitative inspection, no statistics), hypothesis testing is better to shape beliefs or
and so on. No other psychological sub-field why inductive research has no good mecha-
provides comparable constraints on the re- nism for correction.
searcher.” From an electic standpoint, any In the last section, Theory and hypothesis
pre-specified outcome could be seen as a testing, we are to believe that there is no good
constraint. Without single-subject designs reason why single-subject designs should
and visual data analyses, we wouldn’t have continue to be preferred over the more
the effective behavioral technology that we traditional group designs with statistical
have today. So, for me that’s a good thing. analysis. The third way does not explain this.
104 Commentaries and Replies
The character Santiago in Ernest Hem- actions puzzling and almost offensive.
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mingway’s Old Man and The Sea, reminds He appeared to misinterpret this fundamen-
the reader of B. F. Skinner’s commentary in tal epistemological tenet as a form of personal
his 1986 correspondence with Jerry Ulmann rejection singularly directed at him.
regarding the future of behavior analysis Skinner never adequately reconciled the
published in EJOBA. From the very first fact that every major writer in literature, from
paragraph of The Old Man and The Sea, San- the Han Dynasty and Homer to Shakespeare,
tiago is struggling against defeat. He has gone and to Wislawa Szymborska and Maya An-
eighty-four days without catching a fish—he gelou, in every language has taken mental
will soon pass his own record of eighty-seven and emotional causes for granted, as long as
days. Almost as a reminder of Santiago’s there has been written language, with his own
struggle, the sail of his skiff resembles “the (and many of our) preference for external
flag of permanent defeat”. causes human behavior. It is not unreason-
But the old man refuses defeat at every able for the intellectually inquisitive reader
turn: he resolves to sail out beyond the limits to ask, “Can B. F. Skinner be right and every
of other fishermen to where the biggest fish other significant writer throughout human
promise to be. He lands the marlin, tying history be wrong about the role of private
his record of eighty-seven days after a brutal causes?” It is possible the answer is “yes,”
three-day fight, and he continues to ward off but I think not. Many of today’s scientists
sharks from stealing his prey, even though point out that most major writers throughout
he knows the battle is useless. Hemingway’s humankind have been wrong about their no-
Santiago like the version of B.F. Skinner por- tions of a deity and hereafter, aptly pointing
trayed in this question and answer document out epistemological verity is not a popularity
are deeply saddening. Skinner and Santiago contest. But striking is the fact that many
chose to fight to the bitter end. noteworthy philosophers of science empiri-
As he was approaching the end of his cal scientists have accepted the premise that
career and life Skinner appeared to feel that thoughts and feelings can be causally related
the science he had created was fighting a los- to people’s overt measurable actions (Russell,
ing battle and he seemed utterly perplexed 1912). Moreover, many have argued there is
with the reasons. In particular he seemed no empirical reason to reject the plausibility
to take the continued widespread popularity of private cases within an objective scientifi-
and acceptance of inner causes of people’s cally based analysis of behavior.
Second, Skinner calls upon each of us to
accept a premise that fails the sniff test. It
Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Travis Thomoson at travisthompson2@ just doesn’t smell right, and is not consistent
comcast.net with our own experience, namely that we do
106 Commentaries and Replies
things not because we think about them and intellectual as well as less rational reasons.
because of our emotional reactions to our He was doing intellectual battle with German
circumstances. Skinner wants us to have the introspectionism and ascendent psychoana-
ability in our daily lives to a analyze our ac- lytic theory of which he was rightfully critical.
tions in terms of remote Aristotelian original But in addition, Skinner was an atheist
causes (our histories in the external world that (Moore, 2005). He personally struggled with
made our reactions what they are) rather than religion and its inherent tenets that were in-
ascribing currently temporally antecedent and consistent with his objective science, as had
consequent events as comprising immediate Copernicus. Moreover, he sought solace from
causes (our thoughts and feelings). Each of us his own despair during that “dark period”
knows we do things because we think about in 1924 when his grandfather and younger
them and sometimes act because of our feel- brother died and his life seemed without
ings. To say otherwise defies common sense. direction. In rejecting religions’ immaterial
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Skinner set a requirement for acceptance of solutions, young Skinner sought an objective
his theory that could not be achieved. Not reality that led him on an alternative pathway
surprisingly, B.F. Skinner was disappointed. consistent with his objective analytic way of
Many historians assert that “THE cause,” thinking, he set upon a scientific approach
of Hitler’s annihilation of European Jews that seemed to offer answers, an environmen-
beginning in the late1930s is to be found in talist functional analysis of behavior. Having
the terms of the WW1 Treaty of Versailles, done so, he found it difficult to accept any
which created an unsolvable economic crisis incursions of the mental and physiological
for Germany leading to hyperinflation (Ho- into his science that seemed to him incom-
locaust Museum, 2014). As the argument patible with his theoretical position, even
goes, thee economic crisis made it possible for when they made intellectual sense, as they do
Hitler to incorrectly blame the Jews to a re- sometimes. His functional analytic approach
ceptive German populace, and scapegoat the borrowed from Claude Bernard, W. J. Cro-
Jews, which once unleashed led to their mass zier and L. J. Henderson, was robust, and not
murder. While it is likely true hyperinflation tarnished in the least by reference to proximal
served as an Establishing operation, making mental nor physiological causes rooted in in
aggression more probable, the proximate principle, independent observables. It could
cause was the existence of large paramilitary make his science more effective and provide
and military forces which overwhelmed any a more complete account.
limited countervailing political or social re- In the United States an empirical natural
course that might have succesfully prevented science of psychology was in the process of
the mass muder of millions of European Jews. being cleaved from philosophy’s rib. Thanks
By the time average European civilians real- to what some viewed to be an untimely birth
ized what was happening throughout Europe, of this new scientific discipline, Richard
it was much too late. Skinner would have Maurice Elliott had convinced the University
had us focus our attention on the Treaty of of Minnesota Administration to create an
Verssailles as the cause of the genocide of exciting new academic department emphasiz-
European Jews, not the armed racist para- ing the revolutionary natural science field of
military Brown Shirts as “the cause” of the Behaviorism (in the old fashioned sense, not
Holocaust during WW2. When the Allied the Skinnerian sense). Among the first hires
military forces eventually defeated Hitler’s were J.R. Kantor, John Dewey, Karl Lashley
military apparatus, it did not do so by ad- and B.F. Skinner (Thompson, 2014). But
dressing hyperinflation. Behaviorism was only a small part of the
An analysis of the reasons Skinner object- new academic field of psychology and B.
ed to inner causes suggests he had his own F Skinner had made the serious mistake of
Commentaries and Replies 107
setting about converting all of the remain- While forty years since ABAI was established
ing remnants of European experimental and seems a long time, in comparison with the
theoretial psychology making up the Ameri- Copernican or Darwinian revolutions, per-
can discipline, to abandon their misguided haps reasonable progress has been made. It
ways, and to join him and his small band of is unfortunate that B.F. Skinner could not
proto-behaviorists to remake psychology in accept a glass half or three-quarters full.
the theoretical framework of behaviorism…
not only old fashioned behaviorism, but B.F. References
Skinner’s new fangled Radical Behaviorism.
In due course, he wisely gave up on re- Baum, W. M. (2002) From molecular to molar:
forming psychology, and concluded the field A paradigm shift in behavior analysis. Jour-
of applied behavior analysis which his theory nal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
spawned, was turning into training minimally 78, 95-116.
Downloaded by [University of Cambridge] at 12:44 21 August 2015
skilled technicians. In that he was partially Hemingway, E. (1952). The old man and the sea.
correct. A large piece of the professional field New York, NY: Scribner and Sons.
IS turning into creating a corps of minimally Moore, J. (2005). Some historical and concep-
trained technicians with little quality control. tual background to the development of B.
He wanted a movement devoted to his epis- F. Skinner’s “radical behaviorism” – Part 1.
temology, the science of behavior, not what Journal of Mind and Behavior, 26, 65-94.
he saw as either mystical mental wizardry Rachlin, H. (1992) Teleological behaviorism.
involved in mixing cognitive psychology American Psychologist ,47, 1371-1382
with behavior analysis, or on the other hand, Russell, B. (1912). The problems of philosophy.
training minimally qualified practitioners in London, United Kingdom: Williams &
techniques as if they were a bag of tricks. His Norgate.
concern was people lacking an understanding Skinner, B. F. (1938)The behavior of organisms,
of the underlying principles of analysis of his New York, NY: Appleton-Century Crofts.
science being unleashed on a populace badly Skinner, B. F. (1945) Operationaly analysis of
needing assistance, without realizing their psychological terms. Psychological Review,
own limitations in what they were doing. His 52, 270-277.
concern was legitimate. Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior, New
Former Harvard Herrnstein students from York, NY: Appleton-Century Crofts.
the same laboratory (Baum, 2002; Rachlin, Staddon, J. E. R. (2014) The new behaviorism
1992; Staddon 2014) have sought to improve (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
on Skinner, wishing he had been a different Thompson, T. (2014). Noteworthy dates in the
scientist from the one he was. Fortunately history of behavior analysis. Unpublished
he was the Skinner of 1938, 1945 and 1957, book.
and not the apparition for which others have Thompson, T. (in press) Unfinished business:
wished (Thompson, in press). John E. R. Staddon's The New Behavior-
In this pluralistic world in which most ism, 2nd edition. Journal of the Experimental
genuine change and assimilation of new Analysis of Behavior.
ideas occurs incremental, he actually had Treaty of Versalilles, 1919: Impact of World
helped create such a science-rooted move- War I (n.d). In Holocaust encyclo-
ment within the Association of Behavior pedia of the United States Holocaust
Analysis International, but not with the Memorial Museum. Retrieved from
purity of commitment he demanded, http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article
nor which could realistically be expected. php?ModuleId=10005425
108 Commentaries and Replies
then “proves” the validity of is conclusions there is little in Thompson’s commentary that
by his initial premises. (Was he trying to il- deals with this question, there is little I can
lustrate how psychology works?) Other than write about in this reply.
In the second part of his autobiography lished a new unit of behavior—the operant.
(1979), Skinner notes that as a graduate He formulated the philosophical frames of
student he wrote the following note: “I have reference that asserted an independent science
almost gone over to physiology, which I find of behavior based on selectional contingencies
fascinating. But my fundamental interests and that excluded the homunculus which was
lie in the field of Psychology, and I shall the do-it-all explanatory agent of psychology.
probably continue therein, even if neces- He applied his science’s principles to solve so-
sary, by making over the entire field to suit cial problems of practical import, initiating in
myself.” (p. 38) He made a strenuous effort some institutions a whole new approach such
to make over the field. He conducted a set as that of programmed instruction. He even
of experimental operations which estab- addressed the ethical and utopian implications
of his novum scientiarum. The degree to which
Correspondence concerning this article should be
he thought he had been successful can be
addressed to Dr. E. A. Vargas, B. F. Skinner Foundation, judged by his final comments to a meeting of
18 Brattle Street, Suite 451, Cambridge, MA 02138. Office the professional organization of psychologists.
phone: 617-661-9209. Office fax: 617-218-9906. Email:
eavargas@mac.com. Here he explicitly stated that psychology,
Commentaries and Replies 109
with its agency imbued approach, was a form of Skinnerian science is a hazardous affair.
of creationism. It acknowledged the failure It is much like predicting the weather, and
at making over psychology. for the same reasons. Too many variables
Later he implied that maybe “behavior dynamically interact with each other over
analysis” was the new label under which his time, reciprocally changing values and pitch-
science could prosper. Many behavior ana- ing events awry. At least climatologists have
lysts were proclaiming a fervent commitment a rigorous underpinning science. Not so
to Skinnerian science. In the applied area, the with social scientists. Historians even argue
disciplinary label was establishing itself as a as to whether their discipline can ever be
distinct one. Behavior analysts were grow- a science. But if only a guess can be made
ing in numbers. Behaviorology was another then nevertheless a guess must be made. It is
possibility. In conversation and in correspon- certainly made by those who work to achieve
dence, Skinner was dubious about the name a desired outcome and turn their guess into
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“behaviorology”. He contended strongly that outcome. Engaged in this effort they can
that a department was needed. Part of his celebrate their vision of the uncertain future
uncertainty might have been an unease that by being able to point to the certain trends
“behaviorology” was not as well established as of the present. What are these?
“behavior analysis”. But there was no doubt, Professionals practicing Skinnerian sci-
for him and for others, that his new science ence operate under many labels and in many
required a new discipline with a new name. venues, but primarily in three disciplines: psy-
Shifts in name, with their attendant dif- chology, behaviorology, and behavior analysis.
ficulties, are not uncommon in the history What seems to be happening? Briefly, three
of the sciences. The physical sciences provide matters must be addressed: academic status,
more than one example: from “natural philos- legal recognition, and professional activity.
ophy” to “physics”; “alchemy” to “chemistry”; Psychology (mostly non-Skinnerian) and its
“astrology” to “astronomy”. The biological clinical aspect receive legal recognition. In ac-
sciences present a more complex example. ademic psychology, Skinner’s science is by and
The term “biology” is of recent coinage, dat- large deemed a perspective and in the many
ing from the 18th century. The label stuck thousands of psychology departments world
but the discipline shifted in how it dealt with wide, not all even have a “Skinnerian”. And
its subject matter. It obtained its scientific Skinner’s so-called “perspective” apparently is
status by repudiating essentialism, adopting not even accurately portrayed, as evidenced
a basic unit of analysis the cell, and rejecting by introductory textbooks (Yabuki, 2014,
a creating agent that formed species ad hoc March). Skinnerian scientists form only a
and substituting the Darwinian process that small division in psychology’s organizational
shaped species through natural selection. For sprawl. The conclusions are easy to draw as
both the physical and biological sciences, such to whether psychology would ever become
changes took place over centuries. In such the science of Skinner’s. He certainly drew
shifts, many of the agitations resembled those them. Behaviorology has an active profes-
over the current disciplinary transmutation. sional organization that holds conventions
No doubt the changes in the behavioral sci- and publishes its own journal. Currently a
ences will continue to be lengthy and conten- few behaviorology courses in one university
tious. The population of behavioral scientists are taught under a shared designator (BEHG/
exhibit a vast variety of repertoires within ABAP). Its professionals are few and its course
many preferred ecologies. offerings fewer. There is no legal recognition
With so much smoke and the fire that for practicing behaviorologists as it is not
produces it, predicting outcomes from the germane. Behaviorology denotes itself as a
current differences over the independence basic science.
110 Commentaries and Replies
torate programs now make their appearance, ary independence of Skinner’s science from
for example in the United States (three in its accidental expression in psychology
Massachusetts alone) and in Europe (one in will continue to be argued with passionate
Norway). Degree granting in a subject area conviction. Such argument will not change
powerfully demonstrates disciplinary status. the further consolidation of the discipline
Legal recognition exemplifies another pow- of behavior analysis. More professional
erful indicator of independent disciplinary behavior analysts at all degree levels will be
status relevant for such important matters produced, more will be hired with a variety
as protecting the public and such mundane of titles with “behavior analyst” in them,
ones as third party insurance payments. The more will be credentialed by the behavior
legal practice, especially its applied or clini- analyst’s own credentialing board, and more
cal side, of behavior analysis is so recognized. will be licensed under a variety of bureaus in
These facts make it clear that there is no issue differing venues in different countries. The
as to whether there should be an independent only problematic issue and rather murky one
discipline based on Skinner’s science. Already, is whether the science Skinner started will
there is one. continue to thrive under its current name of
As plain as the degree on one’s wall, the in- “behavior analysis”. Or whether, as natural
dependent discipline currently calls itself “be- philosophy did, behavior analysis will split
havior analysis”. As well as academic programs into a basic science labeled “behaviorology”
and legal status, many professional activities with its various engineering fields designated
occur under the disciplinary title. Current by their behavior analytic specializations.
professional endeavors by behavior analysts In any case, the Skinnerian eyas has flown
range from providing small-scale personal its original roost. Skinner would have been
benefits (clicker training dogs) to engaging in pleased.
large-scale social efforts (conserving natural re-
sources). Behavior analysts in many countries References
hold many conferences throughout the year
with papers presenting the latest behavior an- Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behav-
alytic findings, forums discussing what these iorist. New York, NY: Knopf.
findings imply scientifically and socially, Yabuki, K. (2014). Skinner’s science and
and workshops bringing professionals up to psychology. Operants, Quarter 1, 12–16.
Commentaries and Replies 111
name it may end up being called) is to dis- behavioral analysis for psychotherapy.
cover the material postcedent variables that In J. M. Shlien (Ed.), Research in psycho-
control the actions of an organism. therapy (Vol. 3, pp. 54–89). Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.
References Skinner, B. F. (1938/1991). The behavior
of organisms. Cambridge, MA: The B.
Goldiamond, I., & Dyrud, J. E. (1968). F. Skinner Foundation. (Original work
Some applications and implications of published 1938)
Behavioral Science
Julie S. Vargas
B. F. Skinner Foundation
of the American Psychological Association But for operant behavior the critical indepen-
(APA) is named Behavior Analysis. Its dent variables lie in postcedents and when
webpage states “Among the APA divisions and how they are related to actions. Among
that advance psychology as a natural sci- these independent variables, no agent inside
ence, the Division of Behavior Analysis is an organism determines behavior.
perhaps unique in its emphasis on behavior The contrast with psychology is stark.
as a subject matter in its own right” (Home Even in the experimental lab where you
page of the American Psychological Associa- might expect overlap in independent vari-
tion Division 25: Behavior analysis, 2014). If ables, little exists. Here is an example: Re-
behavior is not psychology’s usual dependent searchers shaped a bar press in rats, using
variable, what is? The APA website lists topics water delivered by a robotic arm as rein-
psychologists study, indicating popularity by forcement. Hooking up electrodes to the
font size. The five most popular topics are rats’ brains, the researchers discovered 46
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“Addiction”, “ADHD”, “Bullying”, “Mar- neurons that fired just before the overt bar
riage & Divorce”, and “Personality.” (Home press. Then, disconnecting the bar so pressing
page of the American Psychological Associa- it had no effect, the researchers made water
tion Division 25: Behavior analysis, 2014). delivery contingent on the neuronal firing
Psychologists measure most, if not all, of these alone. While behaviorologists would applaud
with verbal report on tests or questionnaires, this experiment, they would not agree with
not with counts of actions as they occur over the psychologists’ explanation: “Over time,
continuous time. four of six rats … learned that they had to
A search on Wikipedia finds that psy- “think through” the motion of pressing the
chology “involves the scientific study bar” (Nicolelis & Chapin 2002, p.50). This
of mental functions and behaviors.” sounds reasonable until one asks about the
(Wikipedia, 2014). These dependent vari- location of these “thinking through” rats.
ables are assessed (under “Research”), by They were not noted as other neuronal
interviews, questionnaires, tests (including activity in the brain. In fact, no “thinking
personality tests), and raters’ judgments. Only through” rats exist. They are fictional agencies
raters’ judgments might include counts of inserted as antecedent independent variables
actions per unit of time, the main dependent to explain the firing neurons. The psycholo-
measure in Skinner’s “world of our own.” gists fail to credit the postcedent water-
Skinner’s independent variables center delivery as the crucial independent variable.
around the relation between individual ac- A similar focus on antecedents by psycholo-
tions and postcedent stimuli that increase gists shows when traits like “personality”,
the probability of similar actions. The ways grit”, “habit”, or “self-image” are offered as
in which these postcedents (reinforcers) can explanations of behavior that ensues. As Ul-
be scheduled and the resulting behavior man (1993/2014) puts it, other behavioral
occupies a whole book (Ferster & Skin- sciences have “the perspective that behavior
ner, 1957/1997). Antecedent stimuli gain is caused by hypothetical internal processes”
control over operants too, but only when (p. 12). Even recorded neuronal activity,
different postcedents occur during respond- which is not hypothetical, occurs before the
ing in their presence versus their absence. overt actions psychologists use it to explain.
Skinner (1938) talked of other antecedent Psychology and behaviorology as sciences
control, such as deprivation procedures that thus share little in their dependent measures
affect the control of a postcedent (p. 23, of behavior and practically nothing in where
341-376), and the antecedent control in they look for causes. It would be of little con-
respondents such as emotional responding. cern that psychologists and behaviorologists
Respondents are under antecedent control. differ in their analysis of behavior if it were
114 Commentaries and Replies
not for the practical treatments that each Schedules of reinforcement: Cambridge,
field recommends. An agency analysis at- MA: B. F. Skinner Foundation (Original
tributes the cause of harmful, inappropriate, work published 1957)
or non-adaptive behavior to a dysfunctional James, W. A. (1892). A plea for psychology
individual. In contrast, our science attributes as a “natural science”,The Philosophical
harmful, inappropriate, or non-adaptive Review, 1, 146-153.
actions to dysfunctional contingencies. A Nicolelis, M. A. L. & Chapin, J. K. (2002).
psychological diagnosis results in treatment Controlling robots with the mind, Scien-
of the individual, often by drugs or talk tific American, 287(4), 46-53.
therapy-antecedent procedures. A behavioral Psychology. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved
analysis recommends a change in contingen- May 5, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.
cies, especially by adding reinforcers follow- org/wiki/Psychology
ing desired actions in critical settings - post- Skinner, B. F. (1991). The behavior of organ-
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cedent procedures. All practitioners rely on isms. Cambridge, MA: The B. F. Skinner
scientific formulations. By clearly delineating Foundation. (Original work published
our defining principles we show that we do 1938)
have “a world of our own”, a unique science Skinner, B. F. (1990). Keynote address for the
that offers an effective technology for a more 1990 annual convention of the American
just and peaceful world. Psychological Association, Boston, MA.
Skinner, B. F. (2014). A world of our own.
References European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 15,
21–24. (Reprinted from Behaviorology,
American Psychological Association (n.d-a). 1993, 1, 1–5).
Home page of the American Psychological The Behavior Analyst Certifications Board
Association Division 25: Behavior analysis. (n.d.). BACB fourth edition task list:
Retrieved April 21, 2014 from http:// Measurement concepts. Retrieved April 28,
www.apadivisions.org/division-25/index. 2014 from http://www.bacb.com/Down-
aspx loadfiles/TaskList/BACB_Fourth_Edi-
American Psychological Association (n.d-b). tion_Task_List.pdf.
Psychology topics. Retrieved April 28, Ulman, D. J. (2014). The Ulman-Skinner
2014, from https://www.apa.org/topics letters. European Journal of Behavior
index.aspx Analysis, 15, 11–19. (Reprinted from
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1997). Behaviorology, 1993, 1, 47–54).
I share with Julie Vargas the view that the psychology/introduction.aspx) psychology
primary difference between behaviorology is defined as “the study of the mind and
and psychology is how these two separate behavior”—the typical definition found in
disciplines do science. On the American psychology textbooks. The mind (or its alter
Psychological Association’s website (http:// ego, the brain) is psychology’s hypotheti-
www.apa.org/news/press/video/this-is- cal locus for inner agencies (e.g., attitudes,
Commentaries and Replies 115
tions between actions and events. Following experimental design that used multielement
this natural science paradigm, for example, manipulations” (p.201) to analyze the self-
what we might see as the cause of “aggressive injurious behavior within these conditions.
actions” would not be attributed to a label, The outcome illustrated how to empirically
but to a consistent action–event relationship; identify variables controlling problematic
that is, a controlling variable found by con- behavior, thereby efficiently demonstrating
ducting a functional analysis. In teaching the the selection of effective treatments, instead
next generation of behavioral practitioners, it of relying on “best guesses.” This transla-
is important that they understand the legacy tion of Skinner’s multiple schedule into a
of this behavioral technology, one stem- practical functional analysis methodology
ming from the experimental manipulation for identifying contingencies that produce a
of non-human behavior within the oper- wide range of behavior problems produced
ant chamber. An example here is Skinner’s a sea change in the development of effective
(1957/1997) work on multiple schedules and treatment programs—a profound shift of
discrimination where “the organism reacts in focus in behavior analysis toward determin-
a different way to two stimuli when they are ing the variables responsible problematic
appropriate to the schedules having different behavior, while coincidentally implicating
effects” (p. 525). My dissertation research effective interventions. This advancement is
(Ulman, 1973) employed this schedule as extensively exemplified by behavior analysts’
a single-subject experimental design in a phenomenal success in treating autism; a
special education classroom to analyze the technological descendent of basic operant
possible differential effects on the arithmetic methodology. The way we do science pro-
performance of young adults. Employing duces an effective technology.
this schedule entailed the multielement
manipulation of three treatment condi- References
tions: extinction, individual reinforcement,
and collective reinforcement, with each Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J.,
daily condition arranged in an unpredict- Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S.
able order in the presence of one of three (1994). Toward a functional analysis of
signs: No Pay Today, Earn for Yourself Today, self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior
and Earn for Your Class Today. Admittedly, Analysis, 27, 197–209. (Reprinted from
my initial goal was to finish my research as Analysis and Intervention in Developmental
expeditiously as possible (another instance Disabilities, 2, 3–20, 1982)
of necessity being the mother of invention). Skinner, B. F. (1997). Schedules of reinforce-
While the differential performance effects ment. Boston, MA: B. F. Skinner Foun-
116 Commentaries and Replies
dation. (Original work published 1957) tional research. In E. Ramp & G. Semb
Ulman, J. D. (1973). Collective versus (Eds.), Behavior analysis: Areas of research
individual monetary reinforcement of and application (pp. 371-391). Engle-
arithmetic performance in a special class wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
of retarded adults, Southern Illinois Ulman, J., & Vargas, E. A. (2005). Behavior-
University, (1972). Dissertation Abstracts ology. In M. Herson & J. Rosqvist (Eds.),
International, 34, 4958A-4959A. (Uni- Encyclopedia of behavior modification and
versity Microfilms No. 73-6254) cognitive behavior therapy: Volume I, Adult
Ulman, J. D., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1975). clinical applications (pp. 175-176). Thou-
Multielement baseline design in educa- sand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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"My thanks to Ernest A. Vargas for his helpful comments on the replies."
Jerome Ulman