Research Ethics, Methodology & Quantitative

Methods
Unit -1
1. Research:- Meaning, Nature Scope Of Research
2. Research Process
3. Research Ethics:- Issues And Concerns
4. Plagiarism
5. Data Duplication
6. Inferences
7. Responsibility Towards Investigators And
Funding Agencies
8. Research Application In Various Disciplines
9. Research Problem Formulation:- Concept And
Process
10. Review Of Literature And
11. Research Gap
12. Objective Formulation
13. Hypothesis Formulation

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1. Meaning of Research
Introduction:
Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress.
Without systematic research there would have been very little progress.
John W. Best has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has
been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths,
which, in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better products.”
Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life. New products, new
facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being found due to ever-
increasing significant research in the physical, the biological, the social and the
psychological fields. Research today is no longer confined to the science
laboratory.

Meaning of Research:
Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re+Search. It means to search
again. So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new
knowledge of the already existing facts.
Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing
existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of
knowledge. Researchers are considered as a combination of those activities
which are removed from day to day life and are pursued by those persons who
are gifted in intellect and sincere in pursuit of knowledge. But it is not correct to
say that the research is restricted to such type of persons, however, it is correct
to say that major contribution of research comes from highly gifted and
committed workers. Thus the research is not at all mysterious and is carried on
by hundreds of thousands of average individuals.

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Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving the
problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the
scientific method of analysis. There are many ways of obtaining knowledge.
They are intuition, revelation, and authority, logical manipulation of basic
assumptions, informed guesses, observation, and reasoning by analogy. One of
the branches of research known as empirical research is highly goal-oriented
technique.

Definitions of Research:
The following are the important definitions of research:
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge.
It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever
changing in purpose and form and always researching to truth.”
J. Francis Rummel
“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable
contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”
P.M. Cook
“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions
are to be derived partly or wholly from facts.”
W.S. Monroes
“Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of
carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic
structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of
procedures and a report of results or conclusion.”
John W. Best
“Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating data, making

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deductions and reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”
Clifford Woody
“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
Redman & Mori
“Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of
logical and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and
test old facts , analyse their sequences , inter-relationships and casual
explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of
reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.”
P.V. Younge
Purpose of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research
below:
(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
(Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative research
studies).
(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group.(Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies).
(iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it
is associated with something else. (Studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies).
(iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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Characteristics/Nature of Research:
Following are the characteristics of research;
(i) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
(ii) Research requires expertise.
(iii) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
(iv)Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
(v) Research demands accurate observation and description.
(vi)Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.
(vii) Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply
rigorous analysis.
(viii) Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
(ix) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions
reached.
(x) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
(xi) Research is carefully recorded and collected.
(xii) Research sometimes requires courage.

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2. Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research. These actions or steps are;
(i) Formulating the Research Problem

(ii) Extensive Literature Survey

(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis

(iv) Preparing the Research Design

(v) Determining the Research Design

(vi) Collecting the Research Data

(vii) Execution of the Project

(viii) Analysis of Data

(ix) Hypothesis Testing

(x) Generalization and Interpretation

(xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result

(i) Formulation of Research Problem:
At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or
aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into and then research
problem should be formulated.
(ii) Extensive Literature Survey:
Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting
and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first
place to go to academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

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(iii) Development of Working Hypothesis:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It’s
very important or it provides the focal point for research.
(iv) Preparing the Research Design:
After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to
state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The
preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is
to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with optimum effort, time and
expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research
purpose.
(v) Determining Sample Design:
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. In census inquiry we
involve a great deal of time, money and energy so it not possible in practice
under many circumstances. Sample designs can be either probability or non-
probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of
being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researchers to determine this probability.
(vi)Collecting the Data:
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the
following ways;
By observation,
Through personal interview,

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 Through telephonic interviews,

By mailing of questionnaires or

Through schedules.
(vii) Execution of the Project:
Execution of project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable .A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated
factors in order to keep the survey realistic as much as possible.
(viii) Analysis of Data:
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis work
after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages;
coefficients etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the
process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
(ix) Hypothesis Testing:
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which is to be answered by
applying various tests like‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose .Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting
the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
(x) Generalizations and Interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of fact,

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the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
(xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
The layout of the report should be as follows; the preliminary pages, the main
text and end matter. The preliminary pages carry title, acknowledgements and
forward and then index. The main text of the report should have introduction,
review of literature and methodology.
Criteria of Good Research:
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts
be used.
(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.

(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and
reliability of the data should be checked carefully.

(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,

has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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. 3. Ethics: the concept
Ethical consideration forms a major element in a research. The research needs
to promote the aim of the research of imparting authentic knowledge; trust and
prevention of errors and ethics play a very important role n this. All professions
are guided by a code of ethics that has evolved over the years to accommodate
the changing ethos, values, needs and expectations of those who hold a stake in
the professions. Some professions are more advanced than others in terms of the
level of development of their code of ethics.
Some have very strict guidelines, monitor conduct effectively and take
appropriate steps against those who do not abide by the guidelines.
Most professions have an overall code of conduct that also governs the way
they carry out research. In addition, many research bodies have evolved a code
of ethics separately for research. Medicine, epidemiology, business, law,
education, psychology and other social sciences have well-established codes of
ethics for research. Let us first examine what we mean by ‘ethics’ or ‘ethical
behaviour’. According to the Collins
Dictionary (1979: 502), ethical means ‘in accordance with principles of conduct
that are considered correct, especially those of a given profession or group’. The
keywords here, ‘principles of conduct’ and ‘considered correct’, raise certain
questions:
1. What are these principles of conduct?
2. Who determines them?
3. In whose judgement must they be considered correct?
Closely related questions are as follows:
1. Are there universal principles of conduct that can be applied to all
professions?
2. Do these change with time?
3. Should they?

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 4. What happens when a professional does not abide by them?
The subject of ethics needs to be considered in light of these questions.
The way each profession serves society is continuously changing in accordance
with society’s needs and expectations and with the technology available for the
delivery of a service. The ethical codes governing the manner in which a service
is delivered also need to change. What has been considered ethical in the past
may not be so judged at present, and what is ethical now may not remain so in
the future. Any judgement about whether a particular practice is ethical is made
on the basis of the code of conduct prevalent at that point in time.
As the service and its manner of delivery differ from profession to profession,
no code of conduct can be uniformly applied across all professions. Each
profession has its own code of ethics, though there are commonalities. If you
want guidelines on ethical conduct for a particular profession, you need to
consult the code of ethics adopted by that profession or discipline.
‘What are these principles of conduct?’ is the most important question as it
addresses the issue of the contents of ethical practice in a profession. As the
code of conduct varies from profession to profession, it is not possible to
provide a universal answer to this question. However, in research, any dilemma
stemming from a moral quandary is a basis of ethical conduct. There are certain
behaviours in research – such as causing harm to individuals, breaching
confidentiality, using information improperly and introducing bias – that are
considered unethical in any profession.
The next question is:
 In whose judgement must a code of conduct be considered correct?
 Who decides whether a particular practice is wrong?
 If a procedure is carried out wrongly, what penalties should be imposed?
It is the overall body of professionals or government organisations that
collectively develops a professional code of conduct and forms a judgement as
to whether or not it is being followed.
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Elements of ethical consideration in a research
1. Planning a research:- a research should be planned to avoid
misleading result and meet acceptability while the questions regarding
ethical procedures should also be resolved further more a researcher
should ensure welfare and dignity of the subject.
2. Safe guarding collecting information:- researcher should collect
responses from participants related to the study. Thus the researcher
should avoid the use of faulty equipment to ensure accuracy. Furthermore
the researcher must follow the disciplinary standards and practise to safe
guard the responses of the subjects.
3. Responsibility of protecting the respondent:- the researcher
should take care of their subject from any discomfort arising due to their
involvement in the research process. In addition, the researcher should
inform the subject about any risk or benefit or purpose of the study.
4. Maintaining privacy and confidentiality:- the researcher should
maintain the confidentiality of the responses of the subject involve in the
study. furthermore the research must ensure the privacy of the
participants. the researcher should maintain a trust worthy relationship
with te respondent, so that their responses will not be leaked to others. the
researcher can also use codes in order to record the data to encrypt
personal information
5. Following guidance and avoid plagiarism:- it is crucial for the
research to follow guidelines laid down by the authority before initiating
our study. if the research find the data to be erroneous then it is the
responsibility of researcher to correct the data.

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4. PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is act of passing of somebody else idea through picture, theories,
word, stories as your own. if research plagiarises the work of others , they are
bringing into question the integrity, ethics and thrust worthiness of the sum total
of his/her research.
In addition plagiarism is both an illegal act and punishable which he/ she has
originally created.
Plagiarism takes many forms on the one end of the spectrum are people who
intestinally take the passage word for word and put it in their own work, and do
not properly credit the original author.
the other end consist unintentional ( simply hazy) paraphrased and fragmented
text the author has pieced together from several works without proper citing the
original source. No part of the spectrum of potential plagiaristic act is tolerated
by scientific community, and research manuscript will be rejected by publishers,
if they contain any form of plagiarism including unintentional plagiarism.
The Indian university websites provide the following advice to avoid
plagiarism. A researcher preparing written manuscript should cite the original
source if he or she
1. quotes another person’s actual words, either oral or written
2. paraphrases other person’s words either oral or written
3. used other person idea, opinion or theory
4. borrow facts statistics or other illustrative material unless the information
is common knowledge
The rule of plagiarism typically applies to graphics, text other visuals form, all
traditional forms of publication and include Morden forms of publication as
wells in particular www.

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If a substantial amount of another person’s graphic or text will be lifted from a
web page, and author should ask permission to use the material from the
original author or website host.
Most researcher certainly try not to plagiarized however it is not always easy
because people often consults a variety of sources of information for their
research and end up mixing it in with their own background knowledge. to
avoid accidental or unintentional plagiarising of others persons work, use the
following tips
1. Cites all ideas and information that is not your own and /or is not
common knowledge.
2. always use quotation marks if you are using someone else work
3. at the binging of a paraphrased section show that what comes next if it is
someone else original idea
4. at the end of paraphrased section place the proper citation.

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5. Duplicate Publication
• It is defined as a publication of an article which is identical or largely
overlaps with the article already published with or without
aacknowledgment.

• Two articles share the same hypothesis, results and conclusions.

• The authors are trying to reach the readers who may not be familiar with
already published article, especially if it is in another language, such as
Chinese.

Duplicate Publication is Considered Unethical for

Several Reasons.
 The first is that in an inadequate way attempts to increase the scope of
their own published works, other important, is that the article has the
potential to change the image of documents.
 For example, if the results were taken into account two or more times in a
meta-analysis, the results would not be valid.
 A study was conducted of all published papers in which was investigated
the effect of the drug on dansetron, on postoperative vomiting. It was
observed that 17% of published papers were duplicates, in which 28% of
patient data was a duplicate. This has led to a situation in which the
efficacy of this drug was increased by 23%
 This example points out the danger of duplication of publications by
scientists who have conducted research, especially when making
conclusions about the efficacy and safety of a drug.
 Good practice in publishing an article requires that authors can submit
drafts of their work only to one journal at a given moment.

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  Regardless of this, still duplicate papers occur and as such continue to be
a significant problem across scientific journals.

Redundant / Repetitive publication

• Is defined as the publication of copyright material with the addition of
new, unpublished data. So this is a form of unethical conduct in science,
where part or parts of already published article occurs, but not complete
article are published again.

• First, it undermines the international copyrights. Second, the duplication

of data with new data consumes valuable time of peer-reviewer. Third,
unnecessary expansion of huge amount of published literature. Fourth,
inadequate highlights on certain information, so that it seems that they
occur more often than is the actual case. Interfere with subsequent meta
analysis.

• COPE, Committee on Publication Ethics proposes several

recommendations concerning duplicate publications:

• Already published studies should not be republished if they do not

support the further study

• Duplicate publication of article that has been published in another

language is permitted only when clearly indicate the original source

• At the time of the article submission, the authors must submit the
materials that are used in their article.

Fabrication / Falsifying Data

• Fabrication and falsification of data represents half of all cases reported
as a form of unethical behavior.

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 • Falsification of data includes its creation, the selective publication of
results (or those corresponding to the study goals) and the omission of
conflicting data, as well as the conscious withdrawal or modification of
data.

• This can include everything from the rejection of unwanted piece of

information to their unfounded fabrication.

This is unethical for several reasons:

• It affects the integrity of other studies, also the author who is their
creator, but also other authors from the same field of science

• If such article is not disclosed on time, in vain will be other authors

loss of energy and time trying to take advantage of the presented
results in their studies

• It creates a negative image of science in general and affects the

heart's trust

The problem of this kind of behavior is particularly evident in clinical studies

and may have negative consequences for patients.

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6. Inference
Good science, together with proper statistics, has a dual role. The first role is to
decrease uncertainty about which hypotheses are true; the second is to properly
measure the remaining uncertainty. These are carried out in part through a
process called statistical inference. Statistical inference involves the process of
summarizing data, estimating the uncertainty around the summary, and using
the summary to reach conclusions about the underlying truth that gave rise to
the data.

The two main approaches to statistical inference are the standard “frequentist”
approach and the Bayesian approach. Each has distinctive strengths and
weaknesses when used as bases for decision-making; including both approaches
in the technical and conceptual toolbox can be extraordinarily important in
making proper decisions in the face of complex evidence and substantial
uncertainty. The frequentist approach to statistical inference is familiar to
medical researchers and is the basis for most FDA rules and guidance. The
Bayesian approach is less widely used and understood, however, it has many
attractive properties that can both elucidate the reasons for disagreements, and
provide an analytic model for decision-making. This model allows decision-
makers to combine the chance of being wrong about risks and benefits, together
with the seriousness of those errors, to support optimal decisions.

The frequentist approach employs such measures as P values, confidence

intervals, and type I and II errors, as well as practices such as hypothesis-
testing. Evidence against a specified hypothesis is measured with a P value. P
values are typically used within a hypothesis-testing paradigm that declares
results “statistically significant” or “not significant”, with the threshold for
significance usually being a P value less than 0.05. By convention, type I (false-
positive) error rates in individual studies are set in the design stage at 5 percent
or lower, and type II (false-negative) rates at 20 percent or below. In the colitis

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example, if the null hypothesis posits that broad-spectrum antibiotics do not
increase the risk of colitis, a P value less than 0.05 would lead one to reject that
null hypothesis and conclude that broad-spectrum antibiotics doincrease the risk
of colitis. The range of that elevation statistically consistent with the evidence
would be captured by the confidence interval. If the P value exceeded 0.05,
several conclusions could be supported, depending on the location and width of
the confidence interval; either that a clinically negligible effect is likely, or that
the study cannot rule out either a null or clinically important effect and thus is
inconclusive. In the drug-approval setting, the FDA regulatory threshold of
“substantial evidence” for effectiveness is generally defined as two well
controlled trials that have achieved statistical significance on an agreed upon
endpoint, although there can be exceptions.

Hypothesis-testing provides a yes-or-no verdict that is useful for regulatory

purposes, and its value has been demonstrated over time, both procedurally and
inferentially. Its emphasis on pre-specification of endpoints, study procedures
and analytic plans has regulatory and often inferential benefits. But hypothesis
tests, P values, and confidence intervals do not provide decision-makers with an
important measure—the probability that a hypothesis is right or wrong. In
settings where a difficult balancing of various decisional consequences must be
made in the face of uncertainty about both the presence and magnitude of
benefits and risks, the probability that a given hypothesis is true plays a central
role. The failure to assign a degree of certainty to a conclusion is a weakness of
the frequentist approach when it is used for regulatory decisions. In contrast, the
Bayesian approach to inference allows a calculation on the basis of results from
an experiment of how likely a hypothesis is to be true or false. However, this
calculation is premised on an estimated probability that a hypothesis is true
prior to the conduct of the experiment, a probability that is not uniquely
scientifically defined and about which scientists can differ

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7. Stakeholders in research
There are many stakeholders in research, whether it is quantitative or
qualitative. It is important to look at ethical issues in relation to each of them.
The various stakeholders in a research activity are:
1. The research participants or subjects;
2. The researcher;
3. The funding body.
Who should be considered as a research participant varies from profession to
profession. Generally, all those with direct and indirect involvement in a
research study are considered as research participants, hence stakeholders. In
addition, those who are likely to be affected by the findings of a study are also
considered as stakeholders. In the fields of medicine, public health,
epidemiology and nursing, patients and non-patients who become part of a
study and those who participate in an experiment to test the effectiveness of a
drug or treatment are considered as research participants. Service providers,
service managers and planners who are involved in either providing the service
or collecting information relating to the study are also stakeholders in the
research. In the social sciences, the participants include individuals, groups and
communities providing information to help a researcher to gain understanding
of a phenomenon, situation, issue or interaction. In social work and psychology,
participants include clients as well as non-clients of an agency from whom
information is collected to find out the magnitude of a problem, the needs of a
community or the effectiveness of an intervention; and service providers, social
workers and psychologists, when they provide information for a study. In
marketing, consumers as well as non-consumers of a product provide
information about consumption patterns and behaviour. In education, subjects
include students, teachers and perhaps the community at large who participate
in educational research activities. Similarly, in any discipline in which a

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research activity is undertaken, those from whom information is collected or
those who are studied by a researcher become participants of the study.
Researchers constitute the second category of stakeholders. Anyone who
collects information for the specific purpose of understanding, consolidation,
enhancement and development of professional knowledge, adhering to the
accepted code of conduct, is a researcher. S/he may represent any academic
discipline. Funding organisations responsible for financing a research activity
fall into the third category of stakeholders. Most research is carried out using
funds provided by business organisations, pharmaceutical companies, service
institutions (government, semi-government or voluntary), research bodies
and/or academic institutions. The funds are given for specific purposes.
Each category of stakeholders in a research activity may have different interests,
perspectives, purposes, aims and motivations that could affect the way in which
the research activity is carried out and the way results are communicated and
used. Because of this, it is important to ensure that research is not affected by
the self-interest of any party and is not carried out in a way that harms any
party. It is therefore important to examine ethical conduct in research
concerning different stakeholders under separate categories.

1. Ethical issues to consider concerning research

participants

There are many ethical issues to consider in relation to the participants of a

research activity.
Collecting Information
One could ask: why should a respondent give any information to a researcher?
What right does a researcher have to knock at someone’s door or to send out a
questionnaire? Is it ethical to disturb an individual, even if you ask permission
before asking questions? Why should a person give you his/her time? Your

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request for information may create anxiety or put pressure on a respondent. Is
this ethical?
But the above questions display a naive attitude. The author believes that if this
attitude had been adopted, there would have been no progress in the world.
Research is required in order to improve conditions. Provided any piece of
research is likely to help society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask
questions, if you first obtain the respondents’ informed consent. Before you
begin collecting information, you must consider the relevance and usefulness of
the research you are undertaking and be able to convince others of this also. If
you cannot justify the relevance of the research you are conducting, you are
wasting your respondents’ time, which is unethical.
Seeking Consent
In every discipline it is considered unethical to collect information without the
knowledge of participants, and their expressed willingness and informed
consent. Seeking informed consent ‘is probably the most common method in
medical and social research’ (Bailey 1978: 384). Informed consent implies that
subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information you want from
them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to, how
they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or
indirectly affect them. It is important that the consent should also be voluntary
and without pressure of any kind. Schinke and Gilchrist write:
Under standards set by the National Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects, all informed-consent procedures must meet three criteria: participants
must be competent to give consent; sufficient information must be provided to
allow for a reasoned decision; and consent must be voluntary and uncoerced.
(1993: 83) Competency, according to Schinke and Gilchrist, ‘is concerned with
the legal and mental capacities of participants to give permission’ (1993: 83).
For example, some very old people, those suffering from conditions that
exclude them from making informed decisions, people in crisis, people who
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cannot speak the language in which the research is being carried out, people
who are dependent upon you for a service and children are not considered to be
competent.
Providing Incentives
Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondents to share information with you?
Some researchers provide incentives to participants for their participation in a
study, feeling this to be quite proper as participants are giving their time. Others
think that the offering of inducements is unethical.
In the author’s experience most people do not participate in a study because of
incentives, but because they realise the importance of the study. Therefore,
giving a small gift after having obtained your information, as a token of
appreciation, is in the author’s opinion not unethical. However, giving a present
before data collection is unethical.
Seeking Sensitive Information
Information sought can pose an ethical dilemma in research. Certain types of
information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people and
thus an invasion of privacy. Asking for this information may upset or embarrass
a respondent. However, if you do not ask for the information, it may not be
possible to pursue your interest in the area and contribute to the existing body of
knowledge.
For most people, questions on sexual behaviour, drug use and shoplifting are
intrusive. Even questions on marital status, income and age may be considered
to be an invasion of privacy by some. In collecting data you need to be careful
about the sensitivities of your respondents.
The dilemma you face as a researcher is whether you should ask sensitive and
intrusive questions. In the author’s opinion it is not unethical to ask such
questions provided that you clearly and frankly tell your respondents the type of

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information you are going to ask, and give them sufficient time to decide if they
want to share the information with you, without any major inducement.
The Possibility of Causing Harm to Participants
Is the research going to harm participants in any way? Harm includes:
not only hazardous medical experiments but also any social research that might
involve such things as discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanising procedures. (Bailey 1978: 384)
When you collect data from respondents or involve subjects in an experiment,
you need to examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm them
in any way. If it is, you must make sure that the risk is minimal. Minimum risk
means that the extent of harm or discomfort in the research is not greater than
that ordinarily encountered in daily life. It is unethical if the way you seek
information creates anxiety or harassment, and if you think it may happen, you
need to take steps to prevent this.
Maintaining confidentiality
Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than
research is unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to
put your findings into context. In such a situation you need to make sure that at
least the information provided by respondents is kept anonymous. It is unethical
to identify an individual respondent and the information provided by him/her.
Therefore, you need to ensure that after the information has been collected, its
source cannot be identified. In certain types of study you might need to visit
respondents repeatedly, in which case you will have to identify them until the
completion of your visits. In such situations you need to be extra careful that
others do not have access to the information. It is unethical to be negligent in
not protecting the confidentiality and anonymity of the information gathered
from your respondents. If you are doing research for someone else, you need to
make sure that confidentiality is maintained by this party as well.

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2. Ethical Issues to Consider Relating to the Researcher
Avoiding Bias
Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is different from
subjectivity. Subjectivity, as mentioned earlier, is related to your educational
background, training and competence in research, and your philosophical
perspective. Bias is a deliberate attempt either to hide what you have found in
your study, or to highlight something disproportionately to its true existence. It
is absolutely unethical to introduce bias into a research activity. If you are
unable to control your bias, you should not be engaging
in the research. Remember, it is the bias that is unethical and not the
subjectivity.
Provision or Deprivation of a Treatment
Both the provision and deprivation of a treatment may pose an ethical dilemma
for you as a researcher. When testing an intervention or a treatment, a researcher
usually adopts a control experiment design. In such studies, is it ethical to
provide a study population with an intervention or treatment that has not yet
been conclusively proven effective or beneficial? But if you do not test a
treatment/intervention, how can you prove or disprove its effectiveness or
benefits? On the other hand, you are providing an intervention that may not be
effective. Is this ethical? Is it ethical to deprive the control group of a treatment
even if it may prove to be only slightly effective? And beyond the issue of
control groups, is it ethical to deprive people who are struggling for life of the
possible benefit, however small, which may be derived from a drug that is only
under trial? As a researcher you need to be aware of these ethical issues. There
are arguments and counter-arguments about these issues. However, it is usually
accepted that deprivation of a trial treatment to a control group is not unethical
as, in the absence of this, a study can never establish the effectiveness of a
treatment which may deprive many others of its possible benefits. This

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deprivation of the possible benefits, on the other hand, is considered by some as
unethical.
There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent,
‘minimum risk’ and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in
the study may help to resolve some of these ethical issues.
Using inappropriate research methodology
A researcher has an obligation to use appropriate methodology, within his/her
knowledge base, in conducting a study. It is unethical to use deliberately a
method or procedure you know to be inappropriate to prove or disprove
something that you want to, such as by selecting a highly biased sample, using
an invalid instrument or by drawing wrong conclusions.
Incorrect reporting
To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your own or
someone else’s interest is unethical. Correct and unbiased reporting of the
findings are important characteristics of ethical research practice.
Inappropriate Use of the Information
How will the information obtained from respondents be used by the researcher?
The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly affects respondents
adversely is unethical. Can information be used adversely to affect the study
population? If so, how can the study population be protected? As a researcher
you need to consider and resolve these issues. Sometimes it is possible to harm
individuals in the process of achieving benefits for organisations. An example
would be a study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an organisation.
Restructuring may be beneficial to the organisation as a whole but may be
harmful to some individuals. Should you ask respondents for information that is
likely to be used against them? If you do, the information may be used against
them, and if you do not, the organisation may not be able to derive the benefits
of restructuring. In the author’s opinion, it is ethical to ask questions provided

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you tell respondents of the potential use of the information, including the
possibility of its being used against some of them, and you let them decide if
they want to participate. Some may participate for the betterment of the
organisation even though it may harm them and others may decide against it.
However, to identify either of them is unethical in research.
3. Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation
Restrictions Imposed by the Sponsoring Organisation

Most research in the social sciences is carried out using funds provided by
sponsoring organisations for a specific purpose. The funds may be given to
develop a programme or evaluate it; to examine its effectiveness and efficiency;
to study the impact of a policy; to test a product; to study the behaviour of a
group or community; or to study a phenomenon, issue or attitude. Sometimes
there may be direct or indirect controls exercised by sponsoring organisations.
They may select the methodology, prohibit the publication of ‘what was found’
or impose other restrictions on the research that may stand in the way of
obtaining and disseminating accurate information. Both the imposition and
acceptance of these controls and restrictions are unethical, as they constitute
interference and could amount to the sponsoring organisation tailoring research
findings to meet its vested interests.
The Misuse of Information
How is the sponsoring body going to use the information? How is this likely to
affect the study population? Sometimes sponsoring organisations use research
as a pretext for obtaining management’s agenda. It is unethical to let your
research be used as a reason for justifying management decisions when the
research findings do not support them. However, it is recognised that it may be
extremely difficult or even impossible for a researcher to prevent this from
happening.

Summary
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This chapter is designed to make you aware of the ethical issues to be
considered when conducting research. The ethical issues to be considered are
the same in both quantitative and qualitative research. How you resolve them
depends upon you, and the conditions under which you are working. Being
ethical means adhering to the code of conduct that has evolved over the years
for an acceptable professional practice. Any deviation from this code of conduct
is considered as unethical and the greater the deviation, the more serious the
breach. For most professions ethical codes in research are an integral part of
their overall ethics, though some research bodies have evolved their own codes.
Ethical issues in research can be looked at as they relate to research participants,
researchers and sponsoring organisations. With regard to research participants,
the following areas could pose ethical issues if not dealt with properly:
collecting information; seeking consent; providing incentives; seeking sensitive
information; the possibility of causing harm to participants; and maintaining
confidentiality. It is important to examine these areas thoroughly for any
unethical practice. With regard to the researcher, areas of ethical concern
include the following: introducing bias; providing and depriving individuals of
treatment; using unacceptable research methodology; inaccurate reporting; and
the inappropriate use of information. Ethical considerations in relation to
sponsoring organisations concern restrictions imposed on research designs and
the possible use of findings. As a newcomer to research you should be aware of
what constitutes unethical practice and be able to put appropriate strategies in
place to deal with any harm that may do to any stakeholder.

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8. The applications of research

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9. Research Problem Formulation
The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in
our backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one
individual may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/
school/teacher/ situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another
class/ school/ teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time
being may reappear with a lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the
age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that we suffers
from ,”problem blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making
research we need to delimit the problem.
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the
problem is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by
reflective thinking. It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to
select a topic of a research or statement of the problem.
A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms
but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the
broader area of field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem
is the verbal statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem
which delimits or pin points the task of a researcher.
It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study
from different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify
the problem, but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they
have no active involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do
mechanically.

Definitions of the Problem:

The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different
definitions of the problem are given below;
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“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.”
John Geoffery
“Problem is a question which is to be solved.”
John. G. Tornsand
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.”
Whitney
“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem
exists when there is a no available answer to same question.”
J.C. Townsend
“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation
exists between two or more variables?”
F.N. Kerlinger
“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each
question and subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of
the investigation must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review
previous studies in order to determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is
necessary to formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the
investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they must be
explicitly noted.”
Monero and Engelhart

Identification of a Research Problem:

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the

research work.
Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be
the field of his specialization.

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Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent
trend and studies are being conducted in the area.
Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the
study.
Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or
employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may
take help of supervisor or expert of the field.
Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be
investigated.
The Sources of the Problem:
(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education
are obvious sources.

(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing

forth new problems and opportunities for research.

(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias

of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals
of researches, dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of
research problems.

(iv) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will
suggest additional areas of needed research.

(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with

faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating
problems to be solved, close professional relationships, academic discussions
and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
(vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices
and research oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem
awareness.

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(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of
the field and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most
significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to
emerge a problem.
Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be
proposed and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced
faculty member or research worker is a desirable practice.
One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student
clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem
from one that may be vague and too complex.

Statement of Problem:
Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.

3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise
idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.
Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:
1. To make the research work feasible.

2. To delimit the scope of the problem.

3. To establish the proper frame of reference.

Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:
1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the
problem.

2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or

university level.

3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.

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4. Delimited to the best method only.

5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.

6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.

7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.

As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the
findings of studies also confine to these delimitations.
Evaluation of the Problem:
When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of
questions about it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the
basis of personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem.
Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under
Taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?

2. Is the Problem New?

3. Is the Problem Significant?

4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?

In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:
a) Research competencies of the Researcher

b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher

c) Financial consideration in the Project

d) Time requirement for the Project

e) Administrative considerations in the Project.

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10. Guidelines for writing a literature
review
What is a literature review?
A literature review is not an annotated bibliography in which you summarize
briefly each article that you have reviewed. While a summary of the what you
have read is contained within the literature review, it goes well beyond merely
summarizing professional literature. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to
you and includes a critical analysis of the relationship among different works,
and relating this research to your work. It may be written as a stand-alone paper
or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study (such as
a thesis or dissertation).

Definition
A literature review is both a summary and explanation of the complete and
current state of knowledge on a limited topic as found in academic books and
journal articles. There are two kinds of literature reviews you might write at
university: one that students are asked to write as a stand-alone assignment in a
course, often as part of their training in the research processes in their field, and
the other that is written as part of an introduction to, or preparation for, a longer
work, usually a thesis or research report. The focus and perspective of your
review and the kind of hypothesis or thesis argument you make will be
determined by what kind of review you are writing. One way to understand the
differences between these two types is to read published literature reviews or
the first chapters of theses and dissertations in your own subject area. Analyse
the structure of their arguments and note the way they address the issues.

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 Purpose of the Literature Review

 It gives readers easy access to research on a particular topic by selecting high

quality articles or studies that are relevant, meaningful, important and valid and
summarizing them into one complete report
 It provides an excellent starting point for researchers beginning to do research in
a new area by forcing them to summarize, evaluate, and compare original
research in that specific area
 It ensures that researchers do not duplicate work that has already been done
 It can provide clues as to where future research is heading or recommend areas
on which to focus
 It highlights key findings
 It identifies inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions in the literature
 It provides a constructive analysis of the methodologies and approaches of other
researchers

Content of the Review

Introduction
The introduction explains the focus and establishes the importance of the
subject. It discusses what kind of work has been done on the topic and identifies
any controversies within the field or any recent research which has raised
questions about earlier assumptions. It may provide background or history. It
concludes with a purpose or thesis statement. In a stand-alone literature review,
this statement will sum up and evaluate the state of the art in this field of
research; in a review that is an introduction or preparatory to a thesis or research
report, it will suggest how the review findings will lead to the research the
writer proposes to undertake.

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 Body
Often divided by headings/subheadings, the body summarizes and evaluates the
current state of knowledge in the field. It notes major themes or topics, the most
important trends, and any findings about which researchers agree or disagree. If
the review is preliminary to your own thesis or research project, its purpose is to
make an argument that will justify your proposed research. Therefore, it will
discuss only that research which leads directly to your own project.

Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes all the evidence presented and shows its
significance. If the review is an introduction to your own research, it highlights
gaps and indicates how previous research leads to your own research project
and chosen methodology. If the review is a stand-alone assignment for a course,
it should suggest any practical applications of the research as well as the
implications and possibilities for future research.

Nine Steps to Writing a Literature Review

1. Find a Working Topic

Look at your specific area of study. Think about what interests you, and what
fertile ground for study is. Talk to your professor, brainstorm, and read lecture
notes and recent issues of periodicals in the field.
2. Review the Literature
 Using keywords search a computer database. It is best to use at least two
databases relevant to your discipline
 Remember that the reference lists of recent articles and reviews can lead to
valuable papers
 Make certain that you also include any studies contrary to your point of view

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 3. Focus Your Topic Narrowly and Select Papers Accordingly
Consider the following:
 What interests you?
 What interests others?
 What time span of research will you consider?
Choose an area of research that is due for a review.
4. Read the Selected Articles Thoroughly and Evaluate Them
 What assumptions do most/some researchers seem to be making?
 What methodologies do they use? What testing procedures, subjects, material
tested?
 Evaluate and synthesize the research findings and conclusions drawn
 Note experts in the field: names/labs that are frequently referenced
 Note conflicting theories, results, methodologies
 Watch for popularity of theories and how this has/has not changed over time
5. Organize the Selected Papers By Looking For Patterns and By
Developing Subtopics
Note things such as:
 Findings that are common/contested
 Two or three important trends in the research
 The most influential theories
6. Develop a Working Thesis
Write a one or two sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have
reached about the major trends and developments you see in the research that
has been done on your subject.
7. Organize Your Own Paper Based on the Findings From Steps 4 & 5
Develop headings/subheadings. If your literature review is extensive, find a
large table surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all
your findings into categories. Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit
better under different headings, or (b) you need to establish new topic headings.

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8. Write the Body of the Paper
Follow the plan you have developed above, making certain that each section
links logically to the one before and after and that you have divided your
sections by themes or subtopics, not by reporting the work of individual
theorists or researchers.
9. Look at What You Have Written; Focus On Analysis, Not Description
Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these
sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically
developed, from beginning to end? If, for example, you find that each paragraph
begins with a researcher's name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and
comparing the research literature from an analytical point of view, you have
simply described what research has been done. This is one of the most common
problems with student literature reviews. So if your paper still does not appear
to be defined by a central, guiding concept, or if it does not critically analyse the
literature selected, then you should make a new outline based on what you have
said in each section and paragraph of the paper, and decide whether you need to
add information, to delete off-topic information, or to restructure the paper
entirely.
For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A is
merely describing the literature and Student B takes a more analytical and
evaluative approach, by comparing and contrasting. You can also see that this
evaluative approach is well signalled by linguistic markers indicating logical
connections (words such as "however," "moreover") and phrases such as
"substantiates the claim that," which indicate supporting evidence and Student
B's ability to synthesize knowledge.

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11. Research Gap
A research gap is defined as a topic or area for which missing or insufficient
information limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question. A research
need is defined as a gap that limits the ability of decision-makers from making
decisions.

How to Eliminate the Research Gap

Organizations most commonly used variations of the PICO (population,
intervention, comparison, outcomes) framework.
The proposed framework includes two major components:
a) Identification and classification of the reasons why the research gap exists
b) Characterization of the research gap using the PICOS (population,
intervention, comparison, outcomes, setting) elements.
A) Identifying reasons for the existence of the research gap:
 Choose the most important reason(s) for the existence of the research gap
 Select the reason(s) that prevent conclusions about the evidence from being
made
 Classify the reasons for research gaps, including:
1. Insufficient or imprecise information
2. Biased information
3. Inconsistency or unknown consistency
4. Not the right information
B) Characterizing research gaps
Use the PICOS framework to characterize research gaps related to
interventions, screening tests, etc. The framework organizes research gaps as
follows:
1. Population (P): information regarding the population that is not adequately
represented in the evidence base (gender, race/ethnicity, age, etc.)

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2. Intervention (I): information regarding the specific intervention that is
inadequately included in the evidence base, the duration of the intervention, etc.
3. Comparison (C): lack of information regarding the comparison intervention
or standard intervention
4. Outcomes (O): information regarding outcomes of interest, organized by type
of outcome or timing of outcomes, to delineate where information is lacking
5. Setting (S): information regarding the relevant settings for research gaps

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12. Formulation of Research Objectives
Research objectives are the goals that you set in your study, that you want to
achieve through your study. It informs the readers what you want to research
and how far you want to go. It also informs the readers about the scope and
extent of the study. The most important point to consider is the clarity of the
research objectives.

Characteristics of the research objectives

1. Clear
Clarity is the main focus of the research objectives. The way you word
your research objectives tell a lot about your research. The wording
should have to be very clear and very well defined. Not only other
people will get to know about your research from the research
objectives but you too need to look at the objectives to make several
decisions about your research. Make simple sentences but clear and
avoid complexities in wording.

2. Complete
Each phrase in the research objectives should have a sense of completeness.
Broken sentences and incomplete objectives can lead you into trouble later
on. Here completeness is necessary because you will be able to decide the
extent of your research from your research objectives. A complete research
objective should have information about the population to be studied.

3. Specific
Your research objectives should specifically focus on the what, how when
and where questions and there should be no loopholes.

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 4. Identify the main variables of the study
In the research objectives the researcher decides about the main variables
of the study. The variables are the measurable concepts or quantities that
will majorly impact your research. The variables should be well-defined
in this phase of the research. You should decide about the dependent
variables, independent variables as well as the control variables, if the
research is an experimental research.

5. Identify the direction of the relationship

Some research studies have hypothesis, in hypothesis testing studies the
researcher should define the direction in which he want to test the
variables. This is only done in hypothesis testing studies; in other studies
the researcher only mentions the variables.

Types of the Research Objectives

There are only two types of objectives in any type of study; the main objectives
and the secondary or sub objectives. The main objectives or the primary
objectives will lead the research you are about to conduct. They provide clear,
complete and specific goals of your research. The secondary objectives set the
goals that you want to achieve along with the main objectives. They are also
relevant and specific to the research problem but they will only help in
obtaining the primary objectives. The secondary objectives are thus not the
main goal or aim of the research but they provide support in attaining the main
goals.

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13. Formulation of Hypothesis
Formulation of Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means
tentative or subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution
of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative
statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the
problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale.
Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be
verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of
reference.
Definitions of Hypothesis:
“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in
accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the
conclusions to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself
either must be or at least likely to be true.”
J.S. Mill
“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be
tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea which becomes basis for further investigation.”
Lundberg
“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted
to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.”
John W. Best
“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is,
at the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action
in the search for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take
the form of facts, principles and theories.” Barr and Scates

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“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of
the compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous
knowledge.”
Gorge J. Mouly
Nature of Hypothesis:
(i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are
involved in a hypothesis.

(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas

and concepts. It is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is
ready enough for empirical verification.

(iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to

the future verification not the past facts and information.

(v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for
verification of hypothesis.
Functions of Hypothesis:
H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis;
(i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which
enables an investigator to start his research works.
(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may
provide possible solutions to the problem.

(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.

(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.

(v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may
be objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results
and drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.

(vi) It delimits field of the investigation.

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(vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have
very realistic approach to the problem.

(viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.
Importance of a Hypothesis:
(i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator
in further investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking
answers to tentatively adopted generalization.

(ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research

and remains like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary
link between theory and the investigation.

(iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear
and specific goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for
selecting sample and research procedure to meet these goals.

(iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important
function of linking together related facts and information and organizing them
into wholes.”
(v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of
hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of
data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study."

(vi) Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the
way for the research work.”

(vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant

literature and the collection of useful or excess data.

(viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are

irrelevant from the standpoint of problem at hand.

(ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and
its ramification.

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(x) It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the
problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.

(xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring
and explaining the unknown facts.

(xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.

(xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research.

Forms of Hypothesis:
According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;
(i) Question form:
A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical
observation. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in
the list. There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately
implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis
forms into acceptable / reject able categories.
(ii) Declarative Statement :
A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated
relationship or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has
examined existing evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be
anticipated as additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent
variables effect on the criterion variable.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis :
A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or
difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more
certain of anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general
interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it
reveals two possible conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship
between variables is so obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed.

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Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very thoroughly and the
available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated outcome.
(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:
This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no
relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables. Null
hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable within the framework of
probability theory. It is a non-directional form of hypothesis. There is a trend to
employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the disciplines. A null
hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested there is no
difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not
know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to
anticipate or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not
make researcher biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected
outcomes of the research or findings. Actually this is a statistical hypothesis
which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis means zero hypotheses. A researcher
has not to do anything in developing it. While research hypothesis is second
step in the process of reflective thinking. A null hypothesis in an appropriate
form is order to accommodate the object of inquiry for extracting this
information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the researcher so
much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance in
statistical knowledge or science.
It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or
among variables under certain conditions.
Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis.
If it is rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.
Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the
positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the
generalization. It is also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it
denies the existence of any systematic principles apart from the effect of

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chance. It assumes that none or zero difference exists between the two
population means or the treatments.
Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is
used as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet
unknown. Its formulation is one of the most difficult and most crucial step in
the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can
prevent the following:
(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,

(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations ,and

(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.
Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be
gathered, the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions
drawn from the study.
A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of
subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several
hypotheses are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the
type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject each
hypothesis on its own merit. Irrespective of number or type used each
hypothesis should be testable and based upon a logical foundation.
Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:
The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in
order to operate with the reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level:
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying
communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher

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can abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to understand
how phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a
hypothesis very frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level
to the conceptual or abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level
enables the result to be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a
particular study and thus to be of wider applicability.
Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual
level and vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing
experiments but in applying their findings as well. The process of making
conceptual contrasts between operational programme is called conceptualization
or dimensionalization.
Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:
Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical
ingredient of the research to demonstration process. The following are the
difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis:
1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.

3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to

be able to phrase the hypothesis properly

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UNIT 2 Research Design

2.1 Type and Methods

2.2 Sampling- Meaning, Sampling Vs Census Survey

2.3 Random and Non Random Sampling Techniques

2.4 Determination of Appropriate Sample Size

2.5 Sampling and Non Sampling Error

2.6 Data Collection – Sources Of Primary and Secondary Data,

2.7 Attitude Measurement Scales

2.8 Validity and Reliability Analysis

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 Research Design

A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in
collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data. Actually it
is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.
Definitions:
“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection and
analyzing the needed information.” William Zikmund
“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance.” Kerlinger
Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the sample on the
population
Purpose of a Research Design:
Research designs are used for the following purposes;
(i) To minimize the expenditure:
Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained .It
therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the research as effective as
possible by providing maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and
time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research.
(ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling:
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scaling of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
(iii) To collect the relevant data and technique:
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of
the research and the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of research design
upset the entire project.
(iv)To provide blue print for plans:
Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of many
research operations. It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for

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preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and attractive construction of a
house need a blue print and a map of that, similarly we needs a blue print or a design for the
smooth flow of operation of research.
(v) To provide an overview to other experts:
A research design provides an overview of all the research process and with the help of the
design we can take the help and views of experts of that field .The design helps the
investigator to organize his ideas , which helps to recognize and fix his faults.
(vi) To provide a direction:
A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the other executives and others
who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies available, literature and learns
about new (alternative approaches.
Characteristics of Good Research Design:
Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to
be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum
information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A good research design possesses
the following characteristics;
(i) Objectivity:
It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses.
The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly objective in
which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report.
In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement
between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent
observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis
and interpretation.

(ii) Reliability:
It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a respondent
gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item
even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the
consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a
way that it provides consistency or reliability.

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(iii) Validity:
Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected
to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure
only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.
(iv) Generalizability:
It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain
generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research
design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in
defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc.
while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is
methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the
generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the following characteristics;
a) The problem is clearly formulated.

b) The population is clearly defined.

c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate sample.

d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.

e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.
(v) Adequate Information:
The most important requirement of good research design is that it should provide adequate
information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal
design should take into account important factors like;
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied

(ii) The objective of the research

(iii) The process of obtaining information

(iv)The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and

(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.

(vi) Other Features:
Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility, adaptability,
efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias and
maximize reliability and generalization

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 2.1Types of Research Design
There are different types of research design depend on the nature of the problem and
objectives of the study. Following are the four types of research design.

1. Explanatory research design

2. Descriptive research design
3. Diagnostic research design
4. Experimental research design
Explanatory research design
In explanatory research design a researcher uses his own imaginations and ideas. It is based
on the researcher personal judgment and obtaining information about something. He is
looking for the unexplored situation and brings it to the eyes of the people. In this type of
research there is no need of hypothesis formulation.

Descriptive Research Design

In descriptive research design a researcher is interested in describing a particular situation or
phenomena under his study. It is a theoretical type of researcher design based on the
collection designing and presentation of the collected data. Descriptive research design
covers the characteristics of people, materials, Scio-economics characteristics such as their
age, education, marital status and income etc. The qualitative nature data is mostly collected
like knowledge, attitude, beliefs and opinion of the people. Examples of such designs are the
newspaper articles, films, dramas, and documentary etc.

Diagnostic Research Design

Here researcher wants to know about the root causes of the problem. He describes the factors
responsible for the problematic situation. It is a problem solving research design that consists
mainly:

1. Emergence of the problem

2. Diagnosis of the problem
3. Solution for the problem and
4. Suggestion for the problem solution
Experimental Research Design
In this type of research design is often uses in natural science but it is different in social
sciences. Human behavior cannot be measured through test-tubes and microscopes. The

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social researcher use a method of experiment in that type of research design. One group is
subjected to experiment called independent variables while other is considered as control
group called dependent variable. The result obtained by the comparison of both the two
groups. Both have the cause and effect relationship between each other.

2.2 CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete
enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed
that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias
in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observation increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a
resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time,
money and energy. Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes
difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. At times, this method is practically
beyond the reach of ordinary researchers. Perhaps, government is the only institution which
can get the complete enumeration carried out. Even the government adopts this in very rare
cases such as population census conducted once in a decade. Further, many a time it is not
possible to examine every item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain
sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total population. In such cases there is
no utility of census surveys.
However, it needs to be emphasised that when the universe is a small one, it is no use
resorting to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e.,
selection of only a few items. The respondents selected should be as representative of the
total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. The selected
respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called
‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’. Algebraically,
let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N) of this population is selected
according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the population, the group
consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’. Researcher must prepare a sample design for
his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such a sample
would be.

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A survey may be conducted by either of two methods
1. Census Method or Parametric method and
2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method.
1. Census method:
It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are collected for each
and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and exact information as
no unit is left out.
2. Sampling method:
Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It works with the
objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with minimum of
cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It makes
exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time, money and material. Its more
popular in research work.
Population:
Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed. The term population or universe conveys a different meaning
than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and children)
is known as population.
But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group. For
example secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like teaching
experience, teaching attitudes etc.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as
representative of that population.
One type of population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target
population.
By target population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the members of a real or hypothetical
set of people, events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of our research.
The first step in sampling is to define the target population.
Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to
generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the
population, it is the general situation.
The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population are termed as
parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample observation known as Statistics

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and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known as parameters. Generally
parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common in physical
sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral and social research. It
makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of individuals
from the population in such a way that every individual has equal chance to be taken into the
sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of material
which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the whole aggregate. By
Frank Yates “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.”
Assumptions of Sampling:
1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:
Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to be different from
another. But at the same time they also possess similarities in many respects. It is, therefore,
assumed that there is the possibility of such representative types in the whole population that
makes sampling possible.
2. Possibility of Representative Selection:
Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and law of statistical
regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down that a group of objects chosen at
random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics of that large group (universe)
by
L. R. Conner.
3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e. needed in case of
large scale observations. Because it is practically impossible to achieve because of errors in
measurement, collection of data , its analysis, interpretation.
Definition:
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire group or aggregate
from which the sample is taken.”
P. Y. Young
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis .It is a
collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of population which is
selected for the express purpose of representing the population.
By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences about
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

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Sampling,”It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this purpose, the
population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling is a part of
the strategy of research.
Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.
Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller representation of a larger
whole.”
W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more than a
fragment of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and
phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the phenomenon i.e.
generalization.
David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent
relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of
selecting the fractional part is called sampling.”
Need of Sampling:
1. Economy of time.

2. Economy of money.

3. True detailed knowledge.

4. Utility in experimental study.

5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:
1. It has a greater adaptability.

2. It is an economical technique.

3. It has high speed for generalization.

4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy in the observation”.

5. This technique has great accuracy.

6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.

7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.

8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

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Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:
1. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)

2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample.

3. Need of eligible researchers.

4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous population.

5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Essentials of an Ideal Sample:

Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units.

Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.

Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample.

Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents the whole data
adequately.
In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable derivation of
conclusions applicable to the whole data.
Economical in terms of time and money.
High level of reliability.
Characteristics of a Good Sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-
aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the learning and
pre-conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely linked with true
representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by

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specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

2.3 Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling

A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling
A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or AccidentalSampling
A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling
A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling
A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling
A-5 Purposive Sampling
A-6 Cluster Sampling
A-7 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling
Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling

1. It is a method of sampling which In the absence of any idea of probability the

gives the probability that a sample is method of sampling is known as non-
representative of population. probability sampling.

2. Probability sampling is generally It is generally used in action researches in

used in fundamental research in which one studies a class without any
which the purpose is to generalize generalization purpose.
the results.
3. It refers from the sample as well as There is no idea of population.
the population.
4. Every individual of the population There is no probability of selecting any
has equal probability to be taken individual.
into the sample.
5. It may be representative of the It has free distribution.
population.

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 6. Its observations (data) are used for The observations are not used for generalization
the inferential purpose. purpose.

7. Inferential or parametric statistics Non-inferential or non-parametric

are used

8. There is a risk of drawing There is no risk for drawing conclusions.

conclusion.
9. It is based on Law of probability It is not based on law of probability sampling
sampling i.e. Law of Statistical
Regularity and Law of Inertia of the
Large Sample.

Probability Sampling:
G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used selected in such a way
that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.”
Probability sampling is of different types:
(1) Simple Random Sampling :
It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of
being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as
simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice
(b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method
(c) Tippett’s table method
Merits of Randomization:
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.

2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.

3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.

4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits of Randomization:
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.

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2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.

3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling:
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method
requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list of information
of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way.
Now we decide the size of the sample:
Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N
Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample
which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population should
be arranged in any systematic way.
Merits:
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.

2. It reduces the field cost.

3. Inferential statistics may be used.

4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.

5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
Demerits:
1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic
list by different individuals.

2. Knowledge of population is essential.

3. Information of each individual is essential..

4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.

5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

(3) Stratified Sampling:
It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique, the
researcher divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and from
each of these smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number
of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to be more
relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types;

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(a) Disproportionate:
Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but
depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and convenience. This method of
sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is
less efficient for determining population characteristics.
(b) Proportionate:
It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size
of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness with respect to variables
used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make
comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each
category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
(c) Optimum allocation:
Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It
refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in proportion to the
corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation
sample.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.

(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.

(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.

(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits:
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the
relevant criterion for stratification.

(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one
criterion relevant for stratification.

(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.

(iv)Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the
other.

(v) There is a risk of generalization.

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(4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:
Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings. This is most
frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed
questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample.
This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not
return them.
Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the
query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being
studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents
and the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also
known as repeated or multiple sampling.
This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information
obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and
information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.
Merits:
(i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a
number of observations.

(ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.

(iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.
Demerits:
(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample . It is applicable only for
small sample.

(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.

(iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

(5) Multi Stage Sampling:
This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of
sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups
within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group.

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Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever
stratification is done by the researcher. The individuals are selected from different stages for
constituting the multi stage sampling.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.

(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling.

(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling.

(ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages.

(iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.

(6) Cluster Sampling:
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the
sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in
the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and
randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the
elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses all
of the children in the selected schools as the sample.
Merits:
(i) It may be a good representative of the population.

(ii) It is an easy method.

(iii) It is an economical method.

(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.

(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits:
(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors.

(ii) It is not comprehensive

Non-Probability Sampling Method:
Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called non probability samples.
Depending upon the technique used it may be;

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(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling:
The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are
most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups which are used as samples of a
population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ
more acceptable sampling methods.
Merits:
(i) It is very easy method of sampling.

(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences.

(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Demerits:
(i) It is not representative of the population.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

(2) Judgment Sampling:
This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available
information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population. Here group may
also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be self-
evident. Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is highly
risky.
Merits:
(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.

(ii) This method of sampling is economical.

Demerits:
(i) This technique is objective.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.

(iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization
is not possible.
(3) Purposive Sampling:
The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be
representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups.
The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are considered important for

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the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon
the control of certain specific variables.
Merits:
(i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.

(ii) Better control of significant variables.

(iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.

(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

Demerits:
(i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.

(ii) Knowledge of population is essential.

(iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.

(iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.

(v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

(4) Quota Sampling:
This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the basis of judgment or
assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each
category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is
allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in
municipal surveys.
Merits:
(i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.

(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.

(iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.

Demerits:
(i) It is not a representative sample.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It has the influence of regional , geographical and social factors.

(5) Snowball Sampling:
The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in which the
sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study proceeds. The term

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snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow computation of
estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance.
For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand of
cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be
identified to be the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain
the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the subjects go on serving
an informant for the identification of more subjects and the sample goes on increasing.
Merit:
Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-probabilistic can be converted
into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage.
Demerits:
Sampling errors may creep in.
(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling:
Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of available information, these
mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given characteristics. The controls in
such samples are usually identified as representative areas (city, country, state, district),
representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex, marital status, socio-economic status,
race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors, teachers etc.).
These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes such as
amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-to
this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in satisfaction. Purposive
sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be
included in the sample in each group is done purposively rather than by random method.

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 2.4. Determination of Appropriate Sample Size

There are various approaches for computing the sample size to determine the appropriate
sample size, the basic factors to be considered are the level of precision required by users, the
confidence level desired and degree of variability.
i) Level of Precision: Sample size is to be determined according to some pre assigned
‘degree of precision’. The ‘degree of precision’ is the margin of permissible error between
the estimated value and the population value. In other words, it is the measure of how close
an estimate is to the actual characteristic in the population. The level of precision may be
termed as sampling error. According to W.G.Cochran (1977), precision desired may be made
by giving the amount of errors that are willing to tolerate in the sample estimates. The
difference between the sample statistic and the related population parameter is called the
sampling error. It depends on the amount of risk a researcher is willing to accept while using
the data to make decisions. It is often expressed in percentage. High level of precision
requires larger sample sizes and higher cost to achieve those samples.
ii) Confidence level desired: The confidence or risk level is ascertained through the well
established probability model called the normal distribution and an associated theorem called
the Central Limit theorem. In general, the normal curve results whenever there are a large
number of independent small factors influencing the final outcome. It is for this reason that
many practical distributions, be it the distribution of annual rainfall, the weight at birth of
babies, the heights of individuals etc. are all more or less normal, if sufficiently large number
of items are included in the population. The significance of the normal curve is much more
than this. It can be shown that even when the original population is not normal, if we draw
samples of n items from it and obtain the distribution of the sample means, we notice that the
distribution of the sample means become more and more normal as the sample size increases.
This fact is proved mathematically in the Central Limit theorem. The theorem says that if we
take samples of size n from any arbitrary population (with any arbitrary distribution) and
calculate x , then sampling distribution of x will approach the normal distribution as the
sample size n increases with mean µ and standard error n σ i.e. x ~ N , n σ µ. A sample
statistic is employed to estimate the population parameter. If more than one sample is drawn
from the same population, then all the sample statistics deviate in one way or the other from
the population parameter. In the case of large samples, where n>30, the distribution of these
sample statistic is a normal distribution. Generally, a question arises that how much should a
sample statistic miss the population parameter so that it may be taken as a trustworthy

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estimate of the parameter. The confidence level tells how confident one can be that the error
toleration does not exceed what was planned for in the precision specification. Usually 95%
and 99% of probability are taken as the two known degrees of confidence for specifying the
interval within which one may ascertain the existence of population parameter (e.g. mean).
95% confidence level means if an investigator takes 100 independent samples from the same
population, then 95 out of the 100 samples will provide an estimate within the precision set
by him. Again, if the level of confidence is 99%, then it means out of 100 samples 99 ca of
tolerances specified by the precision. In case of normal distribution, the curve is said to
extend from to +3σ distance on the right. A well known result of the distribution theory says
that if ( ) 2 X ~ N, µ σ then Z = While calculating the sample size, the desired confidence
level is specified by the z value. The z-value is a point along the abscissa of the standard
normal distribution. It is known from the table of normal curve that falls within the limits
±1.96σ, where 99 percent of that fall within the limits ±2.58 the normal curve is specified by
the z 99% of the cases under the norm 95% and 99% respectively.
iii) Degree of variability: The degree of variability in the attributes being measured refers to
the distribution of attributes in the population. The more heterogeneous a population, the
larger the sample size required to be, to obtain a given level of precision. For less variable
(more homogeneous) population, smaller sample sizes works nicely. Note that a proportion of
50% indicates a greater level of variability than that of 20% or 80%. This is because 20% and
80% indicate that a large majority do not or do, respectively, have the attribute of interest.
Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the maximum variability in a population, it is often
used in determining a more conservative sample size.

4.5 Sampling and Non Sampling Error

Sampling Error
“Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of taking a
sample from a population rather than using the whole population.
Sampling error is one of two reasons for the difference between an estimate of a population
parameter and the true, but unknown, value of the population parameter. The other reason is
non-sampling error. Even if a sampling process has no non-sampling errors then estimates
from different random samples (of the same size) will vary from sample to sample, and each
estimate is likely to be different from the true value of the population parameter.
The sampling error for a given sample is unknown but when the sampling is random, for

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some estimates (for example, sample mean, sample proportion) theoretical methods may be
used to measure the extent of the variation caused by sampling error.”
Non-sampling error:
“Non-sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of factors
other than taking a sample. Non-sampling errors have the potential to cause bias in polls,
surveys or samples. There are many different types of non-sampling errors and the names
used to describe them are not consistent. Examples of non-sampling errors are generally more
useful than using names to describe them. And it proceeds to give some helpful examples.
These are great definitions, and I thought about turning them into a diagram, so here it is:

2.6 Data Collection – Sources Of Primary and Secondary Data,

→ What is Data Collection?

Data collection is a standout amongst the most essential stages in carrying on a research. You
can have the best research plan in the world, however, in the event that you can’t gather the
necessary data you will not have the capacity to complete your venture. Data collection is an
extremely challenging work which needs exhaustive planning, diligent work, understanding,
determination and more to have the capacity to complete the assignment effectively. Data
collection begins with figuring out what sort of data is needed, followed by the collection of a
sample from a certain section of the population. Next, you have to utilize a certain tool to
gather the data from the chosen sample.

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→ Sources of Data Collection
Normally we can gather data from two sources namely primary and secondary. Data gathered
through perception or questionnaire review in a characteristic setting are illustrations of data
obtained in an uncontrolled situation. Secondary data is the data acquired from optional
sources like magazines, books, documents, journals, reports, the web and more. The chart
below describes the flow of the sources of data collection.

→ Sources of Primary Data Collection

Primary data will be the data that you gather particularly with the end goal of your research
venture. Leverage of Primary data is that it is particularly customized to your analysis needs.
A drawback is that it is costly to get hold of. Primary data is otherwise called raw
information; the information gathered from the first source in a controlled or an uncontrolled
situation. Cases of a controlled domain are experimental studies where certain variables are
being controlled by the analyst.
The source of primary data is the populace test from which you gather the information. The
initial phase in the process is deciding your target populace. For instance, if you are looking
into the attractiveness of another washing machine, your target populace may be newly-weds.
Clearly, it’s impracticable to gather information from everybody, so you will need to focus on
the sample size and kind of sample. The specimen ought to be arbitrary and a stratified
random sample is frequently sensible. In our washing machine illustration, sub populations
may incorporate adolescent couples, moderately aged couples, old couples, and previously
wedded couples.

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→ Sources of Secondary Data Collection
You can break the sources of secondary data into internal as well as external sources. Inner
sources incorporate data that exists and is stored in your organization. External data refers to
the data that is gathered by other individuals or associations from your association’s outer
environment.
Examples of inner sources of data incorporate, but are not restricted only to, the following:
 Statement of the profit and loss
 Balance sheets
 Sales figures
 Inventory records
 Previous marketing studies
If the secondary data you have gathered from internal sources is not sufficient, you can turn
to outside sources of data collection, some outside sources of data collection include:
 Universities
 Government sources
 Foundations
 Media, including telecast, print and Internet
 Trade, business and expert affiliations
 Corporate filings
 Commercial information administrations, which are organizations that find the data for
you

Scaling Techniques for Measuring Data Gathered from

Respondents
The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively. Attitude is a
resultant of number of external and internal factors. Depending upon the attitude to be
measured, appropriate scales are designed. Scaling is a technique used for measuring
qualitative responses of respondents such as those related to their feelings, perception, likes,
dislikes, interests and preferences.
Types of Scales
Most frequently used Scales
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
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Self Rating Scales

1. Graphic Rating Scale

2. Itemized Rating Scales
a. Likert Scale
b. Semantic Differential Scale
c. Stapel’s Scale
d. Multi Dimensional Scaling
e. Thurston Scales
f. Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis
g. The Q Sort technique

Four types of scales are generally used for Marketing Research.

1. Nominal Scale
This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various
alternative categories which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These
scales are just numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales. Instances of
Nominal Scale are - credit card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers
etc. It is simple and widely used when relationship between two variables is to be studied.
In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than labels and are used specifically to identify
different categories of responses. Following example illustrates
What is your gender?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining
stocks and daily turnover.
How do you stock items at present?
[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 – 200

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 [ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
A two way classification can be made as follows
Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method
100 – 200
200 – 300
Above 300

2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing Research. It is
more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order.
The ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is
obtained through the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
5. Design

The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked
5. Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.

Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.

Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them
based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second
maximum Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.

Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.

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3. Interval Scale

Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, is equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating
Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal
intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.

Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities?

Less Well
Company Name 1 2 3 4 5
Known Known

Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many

Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High

Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good

Very Dis- Very

Overall Satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5
Satisfied Satisfied

Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and
also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not
permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has
been established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean
scores of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of
dispersion) can also be calculated.

4. Ratio Scale
Ratio Scales are not widely used in Marketing Research unless a base item is made available
for comparison. In the above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not
necessarily mean that the respondent is twice more satisfied than the respondent who marks 2
on the scale. A Ratio scale has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally
appearing intervals. For example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length,
weight, etc.

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The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio
scale analytically are the most versatile. Ratio scale possess all he characteristics of an
internal scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations.
Data on certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-
ended questions, will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions:

Q 1) what is your annual income before taxes? ______ $

Q 2) How far is the Theater from your home? ______ Miles

Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For
example we can say that a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much
as one with an annual income of $ 20,000.

Self Rating Scales

1. Graphic Rating Scale

The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a
line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to another. Example

0 1 5 7
(poor quality) (bad quality) (neither good nor bad) (good quality)

BRAND 1

This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position.
Here one attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of ice-cream.

poor good

BRAND 2

This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other
indication is there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the
responses to question that “indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by
placing a tick mark at appropriate position on the line”, we measure the physical

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 distance between the left extreme position and the response position on the line.; the
greater the distance, the more favourable is the response or attitude towards the brand.

Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial amount of time, since
we first have to measure the physical distances on the scale for each respondent.

2. Itemized Rating Scales

These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of brief
descriptions associated with each category. They are widely used in Marketing
Research. They essentially take the form of the multiple category questions. The most
common are - Likert, Sementic, Staple and Multiple Dimension. Others are - Thurston
and Guttman.
A) Likert ScaleIt was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a
degree of agreement and disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each scale item has
5 response categories ranging from strongly agree and strongly disagree.
5 4 3 2 1
Strongly agree Agree Indifferent Disagree Strongly disagree

Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be scaled as -2
to +2.
-2 -1 0 1 2

For example quality of Mother Diary ice-cream is poor then Not Good is a negative statement
and Strongly Agree with this means the quality is not good.

Each degree of agreement is given a numerical score and the respondents total score is
computed by summing these scores. This total score of respondent reveals the particular
opinion of a person.

Likert Scale is of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but not to measure the
difference between attitudes. They take about the same amount of efforts to create as
Thurston scale and are considered more discriminating and reliable because of the larger
range of responses typically given in Likert scale.

A typical Likert scale has 20 - 30 statements. While designing a good Likert Scale, first a
large pool of statements relevant to the measurement of attitude has to be generated and then

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from the pool statements, the statements which are vague and non-discriminating have to be
eliminated.

Thus, likert scale is a five point scale ranging from ’strongly agreement’to ’strongly
disagreement’. No judging gap is involved in this method.

B) Semantic Differential Scale

This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.

1 7
Unpleasant 2 3 4 5 6 Pleasant
Submissive Dominant

Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options-

1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant
Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or -3 to 3. On the
basis of these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by
joining these profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the
number of variables.

Profile Analysis

---------------/---------------
----------/--------------------
--------/----------------------

Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities
and differences among objects.

When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good
basis for comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its
simplicity, while producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling
methods. The method is easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small
differences in attitude, highly versatile, reliable and generally valid.

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C) Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-
Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
1. Each item has ten response categories.
2. Each item has an even number of categories.
3. The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask respondents to
rank from +5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best describe the ice cream
accurately. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the ice cream quality
accurately. Thus, we can select any number from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to
-5,for words we think are very inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

This is a unipolar rating scale.

D) Multi Dimensional Scaling

It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to study consumer attitudes
related to perceptions and preferences. It is used to study-
The major attributes of a given class of products perceivedby the consumers in considering
the product and by which they compare the different ranks.
1. To study which brand competes most directly with each other.
I. To find out whether the consumers would like a new brand with a
combination of characteristics not found in the market.
II. What would be the consumers ideal combination of product attributes.

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 III. What sales and advertising messages are compatible with consumers
brand perceptions.
It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded
off on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer
program. The purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will
eliminate most of the stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been
developed, the next step is to determine the preference with regards to the product under
study. These techniques attempt to identify the product attributes that are important to
consumers and to measure their relative importance.
This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different
brands would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what
are the attributes for joining M.Com course. The responses may be -to do PG, to go into
teaching line,to get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you
can not base decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing
between brands, they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions of
the consumers involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand as a
composite of a number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.

Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multi- dimensional scaling. There
are many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle, vendor
evaluations and advertising media selection.

The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to clearly define the concept of similarities
and preferences. Further the distances between the items are seen as different

E) Thurston Scales

These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the
attitude towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements
are collected that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these
statements along an 11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of
favourableness towards the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or
median ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct questionnaire of twenty to
thirty items that are chosen more or less evenly across the range of ratings.

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The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them.
The scale is then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by
computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with
all the items has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval
measurement scale. But it is the time consuming method and labour intensive. They are
commonly used in psychology and education research.

F) Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis

It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuem in such a way that a
person who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find
acceptable all other items expressing a less extreme position. For example - Children should
not be allowed to watch indecent programmes or government should ban these programmes
or they are not allowed to air on the television. They all are related to one aspect.

In this scale each score represents a unique set of responses and therefore the total score of
every individual is obtained. This scale takes a lot of time and effort in development.

They are very commonly used in political science, anthropology, public opinion, research and
psychology.

F) The Q Sort technique

It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a rank order
procedure and the objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some
criteria. The number of objects to be sorted should be between 60-140 approximately. For
example, here we are taking nine brands. On the basis of taste we classify the brands into
tasty, moderate and non tasty.

We can classify on the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then we can attain the
perception of people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate. We can
classify sixty brands or pile it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be placed in
three piles-low, medium or high.

Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt to classify subjects in terms of their similarity to
attribute under study.

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Reliability and validity
Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey instrument. Reliability
refers to the extent that the instrument yields the same results over multiple trials. Validity
refers to the extent that the instrument measures what it was designed to measure. In
research, there are three ways to approach validity and they include content validity,
construct validity, and criterion-related validity.

Content validity measures the extent to which the items that comprise the scale accurately
represent or measure the information that is being assessed. Are the questions that are asked
representative of the possible questions that could be asked?

Construct validity measures what the calculated scores mean and if they can be generalized.
Construct validity uses statistical analyses, such as correlations, to verify the relevance of the
questions. Questions from an existing, similar instrument, that has been found reliable, can
be correlated with questions from the instrument under examination to determine if construct
validity is present. If the scores are highly correlated it is called convergent validity. If
convergent validity exists, construct validity is supported.

Criterion-related validity has to do with how well the scores from the instrument predict a
known outcome they are expected to predict. Statistical analyses, such as correlations, are
used to determine if criterion-related validity exists. Scores from the instrument in question
should be correlated with an item they are known to predict. If a correlation of > .60 exists,
criterion related validity exists as well.

Reliability can be assessed with the test-retest method, alternative form method, internal
consistency method, the split-halves method, and inter-rater reliability.

Test-retest is a method that administers the same instrument to the same sample at two
different points in time, perhaps one year intervals. If the scores at both time periods are
highly correlated, > .60, they can be considered reliable. The alternative form method
requires two different instruments consisting of similar content. The same sample must take
both instruments and the scores from both instruments must be correlated. If the correlations
are high, the instrument is considered reliable. Internal consistency uses one instrument
administered only once. The coefficient alpha (or cronbach’s alpha) is used to assess the
internal consistency of the item. If the alpha value is .70 or higher, the instrument is

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considered reliable. The split-halves method also requires one test administered once. The
number of items in the scale is divided into halves and a correlation is taken to estimate the
reliability of each half of the test. To estimate the reliability of the entire survey, the
spearman-brown correction must be applied. Inter-rater reliability involves comparing the
observations of two or more individuals and assessing the agreement of the observations.
Kappa values can be calculated in this instance.

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