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Mass media, group and individual or face-to-face are the three main groups of extension
methods.
1. Mass media such as print and electronic media help extension agents to reach
large numbers of farmers simultaneously. However, there is little opportunity for
these farmers to interact among themselves or to provide feedback to the extension
agents. Mass media offer the least expensive media to carry messages to large
number of people. It can accelerate existing change process, but seldom bring
about changes in behavior by themselves. This is because sender and receiver tend
to employ several selective processes when using mass media, which often result in
the receiver distorting the sender’s message.
2. Group methods such as formal lecture, demonstrations and meetings reach
fewer farmers but offer more opportunities for interaction and feedback. This method
reaches one select part of the target group because only those who are interested or
members of farmers’ group come to the meetings. Formal lectures normally provide
fewer opportunities for interaction than group discussions, although informal talks
usually involve adequate interaction and feedback opportunities.
3. Individual extension consists mainly of a dialogue between extension agent and
farmer.
With changing educational goals, the choice of extension teaching becomes important.
How is an extension worker to decide what extension method he is to use?
1. Through the Family Case Method (also known as Farm or Home Visit)
Advantage: Program can be adjusted to fit the individual case. Personal attention can
be given to the individual’s educational problem.
Disadvantage: Requires too much time, no opportunities for group participation,
leadership development, group learning and group action.
Individual casework is purposely done with families who have influence over
others. It is simple form of teaching people.
Advantage: Serves more families with less time than family case.
Disadvantage: Requires skill and time to locate and develop key families.
Certain persons are selected as project leaders or teaching leaders, who serves
as local point of contact. Project leader is trained in a subject, then in turn trains others.
Advantage: Helps to multiply the hands of the extension agent, and at the same time
promote leadership development.
Disadvantage: Program limited to specialties in subject matter; other areas of problems
of subject matter may be neglected.
Disadvantage: As the leaders are hand picked and not democratically selected, they
may not truly represent the people and council may be misused.
Advantage: Groups help to keep extension more clearly before the people, promote
unity of feeling and purpose, develop personality and leadership, provide
social function for members, and can multiply the hand of the agent.
Disadvantage: Members of such a group easily becomes close friends and use the club
as their social outlet exclusively. It then may become limited to a certain
group of people in the community and the educational purpose may
become lost.
Similar to #5, except that the local club is organized by some allied sponsoring
organization, such as Farm Bureau, Home Bureau, etc., rather than organized by
extension.
Advantage: Working with organizations which belong to the people, and with farmers
which all have common commodity problems.
Disadvantage: Agents often have to serve as officers in the organization, and many
farmers may not belong to the organization.
9. Through a Whole Community Organization
Whole community functions as one large group representing the people. Various
functional committees are set up to handle different phases, including farming,
homemaking, etc.
Advantage: Same as #5 provisions for unity in the community. Makes it easy to reach
many people and puts community influence back of recommended
practices. Develops interest and leadership and provides means of
achieving farm, home and community development programs.
Disadvantage: May not work where the community already has several strong
organizations.
SUMMARY
The education of adults is not a simple process. Extension workers, if they are to be
successful in their career, must learn as much as they can about how different
individuals react to learning experiences. It is important to know that each person is
different and will be bringing his differences with him when he is learning.
1. Begin where people are, with what they are ready to learn. Deal with
something with which they are familiar but add something new to stimulate their
curiosity and interest in unrecognized need.
2. Take people one step at a time.
3. Remember that size and difficulty of the steps should be such that the
people (learner) can handle them.
4. Build each step or preceding step. Relate later learning experiences to
earlier learning experiences.
5. Adjust steps that are taken not only to the audience, but to individuals in
the audience. Consider their readiness to learn, their familiarity with that to be
learned, and their speed of learning.
6. Integrate with life situations to show meaning, application and variety of
situations in which the learning applies.
7. Use flexible steps. Discern the time when the audience is ready for
certain learning experiences.
8. Put yourself in the other person’s shoes; think the way the audience does.
9. Be less positive and more tolerant of one’s judgments and mistakes
because of the frailties and inaccuracy of powers of perception.
10. Remember that meanings are in people, not in words.
11. Remember that what the receiver thinks the sender said is more
important than what the sender said. The action the receiver takes depends more on
what the receiver thinks the sender said than on what the sender said.
12. Don’t let what you have learned in the past interfere with what you can
learn in the future.
Formulation of Objectives
Example: “To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible
citizens, and source of genuine strength in our democratic society (RA 3844
Agriculture Land Reform Code, Philippines).
The general objectives are more definite social statements expressing the general
purposes of the extension organization. These generally mentioned when extension
staff and leaders explain what their organization does.
Example: “To increase the net income of farmers through more efficient production and
marketing and the better use of credit.”
The working objectives are specific and clear-cut. They are known as operational
objectives. Derived from actual problems through full discussions with rural people and
planners together, they have the following characteristics: simple of specific (S),
measurable (M), attainable (A), realistic (R), time-bound (T).
Examples:
1. To increase the yield of rice by at least 20 percent after two cropping
seasons.
2. To organize a viable farmer organization at the end of the program
duration.
A. Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge. Remembering of previously learned terms, facts, symbols, principles.
define identifies labels matches
lists names states outlines
recalls recognizes selects
2. Comprehension: grasps meaning of material
converts depends distinguishes reorders
extends estimates infers differentiates
predicts translates summarizes explains
3. Application: uses learned materials in new and concrete situations
demonstrates predicts organizes prepares
manipulates relates classifies produces
computes modifies operates solves
4. Analysis. Breaks down materials into its components/parts so that its organizational
structure can be understood.
breaks down separates differentiates categorizes
selects points out subdivides outlines
5. Synthesis. Put parts together to form new whole patterns.
combines produces revises devices
designs compiles proposes generates
6. Evaluation. Judges the value of material (poem, novel, research, report, etc.)
appraises concluded criticizes relates
supports justifies interprets summarizes
B. Affective Domain
1. Receiving. Willingness to attend to a particular stimuli or phenomenon.
asks selects chooses uses
holds points to
2. Responding. Active participation on the part of the students.
answers assists greets helps
performs presents selects
3. Valuing. Concerned with worth or value the individual attaches to a
particular object, phenomenon or behavior.
differentiates initiates justifies proposes
shares works
4. Organization. Concerned with bringing together different values, resolving
conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent value
system.
adheres alters arranges combines
completes defends integrates modifies
organizes synthesizes
C. Psychomotor Domain
assembles builds calibrates changes
composes hammers heats hooks
corrects creates constructs designs
cleans identifies fixes
As soon as the objectives have been set, the next task is to determine and design the
strategy or appropriate approaches to be used. A strategy is a combination of means to
achieve the program or course objectives.
I. Personal services
1. Salaries and wages _______ _______ _______
2. Honoraria for experts _______ _______ _______
3. Lump sum for other services _______ _______ _______
Sub-total _______ _______ _______
This includes the plan and calendar of work of the project. In short, it is scheduling of
the various project activities. A plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to
enable effective execution of the entire program or course. It answers the questions
how, when, where and by whom the work is done. A calendar of work is a plan of work
arranged chronologically. The framework of such a calendar of work may be made out
for a month, six months, or even a year or more. The project activities may be also
divided into stages or phases.
The simplest way of preparing the plan of work may be in a tabular form that indicates
the problems, objectives, strategies or techniques, materials and logistics, persons or
agencies involved, and the time period of the activity. The tabulation is in summary form,
hence it is very convenient to use.
Mass methods
Mass media
Mass refers to the “masa”, the common tao, or the bakya or crowd – the lowest class in
the society which the majority of the Filipinos composed of. This derogatory connotation
of the definition of the mass is peculiar among Third World Countries like the Philippines
and some countries of South America. However, in the western definition, it simply
means “the general public”.
Fixative property
The media capture, preserve and reconstitute an object or event, making it available to
the learner anytime and any place.
Example:
Agricultural extension worker videotapes a TV show farm program relevant in the
situation of his client. He can use the videotape to reinforce his farmers’ classes.
Manipulative property
The media can transform the presentation of an object or even offer many ways to save
time, permit closer look, review an event that happened, or simplify complex details.
Example:
A slide set or video program of any technology can present the process in less than 10
minutes even if the procedure actually takes longer.
Distributive property
Radio is available in almost all countries, reaching mass audiences cheaply and rapidly
(Barghouti, 1973). Since radio is a tool for reaching out mass audiences,
workers/development communicators who will use radio as medium of disseminating
breakthroughs in agriculture and natural resources must be aware of the medium’s
advantages and disadvantages/limitations. He/she must always remember that radio
makes use of the sound only, hence the message can reach the audience’s nervous
system only through the use of the sense of hearing. It is proven that sounds have
lesser impact to the memory compared to the visual impressions.
Advantages
Radio can reach a large number of people at one time.
It can transmit messages immediately.
It transcends illiteracy and inadequate schooling.
It is more intimate and personalized than the print medium.
It has emotional impact.
It is a companion medium.
It is relatively inexpensive.
It has high credibility among people.
Disadvantages/limitations
Radio lacks personal contact compared to face-to-face and group
communication.
It does not allow immediate feedback.
It is inexorable.
Radio, being a companion medium can be a limitation, too.
Advantages
Closest to face-to-face communication
Successful in reaching out to both literate and illiterate audiences
Enhances understanding and retention
Disadvantages
Accessibility and availability
Education/extension programs face severe competition from
entertainment programs
Preparation of development communication programs for TV require
much planning, preparation, technical, creative and communication skills than for
other media
Cost money to produce and air TV programs
Leaflet refers to a small, folded publications used to provide reference on short and
single subject matter.
Contains brief information on a specific recommended practice.
It may also treat a specific information that is not necessarily a step-by-step
procedural instruction to follow, but is also needed by the farmer.
It has a size of 8 ½ x 13” (when unfolded)
Has a maximum of two colors
Has 4-6 pages (when folded). There are also leaflets folded only into two.
Poster refers to a single sheet visuals printed on thick papers or boards containing
limited textual information and frequently dominantly with pictorial presentation.
Popularly used in advertising and in campaigns. Lend well to making
announcements or creating awareness about innovations for varied audiences.
Posters are placed in public places to promote awareness and direct the
audience toward a source of more detailed information.
Sizes range from 11”x14”x28”. A 14”x22” poster is considered by most graphic
designers as an ideal size in terms of economy in reproduction. However, any
one is not limited to these sizes.
Uses of posters
Persuade, suggest and command
Alert, warn, draw attention to something
Dissuade or forbid
Instruct and inform
Advertise or sell products, ideas and services
Types of posters
Word or textual poster
Picture-photo poster
Picture-text poster
Symbolic poster
Poster categories
Commercial poster – introduces and promotes products and services
Art poster – introduces art exhibits in galleries or museums
Theatrical poster – introduces plays, shows, concerts, films and the like
Political/social poster – introduces social/political ideas or issues
Propaganda poster – intentional control of messages to achieve a political
objective
Newspaper refers to a paper that is printed and distributed usually daily or weekly and
that contains news, articles of opinion, features and advertising (Webster, p.796).
Influential in creating awareness and mobilizing public opinion
Presents technical data in clearly designed text and provide detailed information
Capable of presenting important topics in a series of articles
Like other print media, articles can be shared or kept as reference materials
Audience is limited to those who can read
Current prices make a newspaper relatively expensive
Represents one-way communication, thus feedback is difficult to monitor
With high production cost, they are difficult for small communities or
organizations to publish
Wall newspaper publishes articles about research results and usually tacked on bulletin
boards and walls.
Can serve as a means of keeping researchers and extensionists in continuous
and active contact
Easy reading at a distance because it occupies a large spread and using larger
text
A handful of readers may be reading the medium simultaneously, and such a
gathering may spawn discussion of the wall newspaper contents.
Fact sheet is a loose sheet of paper containing information about a person, thing or
innovation.
Useful in keeping extension workers, educated farmers and researchers updated
about agricultural technologies
Contents may be updated, depending on developments in research and in the
field, by issuing an additional page if needed
Can be produced cheaply through mimeographing printing
Exhibits
Educational campaign
Overhead transparencies
Trasparency refers to a large format 8”x10” film used with the overhead projector.
Transparencies are composed of photographic type sheet film, clean plastic acetate or
any of a number of other transparent materials capable of being imprinted with an image
by means of chemical or heat processes.
Advantages
Projects clear and enlarged images in normal room lighting condition
Projector is used in front of the room with the lecturer facing the audience,
allowing direct eye contact with viewers
Overhead projectors are lightweight, easily portable and simple to operate
Projected materials can be manipulated by the lecturer
Variety of materials can be projected, including cutout silhouettes, small opaque
objects and other types of transparencies
OHP allows the lecturer to pace his presentation
A range of presentation techniques is possible where the information is
progressively revealed in a step-by-step procedure through revelation by
masking and overlays
Limitations
Effectiveness of overhead projection presentation is heavily dependent on the
lecturer
OHP cannot be programmed to show visual sequences by itself nor an audio or
tape accompaniment provided
Overhead system cannot be used for independent study since it is designed for
large group presentation
Printed materials and non-transparent items like magazines, illustrations cannot
be projected immediately. To use these materials for overhead system, they
have to be made transparencies by means of some sort of “production process.”
OHP can be used only on indoor settings (i.e. classroom auditorium, etc.) and
requires electricity for the operation.
Slides
Slides refer to a small format photographic transparency individually mounted for one at
a time projection. Usually, sides use a 35mm film format mounted on a 2x2 inch
(50x50mm) slide mounts.
Advantages
Slides focus attention on an image, large or small
Slides are flexible – they can be arranged and re-arranged or added to and
removed into infinite variety of sequence
Slides can be used for large group presentation and be integrated into
independent study or individualized instruction program
Suitable for presentations with varied audiences, more particularly those with low
literacy
Lend well to teaching cognitive tasks, simplifying complex instructions or
explanations through the use of non-verbal symbols such as colored images.
Limitations
Since slides come as individual frames, they can easily become disorganized,
out of sequence and projected upside down, sideways or backwards
Requires suitable electric power to operate projection equipment
Needs cameras, projection equipment and some production skills
Specific only for slide projector
Lecture
The resource speaker or facilitator delivers a prepared talk and may distribute handouts
and use audio-visual aids. This method is used to describe and explain a subject
matter, present new information and explain procedure.
Advantages
Many topics can be covered in a short period
The facilitator is in complete control
Can accommodate almost an unlimited size of audience
It is economical
Disadvantages
The communication is primarily one-way
The retention rate is low
Lack of involvement of participants
It can be boring
Method Demonstration
Advantages
Effective in teaching skills
Motivate or stimulate action
Build confidence in local people
Help extension worker become acquainted with local people
People accept ideas easily
Bring about changes in practices at low cost.
General meetings
It includes all kinds of meetings by extension worker other than method demo leader
training meetings, tours or field days. General meetings include all types of discussions
such as discussions following a lecture, film, forum, symposium, panel discussion, group
interview and debate discussion.
A tour might also be called a mobile meeting which moves from place to place. Tours
are effective way of getting adoption of improved practices. Farmers form their own
conclusions, exchange ideas and decide what they wish to make use on their own farm.
Advantages
Effective way to imparting knowledge
Makes for easy learning
May lead to other places of interest for future study
Stimulates fellowship among members of the group
Members learn to study or work as a team
Increases acquaintances especially with people who are outside members of the
group
Creates publicity, bolsters social standing or person visited as well as cooperative
tendencies
Limitations
Not applicable in some subject matter
Expensive (time, money and effort) if place to be visited is far
Requires a lot of preparation
Involves other people
Short courses
Courses may run for duration of 1-6 weeks depending on the subject matter. Here,
enrolment is required and regular attendance assumed. It is more or less informal but
series of well-planned and organized lessons are given in a logical sequence. The
course is usually shorter than what would be given in the regular school system. It
requires more time and concentration to develop a skill or technique than can be
accomplished in a meeting or conference.
When the schools are conducted, it is usually on the regional area basis and specialists
are brought in to do the teaching. However, it can be done by the extension worker, if he
feels the need is great enough and if he is qualified.
Field Days
Panel Discussion
This is used when presenting divergent ideas, opinions and experiences of “recognized”
authorities and to generate interaction between trainees and “experts”. The experts
present their ideas, experiences, beliefs or understanding on a subject matter and after
which an open forum follows.
Advantages
Exposure to differing or varied ideas on subject matter at hand
Encourages sharing and participation of audience
Speakers become extra careful, since other “experts” are listening
If properly handled by the moderator, it can result to a lively and fruitful
interchange of ideas
Disadvantages
Limited time for speaker to expound
Limited time for audience participation
Conflicting ideas may leave audience confused
Sometimes difficult to gather at one time the appropriate panelists
Symposium
Like the panel discussion, the symposium is also used to give an audience pertinent
information about the topic or to consider the relative merits of various solutions to a
controversial problem. The symposium, however is more formal than the panel.
Persons with special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of
a problem and these are followed by a forum period. The symposium is essentially a
public speaking program while the panel discussion is essentially conversational.
Office calls
The farmer is usually seeking information. The initiative is from the caller, not the
extension officer. The duty of the extension officer then becomes one of supplying
information or rendering that particular kind of service which is demanded.
Telephone calls
It will probably be a long time before most farmers in developing countries have
telephones. These should be made use of whenever it is necessary to get in touch with
the regional or national office quickly. As the number of phones in the country increases,
their value as an extension method becomes greater.
Personal letters
Result demonstration
Advantages
Furnishes local proof of the desirability of the recommended practice
Appeals to the eye and is effective in convincing those who question the practice
A good way to introduce a new project
Furnishes cost information
Aids in developing local leaders
Limitations
May be hard to find a responsible cooperator
May arouse jealousy among families because of number of visits of extension
workers made to cooperators
May be affected by many uncontrollable factors like weather
May lessen effectiveness of extension worker if demonstration is not successful
Is not adaptable to many kinds of subject matter