1.

MAGNETISM

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field
is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that
pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other
magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and

creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator
magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized,
which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called
ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of
rare earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone.

Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft"materials like

annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tendto stay magnetized, and
magnetically "hard" materials, which do.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or,

alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a
material is measured by its magnetization.

Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly

attracted to either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times
weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using
sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets.

Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and

ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water,
and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet.

Magnetizing ferromagnets Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the

following ways:

• Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a

magnetic field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method
and is similar to the industrial processes used to create permanent magnets.

• Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining
some of the magnetism on removal.

Demagnetizing ferromagnets Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be

demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:

• Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys
the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all
magnetization.

• Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the
material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly
 decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks
and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.

• Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the

magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's
coercivity.

• Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic

fields sufficient to move the magnet
away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the
magnetic material (the demagnetisation curve).

• Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the

magnetic domains. This will leave
some residual magnetization.

Plastics, wood, and most insulating materials are virtually transparent to magnetic
forces.

Conducting metals, like aluminum, also allow magnetic forces to pass through, but
may change the forces.

1.1 MAGNETIC FIELD

The strength of a magnet is concentrated at the ends, called north and south “poles”
of the magnet.

Bar magnets (compass needle) align themselves in a north-south direction.

Poles:
Unlike poles attract, like poles repel.
(This Implies the existence of a Magnetic force)

Magnet has NO effect on an electroscope and is not influenced by gravity.

Magnets attract only some objects (iron, nickel etc).

No magnets ever repel non magnets.

Magnets have no effect on things like copper or brass.

Cut a bar magnet-you get two smaller magnets (no magnetic monopoles).

Earth is like a huge bar magnet.

Magnetic Field Lines The field lines are closely spaced near the poles, where
the magnetic field B is most intense. In addition, the lines form closed loops that
leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole.

Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet
 Magnetic Field
Lines

ALL MAGNETS CREATE A MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE SPACE AROUND THEM,

AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD CREATES FORCES ON OTHER MAGNETS.

1.2 Pull force of a single magnet The strength of a given magnet is

sometimes given in terms of its pull force— its ability to move (push/ pull) other
objects. The pull force exerted by either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet at
the "air gap" (i.e., the point in space where the magnet ends) is given by the
Maxwell equation:

𝐵2 𝐴
𝐹= NO DERIVATION REQD.
2𝜇0
F is force (SI unit: newton)
A is the cross section of the area of the pole in square meters
B is the magnetic induction exerted by the magnet

THESE POSTULATES DEFINE THE PRESENCE OF FORCE ASSOCIATED WITH

A MAGNETIC FIELD.

The force of attraction and repulsion between poles is due to interaction of the
magnetic fields.

2. ELECTRIC CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD

2.1 For stationary charges, they experienced an electric force in an Electric

Field. For moving charges, they experienced a magnetic force in a Magnetic
Field. Here is our field of interst.

2.2 Magnetic Field. On 21 April 1820, during a lecture, Ørsted noticed a

compass needle deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a
battery was switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity
and magnetism.[3] His initial interpretation was that magnetic effects radiate from all
sides of a wire carrying an electric current, as do light and heat. Three months later
he began more intensive investigations and soon thereafter published his findings,
showing that an electric current produces a circular magnetic field as it flows through
a wire. This discovery was not due to mere chance, since Ørsted had been looking
for a relation between electricity and magnetism for several years.

A simple apparatus demonstrates that something wierd happens when charges are
in motion: If we run currents next to one another in parallel, we find that they are
attracted when the currents run in the same direction; they are repulsed when the
currents run in opposite directions. This is despite the fact the wires are completely
neutral: if we put a stationary test charge near the wires, it feels no force.
Furthermore, experiments show that the force is proportional to the current. If you
double the current in one of the wires, you double the force. Double the current in
both wires, and you quadruple the force.

What we say is that some kind of Magnetic Field ‘B’ arises from the current. The
interaction of two magnetic fields produces an attraction or repulsion force.

2.3 Direction of Magnetic Field. Hence it is important to know the direction

of the generated magnetic field due to current. The direction of this Magnetic Field
is kind of odd: it wraps around the current in a circular fashion, with a direction that
is defined by the right-hand rule: We point our right thumb in the direction of the
current, and our fingers curl in the same sense as the magnetic Field.
2.4 Direction of the magnetic force. The direction of the magnetic field
generated is determined from right hand rule.

Right Hand Rule : With a flat right hand, point thumb in direction of velocity v,
fingers in direction of B field. The flat hand pushes in the direction of force F.

Deflection force greatest when path perpendicular to field. Least at parallel.

The force is greatest when the

velocity v is perpendicular to the B
field. The deflection decreases to
zero for parallel motion.

F  v sin
2.5 Magnitude of the Magnetic Force on a charge. Experimental observations
show the following:

F
F  qv sin  or  constant
qv sin 
By choosing appropriate units for the constant of proportionality, we can now define
the B-field as:
A magnetic field intensity of one tesla (T) exists in a region of space where a charge
of one coulomb (C) moving at 1 m/s perpendicular to the B-field will experience a
force of one newton (N).

2.6 Forces on negative charges. are opposite to those on positive charges.

The force on the negative charge requires a left-hand rule to show downward force
F.

2.7 Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying Coil. Arranging wire in a coil and
running a current through produces a magnetic field that looks a lot like a bar
magnet.

2.8 Determining Direction of Magnetic Field of a Coil. If you wrap your fingers
around the coil in the direction of the current, your thumb points north.
2.9 Representing Currents/ Magnetic Fields.

MOVING OUT OF THE PAGE

MOVING INTO THE PAGE

2.10 Motion of a Point Charge in Magnetic Field. Since Magnetic Force is

perpendicular to Velocity , there is no work done on the charge and therefore B
Field only changes the direction of the velocity but not its magnitude. We have
circular motion. Magnetic force provides the centripetal force on the moving charge
particles.

X = Field Directed into the page

 Generally, charged particles with con-
stant velocity moves in helix in the
presence of constant B Field.

2.11 Lorentz Force. If we have both electric and magnetic Fields, the total
force that acts on a charge is of course given by

Where c is the speed of light. The appearance of c in this force law is a hint that
special relativity plays an important role in these discussions.

2.12 Hall Effect. Charges travelling in a conducting wire will be pushed to

one side of the wire by the external magnetic Field. This separation of charge in the
wire is called the Hall Effect.

The separation will stop when FB experienced by the current carrier is balanced
by the force FH caused by the E Field set up by the separated charges.

Hence there will be a voltage set up across the conductor ie between top surface
and bottom surface.
3. MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTS.

3.1 Current = many charges moving together

Consider a wire segment, length L, carrying current i in a magnetic Field.

n= no of charges / volume

Total Current i = total no of charges in a volume/time

Vd= L/t

i=nqLA/t

nqLA= Total Charge in volume L*A

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it interacts

with any other magnetic field and produces a force.
When a current carrying wire, that is free to move, is placed in a magnetic field it will
experience a force and the wire will jump out of the field.

The production of this force is known as the motor effect, because this force is
used in electric motors and the same phenomena is used for electrical
indicating instruments.

3.2 Flemings Left Hand Rule. Rule for predicting the direction of force on
a current carrying conductor in magnetic field
3.3 Determination of Force Direction on Current carrying Conductors in Magnetic
Field can also be done using magnetic field lines.

Magnetic fields that are in the same direction make the combined fields
stronger. Magnetic fields that are in opposite direction make the combined
fields weaker.
3.4 The Force Between Two Parallel Wires. If we place two current carrying wires
held parallel to each other, they always attract or repel each other. The direction of
force of attraction is given by the Fleming’s left hand rule. According to the Fleming’s
left hand rule, if we stretch our fore finger , middle finger and the thumb of left hand
so that they are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the fore finger indicates
the direction of produced magnetic field due to the another wire, middle finger
indicated the direction of current in the wire and the thumb indicates the direction of
force.

3.5 Force On A Current-Carrying Rectangular Coil In A Magnetic Field. The force

on the sides of a rectangular coil carrying current in a constant magnetic field will
form a torque tending to rotate the rectangular element.
 LB  0
For 1 and 3
FB  0

For 2 and 4 F2  F4  IaB

 IaB   IaB 
b b b b
 max  F2  F4
2 2 2 2
 max  IaB b

 max  IAB

If the field makes an angle with a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop:

a a
  F1 sin   F3 sin 
2 2
a a
  IbB sin   IbB sin   IabB sin 
2 2
  IAB sin 
4. PHENOMENA OF INDUCED CURRENT.

4.1 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density. Consider the figure below. Each field line
represents a magnetic flux Φ and Magnetic Flux Density Flux through a unit
perpendicular area.

Magnetic flux lines are continuous

and closed.

Area A is perpendicular to flux.

B=Φ/A (The unit of flux density is the Weber per square meter)

4.2 Faraday’s Law. Michael Faraday found experimentally that the magnitude
of the induced emf is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux changed.
Faraday’s law can be written as,

  N ;   B A.
t
where N is the number of turns in the loops, A is the area of one loop, ξ is the
induced emf, and B is the magnetic flux density is the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field.

The SI unit for the induced emf is the volt, V. The minus sign in the above
Faraday’s law of induction is due to the fact that the induced emf will always oppose
the change. It is also known as the Lenz’s law.

4.3 Lenz’s Law. Russian Physicist Heinrich F.E. Lenz, in 1834 based on
experimental observations deduced what is called the Lenz’s Law which states that

“There is an induced current in a closed conducting loop if and only if the

magnetic flux through the loop is changing.

The direction of the induced current is such that the induced magnetic field
always opposes the change in the flux”.
4.4 Self and Mutual Inductance. The phenomenon of self-induction was first
recognized by the American scientist Joseph Henry. He was able to generate large
and spectacular electric arcs by interrupting the current in a large copper coil with
many turns. (While a steady current is flowing in a coil, the energy in the magnetic
field is given by 1/2Li2. If both the inductance L and the current i are large, the amount
of energy is also large. If the current is interrupted, as, for example, by opening a
knife-blade switch, the current and therefore the magnetic flux through the coil drop
quickly and the resulting electromotive force induced in the coil craetes a large
potential difference is developed between the two poles of the switch. The energy
stored in the magnetic field of the coil is dissipated as heat and radiation in an
electric arc across the space between the terminals of the switch).
4.4.1 Self Inductance. When a time-dependent i.e. a varying current flows
through a coil, the flux through the coil ( due to the magnetic field produced by
current in it) will keep on changing. Hence an induced e.m.f. will be produced in it.
This process is called self induction.

Consider only Coil 1

When a current i1 flows in circuit 1, i1 produces a magnetic field B1; the magnetic flux
through circuit 1 due to current i1 is Φ11. Since B1 is proportional to i1, Φ11 is as well.
The constant of proportionality is the self-inductance L1 of the circuit. It is defined by
the equation

∅11 = 𝐿1 𝑖1 ---- Magnetic Flux Through circuit 1 due current i1

According to Faraday’s Law

Emf induced in the circuit = 𝑒𝑚𝑓1 = −d∅11 /𝑑𝑡 = -L d𝑖1 /𝑑𝑡

4.4.2 Mutual Inductance. If a second circuit is present, some of the field B1 will
pass through circuit 2 and there will be a magnetic flux Φ 21 in circuit 2 due to the
current i1. This phenomena is described as Mutual Inductance.
 Self-Inductances” are L1 and L2

The “Mutual” Inductance is M.

The voltage induced in one circuit is related to the time-varying current in the other
circuit.
1
2

1
Check the signs of Induced emfs.

4.5 Eddy Currents. Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied to the conductor,
such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This
magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as
the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
proximity of this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur. Magnetic field
cutting through the second conductor will cause an “induced” current to flow in this
second conductor. Eddy currents are a form of induced currents.
4.5.1 Thus Eddy Currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding
and the flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy Currents
concentrate near to the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength
decreases with distance from the coil i.e. Eddy Current density decreases
exponentially with depth.

When an electrically conductive material

is placed in the coil’s dynamic magnetic
field electromagnetic, induction will occur
and eddy currents will be induced in the
material.
 Primary magnetic field.
Induced magnetic field
opposing “primary” Eddy currents flowing in the material will
magnetic field. generate their own “secondary” magnetic
field which will oppose the coil’s
“primary” magnetic field.

5. ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

5.1 An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function
of time and bears a constant relation to its input.

5.2 Classification of Electrical Instruments. Electrical measuring instruments

may be classified into two groups:

(a) Absolute (or primary) instruments.

(b) Secondary instruments.

5.2.1 Absolute Instruments. These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and
their deflections. In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other
instruments is necessary. They are generally not used in laboratories and are
seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as
means of standard measurements and are maintained by national laboratories and
similar institutions. Some of the examples of absolute instruments are Tangent
galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute electrometer.

5.2.2 Secondary Instruments. They are direct reading instruments. The quantity
to be measured by these instruments can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments. They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute
instruments or with those which have already been calibrated. The deflections
obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless until it is not calibrated.
These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes. Some of the very
widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy
meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

5.2.3 Classification of Secondary Instruments.

(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or

voltage) upon which their operation depend. They are:
• Magnetic effect: A Current Carrying Conductor experiences a force in a
magnetic field. used in moving coil instruments. Common applications are
ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating meters etc. A soft iron not
magnetized will get attracted to the coil ( This principle is used in attraction
type Moving Iron Instruments). Two pieces of iron placed near the coil will
be similarly magnetised (used for repulsion type moving iron Instruments).

Principle of Moving Iron

Instruments

Principle of
Dynomometer
Instruments

• Heating effect: Current through a conductor produces heat. Rise in temp

is converted to emf by a thermocouple attached. In a closed loop this emf
results in a current which can be measured. Measured current is indicative of
the rms value of the current. Used for DC/AC ammeters and voltmeters. The
 output is frequency independant, hence can be conveniently used with very
high frequency AC sources (100Hz and above).

• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.

• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.

• Electromagnetic induction effect: Inducing a voltage in a conductor by

changing the magnetic field around the conductor. Used in ac ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.

Note: Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect
are utilized for the construction of the commercial instruments.

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations The

Electrical Instruments are classified based on their nature of operation as:

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the

quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale.
Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the

variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are
indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record of
the indication is made on a chart or dial.

• Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the

total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. That
is, these instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. No
indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are
available from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-
hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.

5.3 Force/Torques Common To all Analog Instruments. Features which are

common to all electrical measuring instruments are:-

(a) Deflecting Torque The deflecting torque, causes the moving system
of the instrument to move from its zero position. It may be produced by
utilizing any one of the effects of current or voltage in the instrument such as
magnetic effect, electromagnetic induction effect, heating effect, electrostatic
effect etc. The actual method of producing a deflecting torque depends upon
the type of the instruments. The deflecting torque has to provide the following
torque components present in the system:-

(i) The torque required to overcome the torque due to the inertia of
the moving system.

(ii) The torque required to overcome the controlling torque.

 (iii) The torque required to overcome the damping torque.

(iv) The torque requirred to overcome the frictional (coulomb)

torque.

(b) Controlling TorqueThe controlling torque developed in an instrument

has two functions:

(i) It limits the movement of the moving system and ensures that the
magnitude of the deflections always remains the same for a given
value of the quantity to be measured.

(ii) It brings back the moving system to its zero position where the
quantity being measured is removed or made zero.

The controlling torque is dependent on the magnitude of deflection produced.

The moving system is deflected from zero to such a position that the
controlling torque at that deflected position is equal to the deflecting torque.
The controlling torque increases in magnitude with the deflection till it
balances the deflecting torque. That is, for a steady deflection,

Controlling torque, Tc = Deflection or operating torque, Td

The controlling torque is entered in all commercial instruments by any one of

the following three ways.

• By means of one or two coiled springs. The corresponding insturment

is termed spring controlled instruments (mostly used system).

• By the action of gravity due to suitably placed weights on the moving

system. Such instruments are known as gravity controlled instruments.

• By means of a permanent magnet (magnetic control system).

Spring control is now almost universal in indicating instruments. Gravity

control is employed in a few cases, notably in special laboratory types, and
magnetic control is applied to some galvanometers and certain moving iron
instruments (the polarized form).

(c) Relation Between Current and deflection (Spring Control) In

a permanent magnet moving coil type instrument the deflecting torque is
proportional to the current passing through them. Thus the operating torque,
Td , is directly proportional to the current, Td = KI
Then for spring control instrument, the controlling torque, TC, is Tc = Ksθ

At Equilibrium

Td = TC
Or
I= (Ks/K) * θ
This equation shows that the current is directly proportional to the deflection
and is a linear relation The scale with spring controlled instrument for
deflecting torque will be uniform throughout the scale.

(d) Relation Between Current and deflection (Gravity Control) In

gravity controlled instruments, as shown in Fig. a small adjustable weight is
attached to the spindle of the moving system such that the deflecting torque
produced by the instrument has to act against the action of gravity. Thus a
controlling torque is obtained. This weight is called the controlweight. Another
adjustable weight is also attached is the moving system for zero adjustment
and balancing purpose. This weight is called Balance weight.

When the control weight is in vertical position, the controlling torque is zero
and hence the pointer must read zero. However, if the deflecting torque lifts
the controlling weight from position A to B as shown such that the spindle
rotates by an angle θ, then due to gravity a restoring (or controlling) torque is
exterted on the moving system.
Tc = Wl sin θ= kg sin θ

I= (Kg/K) * Sin θ

This relation shows that current I is proportional to sin θ and not θ . Hence in
gravity controlled instruments the scale is not uniform. It is cramped for the
lower readings, instead of being uniformly divided, for the deflecting torque
assumed to be directly proportional to the quantity being measured.

Advantanges of Gravity Control

1. It is cheap and not affected by temperature variations.

2. It does not deteriorate with time.

3. It is not subject to fatigue.

Disadvantages of Gravity Control Gravity control is not used for

indicating instruments in general and portable instruments in particular
because of the following disadvantages:-

1. Since the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of

deflection, the scale is not uniformly divided but cramped at its lower
end.

2. It is not suitable for use in portable instruments (in which spring

control is always preferred).

3. Gravity control instruments must be used in vertical position so that

the control weight may operate and also must be levelled otherwise
they will give zero error.

(e) Damping Torque We know that the moving system of the instrument
will tend to move under the action of the deflecting torque. But on account of
the control torque, it will try to occupy a position of rest when the two torques
are equal and opposite. However, due to inertia of the moving system, the
pointer will not come to rest immediately but oscillate about its final deflected
position as shown in Fig. below and takes appreciable time to come to steady
state.
To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be developed by using a
damping device attached to the moving system. The damping torque is
proportional to the speed of rotation of the moving system, that is

where kv = damping torque constant

dθ/dt= speed of rotation of the moving system

Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in the moving system, the
instrument may have
any one of the following conditions :-

1. Under damped condition: The response is oscillatory

2. Over damped condition: The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly
from its zero position to final position.

3. Critically damped condition: When the response settles quickly without

any oscillation, the system is said to be critically damped.

In practice, the best response is slightly obtained when the damping is below
the critical value i.e., the instrument is slightly under damped.

(f) Methods to provide damping torque Damping torque is provided to

the system in the follwing methods:-

(i) Air Friction Damping - In this type of damping a light vane

or vanes having considerable area is attached to the moving system to
develop a frictional force opposing the motion by reason of the air they
displace. Two methods of damping by air friction are shown below. The
air friction damping is very simple and cheap. But care must be taken
to ensure that the piston is not bent or twisted. This method is used in
moving iron and hot wire instruments.

AIR FRICTION DAMPING

 (ii) Fluid Friction Damping This form is damping is similar to air
friction damping. The action is the same as in the air friction damping.
Mineral oil is used in place of air and as the viscosity of oil is greater,
the damping force is also much greater. The vane attached to the
spindle is arranged to move in the damping oil. This type of damping is
rarely used for commercial instruments.

(iii) Eddy Current Damping Eddy current damping is the most

efficient form of damping. The essential components in this type of
damping are a permanent magnet; and a light conducting disc usually
of alumninum. When a sheet of conducting material moves in a
magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force, eddy currents are set
up in it and a force exists between these currents and the magnetic
field, which is always in the direction opposing the motion. This force is
proportional to the magnitude of the current, and to the strength of field.
The former is proportional to the velocity of movement of the conductor,
and thus, if the magnetic field is constant, the damping force is
proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is zero when
there is no movement of the system. Two methods employed to
incorporate eddy current damping are shown below.

The eddy current damping is used in wattmeters whereas the

electromagnetic damping is used in Galvanometers.

5.4 Constructional Details of Analog Instruments. Special cares are

essential in the design and construction of some components (parts) of the indicating
instruments. The components considered in the section are:

(a) Supports for Moving System. The main requirement to be fulfilled

by a supporting system is that the friction should be as minimum as possible.
The two commonly used methods for supporting the moving system of an
instrument are pivoting, thread suspension and Taut Band. Most
instruments use the supports of Pivot and Taut Band. In the case of Pivot, the
ends of the spindle are conical and are made of hardened steel. The ends fits
into jeweled bearings of conical shape made from aluminium oxide. The
contract area at the pivots should be as small as practicable. However a very
small area of contact leads to a very high bearing stress. The thread
suspension systems have limited applications in commercial instruments. In
the Taut Band Support two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum
alloy) are held under tension by spring to support the coil. Because of the
spring, the metal ribbons behave like rubber under tension. Thus, the ribbons
also exert a controlling force as they twist. The metal ribbons can be used as
electrical connections to the moving coil.

PIVOTING SUPPORT

TAUT BAND SUPPORT

(b) Permanent Magnets. Instruments having permanent magnets as

their main component, it is essential to ensure that the strength of the
permanent magnets be constant over a considerable time period. Materials
used for construction of such magnets are:

• Alloys of cobalt, chromium and steel

 • Almico (or Alcomax) ( Alnico is an acronym referring to a family of
iron alloys which in addition to iron are composed primarily of
aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co), hence al-ni-co)

• Alloys of iron, nickel and aluminium.

(c) Pointers and Scales. It is essential that the pointer must be light
and must have small inertia constant so as to reduce the load in the bearing
of the moving system and to avoid high degree of damping. Its outline must
be bold with sharp pointer in the first type. We often use aluminium strip on
tube for the pointer. The scale of an instrument of first category is mostly
printed on the enamelled surface of a metal plate, or on paper or card-board
cemented rigidly to a metal backing plate.

(d) Cases. The main function of a case is to make the instrument

dust and moisture proof. Steel cases are used to provide magnetic screening
for insturment which are affected by external magnetic fields. To reduce the
error due to hysteresis and eddy currents effects, the moving system of
instruments should be mounted in a position far away from the metal case.

5.5 Balancing of Components. For a perfect mechanical balance of the

moving systems, the centre of gravity should always lie on the axis of rotation. When
this is ensured then the deflection of a spring-controlled instruments will be
independent of its position, and the wear on the bearings will be uniform. In the
gravity control system the balancing is done both by control and balancing weight.
The distance and weight of control and balancing weight are decided on the basic of
their effects upon the weight and inertia of the moving system. In one of the methods
of obtaining fine balancing in spring control is that the pointer axis is prolonged on
the other side of the pivot and small metal is fixed on it. The metal contains small
screws by means of which balancing is obtained.

5.6 Torque/Weight Ratio. In order to reduce the load on the bearings and to
reduce the frictional torque (proportional to the pressure on the bearing surface), the
weight of the moving should be made as small as possible. The ratio of the
deflecting torque (in Nm, when it acts at a radius of 1 metre) to produce full scale
deflection to the weight of the moving system in kg should always be more than 0.1.
This ratio is influenced by whether the axis of moving system is vertical or horizontal.

6. BASIC ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

6.1 The basic analog instruments for measuring electrical entities are
 a) Moving Iron Instrument.
b) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC).
c) Electro-dynamometer type.
d) Hot wire type.
e) Thermocouple type.
f) Induction type.
g) Electrostatic type.
h) Rectifier type.

6.1.1 All the above mentioned instruments are used for measuring current, voltage,
power or energy by introducing some modifications to the basic instruments. Also the
phenomena of operation of these instruments makes them desirable to be used in
AC or DC sources. Not all instruments mentioned above can be used for
measurement of AC electrical entities. A brief summary of usage of the above
instruments is enumerated below. The principle on account of which their
applicability to different current sources is possible will be discussed subsequently.

6.2 Moving Iron Instrument In moving –iron instruments the movable system
consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as
to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil. There are two
general types of moving-iron instruments namely (i) Repulsion (or double iron) type
(ii) Attraction (or single-iron) type. The brief description of different components of a
moving-iron instrument is given below.

(a) Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.

(b)Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also
to magnetize the iron pieces.

(c) In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the
same polarity.

(d) Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).

(e)Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an

air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.

(f) Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a

graduated scale.

6.2.1 Principle of Operation of Moving Iron Instrument (Repulsion). The

deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In
repulsion (Fig. ) type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron
vanes mounted within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the
coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in
the magnetic field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns if the
instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter. Current in
the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and repulsion between the
similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation. The deflecting torque is
proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making the instrument reading is
a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring
torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to
withstand high transient current. Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration.

MI Instrument (Repulsion type)

6.2.2 Principle of Operation of Moving Iron Instrument (Attraction). This

instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D),
pivoted in jeweled bearings. The spindle (D) also carries a pointer (P), a balance
weight (W 1), a controlling weight (W 2) and a damping piston (E), which moves in a
curved fixed cylinder (F). The special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining
a scale of suitable form.
 MI Instrument (Attraction type)
6.2.3 Torque Expression. The expressions for deflecting and controlling torques are
as follows:-

Deflecting Torque TD α Current I

TD = KI

Controlling Torque TC = Wl Sinθ = Kg Sinθ

At equilibrium i.e. for steady deflection, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque. If the
instrument is gravity controlled then control torque is related component of weight.
i.e TD = TC

KI = Kg Sinθ

I = (Kg / K) Sinθ
This relation shows that current I is proportional to sin θ and not θ. Hence in gravity
controlled instruments the scale is not uniform. It is cramped for the lower readings,
instead of being uniformly divided, for the deflecting torque assumed to be directly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
6.2.4 Full Scale Deflection. For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-turns
necessary to produce full-scale deflection are constant. The range of current for full
scale deflection is 1μA- 10mA. One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a
shunt coil with the moving coil.
6.2.5 MI as Ammeter. To use a MI instrument as an ammeter, we have to
connect a very very low resistance called the shunt resistance in parallel with MI
instrument and the whole MI setup with shunt is to be connected in series with the
current being measured.
Moving Iron Instrument

Rm MI as Ammeter

Rsh

MI Ammeter Circuit

Rm = internal resistance of the moving iron instrument

Rsh = shunt resistance
Ish =shunt current
Im = full scale deflection current of the MI Instrument
I in = full scale current of the ammeter + shunt (i.e. total current) (Can be AC/DC)
I sh Rsh  I m Rm
I sh  I  I m
I m Rm
Rsh 
(Rsh <<<<< Rm)

I  Im

Non Linear Scale of MI Instrument

6.2.5 Multirange Ammeter. To make an ammeter to measure several ranges

of current at once. One approach is to have a separate shunt resistor for each
range and we can calculate each resistor value of the shunt. By the position of the
switch, one of R1 to R4 would be connected as a shunt across the meter.

MI Multirange Ammeter

6.2.6 MI as Voltmeter. To use a MI instrument as a Voltmeter, we have to

connect a very very high resistance called the shunt resistance in series with MI
instrument and the whole MI setup with shunt is to be connected in parallel across
the voltage being measured.
Vin MI as Voltmeter

V  I m ( Rs  Rm )
V  I m Rm V
Rs    Rm
Im Im
V
Rs   Rm
Im

6.2.7 Advantages/Disadvantages. The advantages and disadvantages of MI

instruments are listed below:-

Advantages:
• The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits because
whatever may be the polarity of the applied current, the soft iron (Movable)
will always be attracted to the magnetic field created.
• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
• The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
• Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
• Torque/weight ration is high, thus less frictional error.

Errors/ Disadvantages:
 Errors due to temperature variation.
 Errors due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving-iron instruments.
 Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced
by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to reduce this
effect.
  Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the
coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighboring metal.
 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current
due to non-linear characteristics of iron material.

6.3 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments. The general

theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with considering a rectangular coil of
turns, free to rotate about a vertical axis. A moving coil instrument consists basically
of a permanent magnet to provide a magnetic field and a small lightweight coil is
wound on a rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate around its vertical axis as
shown in fig below. When a current is passed through the coil windings, a torque is
developed on the coil by the interaction of the magnetic field and the field set up by
the current in the coil. The aluminum pointer attached to rotating coil and the pointer
moves around the calibrated scale indicates the deflection of the coil. To reduce
parallax error a mirror is usually placed along with the scale.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

A balance weight is also attached to the pointer to counteract its weight as shown in
fig below. To use PMMC device as a meter, two problems must be solved. First, a
way must be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current
through the coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil
movement. The first problem is solved by the use of hairsprings attached to each
end of the coil as shown. These hairsprings are not only supplying a restoring torque
but also provide an electric connection to the rotating coil. With the use of
hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when no current is flowing though
the coil. The springs will also resist the movement of coil when there is current
through coil. When the developing force between the magnetic fields (from
permanent magnet and electro magnet) is exactly equal to the force of the springs,
the coil rotation will stop. The coil set up is supported on jeweled bearings in order to
achieve free movement. Two other features are considered to increase the accuracy
and efficiency of this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to
concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, the curved pole faces ensure the turning
force on the coil increases as the current increases.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument Torque Mechanism

6.3.1 Principle of operation. It has been mentioned that the interaction between
the induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a
deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil.
6.3.2 Torque Expression. It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform
radial magnetic field of flux density B W/m2, let the length of a coil side (within the
magnetic field) be l (meter), and the distance from each coil side to the axis be r
(meter).
Deflecting Torque TD α Current I
TD = KI
Controlling Torque TC = KS θ
Where KS = Spring Constant
θ = Spring Deflection
At equilibrium i.e. for steady deflection, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque.

i.e TD = TC

KI = KS θ
I = (KS / K) θ
This relation shows that current I is proportional to θ. Hence in Spring controlled
instruments the scale is uniform.
In order to achieve a final steady state deflection without any oscillations about the
final value of deflection, a damping torque is provided in the system. It is provided by
the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or in the
circuit of the coil itself. As the coil moves in the field of the permanent magnet, eddy
currents are set up in the metal former or core. The magnetic field produced by the
eddy currents opposes the motion of the coil. The pointer will therefore swing more
slowly to its proper position and come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.
Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in the moving coil as it
rotates in magnetic field, provided the coil forms part of closed electric circuit.

Electromagnetic Eddy Current Damping

6.3.3 Full Scale Deflection. For a given PM moving-coil instrument the ampere-
turns necessary to produce full-scale deflection are constant. The range of current
for full scale deflection is 1μA- 10mA. To operate a moving coil instrument around a
current level 50ma is impractical owing to the bulk and weight of the coil that would
be required. So, it is necessary to extend the meter-range shunts (in case of
ammeters) and multipliers (in case of volt meters) are used in the following manner.

6.3.4 PMMC as Ammeter. An ammeter is required to measure the current in

a circuit and it therefore connected in series with the components carrying the
current. If the ammeter resistance is not very much smaller than the load resistance,
the load current can be substantially altered by the inclusion of the ammeter in the
circuit. For higher range ammeters a low resistance made up of manganin (low
temperature coefficient of resistance) is connected in parallel to the moving coil as
shown in Figure below and instrument may be calibrated to read directly to the total
current. They are called shunts.
 PMMC as Ammeter

The movement of PMMC instrument is not inherently insensitive to temperature, but

it may be temperature-compensated by the appropriate use of series and shunt
resistors of copper and manganin. Both the magnetic field strength and spring-
tension decrease with an increase in temperature.

On other side, the coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature. These
changes lead to make the pointer read low for a given current with respect to
magnetic field strength and coil resistance. Use of manganin resistance (known as
swamping resistance which has a temperature coefficient practically zero) in series
with the coil resistance can reduce the error due to the variation of resistance of the
moving coil.

The swamping resistance (r) is usually three times that of coil thereby reducing a
possible error of, say, 4% to 1%. A multirange ammeter can be constructed simple
by employing several values of shunt resistances, with a rotary switch to select the
desired range. Figure below shows the circuit arrangement.
 Multirange PMMC Ammeter

When an instrument is used in this fashion, care must be taken to ensure shunt does
not become open-circuited, even for a very short instant. When the switch is moved
from position ‘B’ to ‘C’ or moved to any positions, the shunt resistance will remain
open-circuited for a fraction of time, resulting a very large current may flow through
the ammeter and damage the instrument. To avoid such situation, one may use the
make-before-break switch as shown below

Make-Before- Break Switch

The wide-ended moving contact gets connected to the next terminal to which it is
being moved before it loses contact with the previous terminals. Thus, during the
switching time there are two resistances are parallel with the instrument and finally
the required shunt only will come in parallel to the instrument.

6.3.5 PMMC as Voltmeter. A voltmeter is constructed by a connecting a shunt

resistor in series with a PMMC instrument. Unlike an ammeter, a voltmeter should
have a very high resistance Rse and it is normally connected in parallel with the
circuit where the voltage is to be measured. To minimize voltmeter loading, the
voltmeter operating current should be very small i.e., the resistance connected in
series with the coil should be high.
 PMMC as Voltmeter

PMMC as Multirange Voltmeter

6.3.6 Advantages/ Disadvantages

Advantages:
• The scale is uniformly divided
• The power consumption can be made very low (25Wμto 200μW).
• The torque-weight ratio can be made high with a view to achieve high
accuracy.
• A single instrument can be used for multi range ammeters and
voltmeters.
• Error due to stray magnetic field is very small.

Limitations:
• They are suitable for direct current only.
• The instrument cost is high.
• Variation of magnet strength with time.

The Errors are due to:

i) Frictional error, ii) Magnetic decay, iii) Thermo electric error, iv)
Temperature
error.

6.3.7 Methods to Reduce Errors. Errors can be reduced by following

the steps given below:

 Proper pivoting and balancing weight may reduce the frictional error.
 Suitable aging can reduce the magnetic decay.
 Use of manganin resistance in series (swamping resistance) can nullify the
effect of variation of resistance of the instrument circuit due to temperature
variation.
 The stiffness of spring, permeability of magnetic core (Magnetic core is the
core of electromagnet or inductor which is typically made by winding a coil of
wire around a ferromagnetic material) decreases with increases in
temperature.

6.3.8 Ammeter Sensitivity. Ammeter sensitivity is determined by the amount

of current required by the meter coil to produce full-scale deflection of the pointer.
The smaller the amount of current required producing this deflection, the greater the
sensitivity of the meter. A meter movement that requires only 100 microamperes for
full- scale deflection has a greater sensitivity than a meter movement that requires 1
mA for the same deflection.

6.3.9 Voltmeter Sensitivity. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in ohms per

volt. It is determined by dividing the sum of the resistance of the meter (Rm), plus the
series resistance (Rs), by the full-scale reading in volts.

6.4 Electrodynamometer. An electrodynamometer is an instrument used for

measuring either AC/DC current or Voltage but is generally used for measuring the
electric power. The basic principle was laid out in an 1848 paper by Wilhelm Weber
(1804-1891): when the same current passes through two concentric coils placed at
right angles to each other, the resulting torque depends on the square of the
current.
6.4.1 Construction. As shown in figure 3-16, the fixed coils are connected in series
and positioned coaxially (in line) with a space between them. The two movable coils
are also positioned coaxially and are connected in series. The two pairs of coils
(fixed pair and movable pair) are also connected in series with each other. The
movable coil is pivot-mounted between the fixed coils. The main shaft on which the
movable coils are mounted is restrained by spiral springs that restore the pointer to
zero when no current is flowing through the coil. These springs also act as
conductors for delivering current to the movable coils. Since these conducting
springs are very small, the meter cannot carry a high value of current.

Electrodynamometer : Internal Construction

6.4.2 Principle of Operation. The working principle of a basic

electrodynamometer instrument is same as the PMMC instrument. The only
difference in this case is that the permanent magnet is replaced with two fixed
coils connected in series. The moving coil is also connected in series with the
fixed coils. The two fixed coils are connected to electromagnets in such a manner
that they form poles of opposite polarity as shown in figure below.

Current flow through the stationary (fixed) coils sets up a magnetic field. Current flow
through the moving coils sets up an opposing magnetic field. With two magnetic
fields opposing, the pointer deflects to the right. If the current reverses direction, the
magnetic fields of both sets of coils will be reversed. With both fields reversed, the
coils still oppose each other, and the pointer still deflects to the right. Therefore, no
rectifying devices are required to enable the electrodynamometer meter
movement to read both ac and dc. Rectifying devices are required for the
D’Arsonval-type meter
movement to enable it to be used for measuring ac voltages and currents.
 Electrodynamometer: Generation of Field

6.4.2 Torque. The torque produced for deflection is dependant on the

combined effect of magnetic fields produced at the fixed and moving coils due to
current flow i.e.

For I and V being same in moving and fixed coil,

θ α I2

θ α V2

Thus whether used for measuring current or voltage the scale is uneven being
crowded near zero.
 Deflection in Dynamometer with Current Direction

6.4.3 Electrodynamometer as Ammeter. When the electrodynamometer is

used as an ammeter, a special type of construction must be used. This is because
the large currents that flow through the meter cannot be carried through the moving
coils. In the ammeter as shown below, stationary coils a and b are wound of heavier
wire to carry up to 5.0 amperes. An inductive shunt (XL) is wired in parallel with the
moving coils and permits only a small part of the total current to flow through the
moving coil. The current flowing through the moving coil is directly proportional to the
total current flowing through the instrument. The shunt has the same ratio of
reactance to resistance as the moving coil does. Therefore, the instrument will be
reasonably correct at frequencies at which it is used if ac currents are to be
measured.

Electrodynamometer as Ammeter

6.4.4 Electrodynamometer as Ammeter. When an electrodynamometer is

used as a voltmeter, no problems in construction are encountered because the
current required is not more than 0.1 ampere. This amount of current can be handled
easily by the spiral springs. When the electrodynamometer is used as a voltmeter, its
internal connections and construction are as shown below. Fixed coils a and b are
wound of fine wire since the current flow through them will not exceed 0.1 ampere.
They are connected directly in series with movable coil c and the series current-
limiting resistor.

Electrodynamometer as Voltmeter

6.4.5 Electrodynamometer Output. The output scale for

electrodynamometer is calibrated to give the r.m.s value of a.c signal by taking
the square roots of the inside measured value.

6.4.6 Electrodynamometer (Advantages/ Disadvantages). The advantages

and disadvantages of electrodynamometer type instruments is as follows:-
6.5 Thermal Instruments. In thermal instruments the action depends
upon the heating effect of the current under measurement. Thermal instruments are
mainly of two types namely (i) hot-wire instruments and (ii) thermo-couple
instruments. The hot-wire instrument operates on the fact that when a current is
passed through a wire the wire gets heated and so expands while thermo-couple
instrument operates on the fact that when the junction of two dissimilar metals is
heated by passing current through it, an emf is developed.

These instruments are free from errors due to frequency, wave form and external
magnetic fields when used on ac and so can be used for measurement of current at
frequencies above the range of moving-iron and dynamometer type instruments.

Hot-wire ammeters were very popular in the last decade of the nineteenth century
and in the first two decades of the present century but because of their inherent
draw-backs they have been largely superseded by thermo-couple instruments and
are not used extensively now-a-days. However, owing to their good transfer
characteristics at high frequencies, they are employed for determination of the
differences of indications of other types of instruments on ac and dc and in special
measurement applications.

6.5.1 Hot Wire Instrument. The hot-wire meter movement deflection

depends on the expansion of a high-resistance wire caused by the heating effect of
the wire itself as current flows through it. A resistance wire is stretched taut between
the two meter terminals, with a thread attached at a right angle to the center of the
wire. A spring connected to the opposite end of the thread exerts a constant tension
on the resistance wire. Current flow heats the wire, causing it to expand. This motion
is transferred to the meter pointer through the thread and a pivot.

Hot wire Instrument: Construction

 Hot wire Instrument

6.5.2 Hot Wire Instruments (Advantages/ Disadvantages). The advantages and

Disadvantages of Hot Wire Instruments are enumerated below:-

6.5.3 Hot Wire Instruments (Thermocouple). Interesting phenomenon applied in

the field of instrumentation is the Seebeck effect, which is the production of a small
voltage across the length of a wire due to a difference in temperature along that wire.
This effect is most easily observed and applied with a junction of two dissimilar
metals in contact, each metal producing a different Seebeck voltage along its length,
which translates to a voltage between the two (unjoined) wire ends.

The Seebeck effect is fairly linear; that is, the voltage produced by a heated junction
of two wires is directly proportional to the temperature. This means that the
temperature of the metal wire junction can be determined by measuring the voltage
produced. Thus, the Seebeck effect provides for us an electric method of
temperature measurement.
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined together for the purpose of measuring
temperature, the device formed is called a thermocouple. Thermocouples made for
instrumentation use metals of high purity for an accurate temperature/voltage
relationship (as linear and as predictable as possible).

Thermocouple Instrument

6.5.3 Thermocouple Instruments (Advantages/ Disadvantages). The advantages

and Disadvantages of Thermocouple Instruments are enumerated below:-

Advantages

(i) Instrument indications almost independent of frequency and wave-form

(ii) No stray magnetic field effect

(iii) High sensitivity

(iv) Utility as transfer instruments

Disadvantages

(i) Considerable power losses and

(ii) Delicate construction.

6.6 Transformer Instrument. Whenever the values of voltage or current

in a power circuit (AC) are too high to permit convenient direct connection of
measuring instruments or relays, coupling is made through transformers. Such
'measuring‘ transformers are required to produce a scaled down replica of the input
quantity to the accuracy expected for the particular measurement; this is made
possible by the high efficiency of the transformer.

6.6.1 Principle of Transformer Operation. A transformer is a device to raise or

lower the voltage in a circuit without an appreciable loss of power. Power losses
arise from Joule heating in the small resistances in both coils, or in currents loops
(eddy currents) within the iron core. An ideal transformer is that in which these
losses do not occur, 100% efficiency. Actual transformers reach 90-95% efficiency

The primary circuit consists of an ac generator and a pure inductance (we consider a
negligible resistance for the coil). Then the average power dissipated in the primary
coil is zero. The magnetizing current in the primary coil and the voltage drop across
the primary coil are out of phase by 90º.
6.6.2 The current or voltage being measured acts on the primary winding of the
transformer; the secondary (step-down) winding is connected to measuring
instruments and protective relays.

Instrument transformers are used primarily in power switchboards and in high-

voltage AC circuits to ensure safety in measuring current intensity, voltage, power,
and energy. One of the terminals of the secondary winding is grounded, as a
protective measure in cases of insulation breakdown on the high-voltage side.

Instrument transformers make possible the measurement of various magnitudes of

electrical quantities with devices whose range of measurement extends to 100 watts
(W) and 5 amperes (A).

Instrument Transformers finds a wide application in protection circuits of power

system

– Ex. over current, under voltage, earth fault, etc.

6.6.3 Current and Voltage Transformer. A distinction is made between

instrument potential (used with voltmeters, frequency meters, parallel circuits of
wattmeters, energy meters, phase meters, and voltage relays) and instrument
current transformers (used with ammeters, series circuits of wattmeters, energy
meters, phase meters, and current relays).

6.6.4 Current Transformer. In transformers used as an aid for measuring

current, Primary winding is connected in series with line carrying the current to be
measured. Therefore, Iprimary α Load. Primary winding consist of very few
turns (NpIp=NsIs). Therefore, there is no appreciable voltage drop across it and the
Secondary winding has larger number of turns ( Exact number is being determined
by the turn ratio). The stepped down replica current at secondary coil (output of the
secondary coil) is given to an ammeter through rectifiers (current being AC).

Current Transformer
6.6.4.1 Examples of Current Transformers. Some examples of current
transformers in regular use are described below:-

(a) Clamp on Clip on C.T. This is a C.T., in which the core can be
opened with the help of a clamp and the conductor (whose current is to
measured) can be inserted into the core. This conductor acts as a primary
winding. The secondary winding is wound on the laminated core. A low range
ammeter is connected across the secondary, which measures current of the
conductor. It is a portable instrument, which can be used in laboratories.

(b) Bar type C T. A bar type C T has a circular ring type core, over
which secondary winding is wound, across which a direct reading ampere
meter is connected. When a bar conductor or a Bus bar whose current, is to
be measured is inserted in to the ring, the ampere meter reads the current .
This C.T. is used with the instrument (Ammeter) placed on the switch
board/panel board. This type of C.T. is also used with protective relays.

Bar Type Current Transformer

 6.6.5 Voltage Tranformers. The potential transformer works along the same
principle of other transformers. It converts voltages from high to low. It will take the
thousands of volts behind power transmission systems and step the voltage down to
something that meters can handle. These transformers work for single and three
phase systems, and are attached at a point where it is convenient to measure the
voltage.

Potential transformers can be used with voltmeters for voltage measurements or

they can be used in combination with current transformers for watt-meter or watt-
hour meter measurements.

They are used also to operate protective relays and devices, and for many other
applications, since they are used in a monitoring capacity, they generally require
much greater accuracy in design.

Voltage Transformer

6.6.6 Difference Between Current and Voltage Transformers.

(i) The potential transformers are used as the high voltage voltmeters, as
the ordinary voltmeters. The current transformers are used in place of the
ordinary ammeters, to measure the high values of the currents in the high
voltage power applications.

(ii) There are several different windings of the primary in the potential
transformer. But in the current transformer, there is only the single winding i.e.
the main live line.
 (iii) PT is used to step-down the higher magnitudes of the power
transmission voltages, stepping-up the current. On the other hand, the CT
steps-down the high values of currents and steps-up the voltage at the same
time.

(iv) There is one potential transformer required for the three phase
transmission line. But for the same three phase line, three current
transformers are needed, one on each phase.

6.7 Rectifier Instruments. Rectifier Instruments are used to measure ac

voltages and currents by employing a rectifier element. A Rectifier converts ac to dc.
The Converted dc is then given to a indicating instrument namely PMMC instrument.
Use of PPMC is common because PMMC has higher sensitivity than
electrodynamometer or Moving Iron Instrument. Before moving to rectifier
instrument, the operating principle of a rectifier needs to be understood.

6.7.1 Why direct AC current/ voltage cannot be measured by PMMC. When an

alternating (Sinusoidal) current of very very low frequency (0.1 Hz and lower) is
passed through a PMMC instrument, the pointer tends to follow the instantaneous
level of the AC. As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection increases to a
maximum at the peak of the ac. Then as the instantaneous current level falls, the
pointer deflection decreases towards zero. When the ac goes negative, the pointer
is deflected (off-scale) to the left of zero.

With the normal 50 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping mechanisms and
the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from following the changing
instantaneous levels of the signal.

The instruments pointer settles at the average value of the current flowing through
the moving coil which is zero.

6.7.2 A Review on Alternating Current. The instantaneous values of

electrical signals can be graphed as they vary with time. Such graphs are known as
the waveforms of the signal. If the value of waveform remains constant with time,
the signal is referred to as direct (d.c) signal; such as the voltage of a battery. If a
signal is time varying and has positive and negative instantaneous values, the
waveform is known as alternating (a.c) waveform. If the variation of a.c signal is
continuously repeated then the signal is known as periodic waveform.

The frequency of a.c signal is defined as the number of cycles traversed in one
second. Thus the time duration of one cycle per second for a.c signal is known as
the period (T). Where the complete variation of a.c signal before repeated itself is
represent one cycle.

6.7.2.1 Average Values. It is found by dividing the area under the curve of
the waveform in one period (T) by the time of the period.

Average value= Algebraic sum of the areas under the curve / Length of the curve
 OR

Consider the following Sinusoidal Waveform

6.7.2.1 Root Mean Square (RMS) Values. The rms value of an ac signal
is its effective value which represents the power capability of an ac signal. It is refer
to the effective value of a.c signal because the r.m.s value equal to the value of a d.c
signal which would deliver the same power if it replaced with a.c signal.

For the AC signal shown below

If f(t) = Vm Sinθdθ
6.7.3 Diode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass
in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to
direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes
are forms of rectifiers.

+ -

6.7.4 Half Wave Rectifier. In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply,

either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is
blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean
voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase
supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating
direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers,
and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from
the output.

6.7.5 Full Wave Rectifier. A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave
rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and
yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or
four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer
without center tap), are needed.


Vav  2 * ( 1
2  VmSind )
0
The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an ideal single-phase
full-wave rectifier are:

6.7.6 D’arsonval Meter Movement Used With Half Wave Rectification. The
D’Arsonval meter movement can be used to measure alternating current by the use of a
diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow.

VP Vp 2  Vrms
Vrms  Vave V dc 0.318V p Vave    0.45Vrms
2  
In case of a half wave rectifier, if given input voltage, Ein = 10 Vrms, then:

Peak voltage, E p  10Vrms 1.414  14.14V

Average Voltage, Eave  Edc  0.636  E p  8.99V

Since HW rectifier conducts only during positive half of cycle

Average Output to PMMC is Eave / 2 = 4.5V

Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 Vdc is applied and only
4.5 V when a 10 Vrms sinusoidal signal is applied.

In fact, an AC voltmeter using half wave rectification is only approximately

45% as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.
6.7.7 D’Arsonval Meter Movement used with Full Wave Rectification. During the
positive half cycle, currents flows through diode D2, through the meter movement from
positive to negative, and through diode D3.

The polarities in circles on the transformer secondary are for the positive half cycle.

Since current flows through the meter movement on both half cycles, we can expect the
deflection of the pointer to be greater than with the half wave cycle, which allows current to
flow only on every other half cycle; if the deflection remains the same, the instrument using
full wave rectification will have a greater sensitivity.

Full bridge rectifier used in an ac voltmeter circuit

In case of a Full wave rectifier, if given input voltage, Ein = 10 Vrms, then:

Peak voltage, E p  10Vrms 1.414  14.14V

Average Voltage, Eave  Edc  0.636  E p  8.99V

Average Output to PMMC is Eave = 9V

Therefore, we can see that a 10Vrms voltage is equivalent to 9Vdc for full-scale
deflection.

This means an ac voltmeter using full wave rectification has a sensitivity equal
to 90% of the dc sensitivity

6.7.8 Rectifier Instruments (Advantages/ Disadvantages). The advantages and

Disadvantages of Rectifier Instruments are enumerated below:-

Advantages

(i) Linear Scale.

(ii) No stray magnetic field effect.

 (iii) High sensitivity.

(iv) Lower Power Consumption.

(v) Good Frequency Range.

Disadvantages

(i) Errors when supply is non sinusoidal.

(ii) More Expensive than Moving Types..

6.8 AC Power Meters. Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy
past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage
elements such as inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the
direction of energy flow. The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle
of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known as
real power. The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in
each cycle, is known as reactive power.

6.8.1 AC Phase. When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit, the

current and voltage do not peak at the same time. The fraction of a period difference
between the peaks expressed in degrees is said to be the phase difference. The
phase difference is <= 90 degrees. It is customary to use the angle by which the
voltage leads the current. This leads to a positive phase for inductive circuits since
current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit. The phase is negative for a capacitive
circuit since the current leads the voltage. The useful mnemonic ELI the ICE man
helps to remember the sign of the phase. The phase relation is often depicted
graphically in a phasor diagram.

6.8.2 ELI the ICE man.

6.8.3 Phasor Diagrams. It is sometimes helpful to treat the phase as if it defined a

vector in a plane. The usual reference for zero phase is taken to be the positive x-
axis and is associated with the resistor since the voltage and current associated with
the resistor are in phase. The length of the phasor is proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity represented, and its angle represents its phase relative to that of the
current through the resistor. The phasor diagram for the RLC series circuit shows the
main features.

6.8.4 AC Power. As in the case with DC power, the instantaneous electric power
in an AC circuit is given by P = VI, but these quantities are continuously varying.
Almost always the desired power in an AC circuit is the average power, which is
given by:

Pavg = VrmsIrms cosφ= ½ (VI Cosφ)

where φ is the phase angle between the current and the voltage and where V and I
are understood to be the effective or rms values of the voltage and current. The term
cos φ is called the "power factor" for the circuit.

Where i and v are instantaneous values.

6.8.5 Active, Reactive & Apparent Power. When a circuit has resistive and
reactive parts, the resultant power has 2 parts:
The first is dissipated in the resistive element. This is the active power, P .

The second is stored and returned by the reactive element. This is the reactive
power, Q , which has units of volt amperes reactive or var.

While reactive power is not dissipated it does have an effect on the system as it
increases the current that must be supplied and increases losses (I2R) with cables.

Active Power P = VI cos  watts

Reactive Power Q = VI sin  var

Apparent Power S = VI VA

S2=P2+Q2

6.8.6 Three Phase Power Supply. Three-phase electric power is a common

method of alternating-current electric power generation, transmission, and
distribution. It is a type of polyphase system and is the most common method used
by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors
and other heavy loads. A three-phase system is usually more economical than
an equivalent single-phase or two-phase system at the same voltage because
it uses less conductor material to transmit electrical power.The three-phase
system was independently invented by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
and Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.

In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of
the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at one third of a
cycle from each other. Taking one current as the reference, the other two currents
are delayed in time by one third and two thirds of one cycle of the electric current.
This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over
each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic
field in an electric motor.
6.8.7 Three Phase Generator. The three-phase generator has three induction
coils placed 120° apart on the stator. The three coils have an equal number of turns,
the voltage induced across each coil will have the same peak value, shape and
frequency.

Three Phase Three Wire Generator

Three Phase Four Wire Genrator

Output Voltage Waveform

Three Phase Six Wire Generator

Another illustration of 3Phase Four Wire Generator

6.8.8. Three Phase Circuit Configuration. There are two basic three phase
configurations: delta or wye(star). With Delta you get lower voltage but more amps.
In star you get higher voltage but less amps.
6.8.8.1 WYE (STAR) Configuration. By commoning the "starts" of each
phase together a Three or four wire-system (three "line" voltages or phases, and a
neutral conductor) can be created. The net current flowing into or out of the star point
is zero because each phase uses the other two for its return path. The net voltage is
also zero at the star point.

Four Wire Star Configuration

Voltage Distribution in a Four Wire Star Configuration

6.8.8.2 Delta Configuration. The start of one winding is connected to the

end of another, and the three connections are brought out as shown. Because of its
shape, this "triangular" configuration is known as a delta (or mesh) connection. The
current capacity of the line is increased by the factor 1.73.
The Delta Configuration

6.8.8.3 Balanced Supply. A balanced three phase supply can be connected

either in star or in delta

For a balanced system, the angles between the phases is 120o and the magnitudes
are all equal. Thus the line voltages would be 300 leading the nearest phase voltage.
Calculation will easily show that the magnitude of the line voltage is √3 times the
phase voltage.

An example of magnitude calculation for a star configuration is illustrated below.

USING COSINE LAW

Therefore

VL  Vab  Vbc  Vca

= 3 Van  3 Vbn  3 Vcn = 3V p

V p  Van  Vbn  Vcn

It is important to note that the three line voltages in a balanced three phase supply is
also1200 out of phase, and for this purpose, the line voltages must be specified in a
sequential manner. i.e. VRY, VYB and VBR. [Note: VBY is 1800 out of phase with VYB so
that the corresponding angles if this is chosen may appear to be 60 0 rather than
1200]. Thus if the direction of VR is selected as reference, then

VR = Vp0, VY = Vp-2/3 and VB = Vp-4/3

and VRY = √3Vp/6, VYB = √3Vp-/2 and VBR = √3Vp-7/6

6.8.8.4 Balanced Load. A balanced load would have the

impedances of the three phase equal in magnitude and in phase.

Balanced Impedance Conversion:

Conversion of Delta circuit to Wye or Wye to Delta.
ZY  Z1  Z 2  Z 3
Z   Z a  Zb  Zc
It can be shown, for a balanced load (using the star delta transformation or
otherwise), that the equivalent delta connected impedance is 3 times that of the star
connected impedance. The phase angle of the impedance is the same in both cases.

ZΔ = 3 * ZY
6.8.9. Three Phase Power. For a balanced star connected load with line
voltage VL and line current IL,
For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline

Thus P Delta = √3VL IL Cos φ, and Q Delta = √3VL IL Sin φ

It is worth noting here, that although the currents and voltages inside the star
connected load and the delta connected loads are different, the expressions for
apparent power, active power and reactive power are the same for both types of
loads when expressed in terms of the line quantities.

Thus for a three phase system (in fact we do not even have to know whether it is a
load or not, or whether it is star-connected or delta-connected)

6.8.9.1 Three Phase Power Measurement. Wattmeter is an instrument

used for measuring AC Power. The external part of a wattmeter consists of four
connections and a metering mechanism that displays the amount of real power
dissipated by a circuit. The external and internal appearance of a wattmeter is
depicted in Figure below.

External Appearance Internal Construction

Inside the wattmeter are two coils: a current-sensing coil and a voltage-sensing coil.
In this example, we assume for simplicity that the impedance of the current-sensing
coil ZI is zero and that the impedance of the voltage-sensing coil ZV is infinite. In
practice, this will not necessarily be true; some correction mechanism will be
required to account for the impedance of the sensing coils. A wattmeter should be
connected so as to provide both current and voltage measurements. We see that the
current-sensing coil is placed in series with the load and that the voltage-sensing coil
is placed in parallel with the load.

Equivalent Circuit With Load

6.8.9.2 The number of wattmeters needed for an AC power circuit is given by

Blondels Theorem which states that
The following configurations of wattmeters are generally employed for AC power
measurement:-

(a) Two Wattmeter arrangement

(b) Three Wattmeter arrangement

6.8.9.3 Three phase Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter Method. In

order to measure average power in 3-phase system only two wattmeters are
needed.

It can be shown that

P1 + P2 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜃

P2-P1 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃

PTotal = P1 + P2 (Real Power)

QTotal= √3(𝑃2 − 𝑃1) (Reactive Power)

𝑄 𝑃2 −𝑃1
tan 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = √3 𝑃2 +𝑃1
(Power Factor)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
6.8.9.3 AC Energy Meters. An electric meter or energy meter is a device that
measures the amount of energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically
kilowatt hour is most commonly known as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by
electric utilities. A unit of energy, especially electrical energy, equal to the work done by one
watt acting for one hour and equivalent to 3,600 joules.

Conventional KWH Meter Electronic