13 ECOLOGICAL INSTABILITY

Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Ecological Instability
13.2.1 Ecological Instability : Natural
13.2.2 Ecological Instability : Human Activity Factor
13.3 Environmental Pollution
13.3.1 Environmental Pollution : Types
13.3.2 Environmental Pollution : Sources
13.3.3 Environmental Pollution : Effects
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
13.6 Further Readings
13.7 Answers to SAQs

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two units you have various types of ecosystems, both in terrestrial and
aquatic environments (Unit 12). You have also the concept of ecosystem stability (Unit
11). These two units allowed you to the overall nature of the ecosystems and interplay of
various climatic as well as geographic factors that control the development of an
ecosystem.
In this unit we are going to discuss whether the ecosystems, as we see them, are
permanent structures or do they undergo change in response to natural phenomena. We
will also see how the various activities of rmin affect the ecosystems.
We will also discuss about the sources of various environmental pollutants and their
effects on living organisms. We will also try to get an overview of the environmental
pollution.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
define natural and human factors that cause instability and /or destruction of
an ecosystem,
describe the effects of floodand volcano on the near by ecosystem,
explain the impact of urbanization, industrialisation and agriculture on
ecological balance,
define common air, water and soil pollutants, and
describe the damaging effects of pollution on ecosystems.

13.2 ECOLOGICAL INSTABILITY

When we look around we find that, by and large, environment is quite stable. There are
minor seasonal fluctuations, here and there, which we may fail to notice. Organisms of
an ecosystem are used to minor variations and are capable of adjusting themselves to
such variations. We do not frnd any major change in the composition of organisms in an
ecosystem (at least the ecosystem which has reached the so called climax stage of an
ecosystem) hence we treat such ecosystems as stable, However, stability of an ecosystem
is not well defmed and even most stable ecosystqms are dynamic and undergo change.
Even the environment is not stable over an int3mit.e period. There are often catastrophic
65
1k010gy changes in the quality of the environment at some places. In this section we will try to
see some examples of environmental instability and its effects on the ecosystems.
Broadly speaking, environmental instability is due to two factors. One is natural
catastrophic events that alter the environment and ecosystems rapidly and the other factor
is man-made changes. These latter are relatively slow changes, sometimes even subtle,
and may continue for prolonged peri6d. Both these factors, however, possess potential to
completely devastate the ecosystems and such ecosystems may sometimes take hundreds
of years before they come to original state, if at all they ever can. In some cases,
however, recovery may be quite rapid.

13.2.1 Ecological Instability : Natural

Natural processes that can affect ecosystem stability are many. We will consider a few
common processes like riverine floods, volcanoes and earthquakes as well as forest fires
in this subsection.
Floods : A river is a dynamic entity. In low-lying areas it can change course within a
certain limit. This low-lying area within which the river water can spread is called as the
floodplain (Figure 13.1). A river and its floodplm forms a single ecological unit.
Depending upon the rainfall the floodplain will be either partially or wholly submerged
and, in extreme situation, the water may even inundate adjacent land. The extreme
situation of the latter kind can cause serious damage to ecosystem. Plant and animal life
will be lost and the ecosystem will be considcrably modified. Such severe floods are not
observed in every river system but the rivers draining mountain areas are often flooded.
The three mighty rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna are often flooded in monsoon
and a country like Bangladesh faces severe problen'ls. In our own country Assam, West
Bengal and nearby northeastern areas, Punjab, Haryana are also facing the same
problem.

FLOODPLAIN

Figure 13.1 : Diagrammatic Representation of a River and its Floodplain

As severe floods destroy human settlements, agricultural and pastoral lands, many people
think that floods are a calamity. This is not actually the case. The floodplain ecosystenls
are perfectly adapted to periodic floods. In fact these periodic floods bring nulrient rich
sediments and control the fertility of the floodplains. What is important therefore is to
allow natural flooding to take place but prevent severe flood. Controlled flood rather
than total prevention of flooding will be helpful as total prevention will have much more
devastating effect on the floodplain ecosystem. For example, construction of preventive
walls (embankments) may impede movement of fish and cut them off from thek
spawning grounds. Construction of large darns upstream of a river will flood some other
area under the reservoir water. Many other fecological problems are created by large
dams and we shall discuss that issue later.
Volcanoes and Earthquakes: It is now accepted that continents on which we live are
actually moving about on the surface of the earth. The theory of plate tectonics explains
how new land material (molten rock) comes from within the earth and old land sinks
down at places and melts. It is this continuous process that gives rise to volcanoes and
earthquakes.
 There are many active volcanoes all around the world which blow repeatedly. There are Ecologicd Instability
also many 'extinct' volcanoes that do not blow anymore. Volcanic eruption can throw
large quantity of hot ash, dust, poisonous gases and molten rock material in the
atmosphere. Such heated and molten rock material can kill all sedentary organisms. The
a h thrown into atmosphere can blanket sunlight and reduce temperature while
deposition of ash over waterbodies can destroy aquatic organisms.
Mount St. Helens has become a very active volcano and in 1980, after a gap of 120
years, it exploded with considerable ecosystem damage. It affected wildlife in inarea of
about 400 square kilometers. Mammals and birds and many small terrestrial animals
were wiped out. Curiously enough, underground (subterranean) small mammals like
gophers survived the blast. Twenty six large and small lakes in the vicinity were severely
damaged killirig aquatic life. Some 11 million fishes were killed by the volcanic
eruption.
In the last century, in 1883 to be precise, Krakatowa volcano near Java had continued
eruption for 2 days, devastating nearby islands and seashore ecosystem.
The eruption of St. Helens allowed scientists to study the process of ecosystem recovery.
It was observed that birds and small mammals returned to the damaged area within few
weeks. In the past 15 years sulce eruption more than half the number of animal species
have recolonized the area. As far as plants are concerned, 90% of the pre-eruption plant
species were found growing in the area within 3 years of eruption.
l*

Lakes and streams will take longer time to recover because a lot of sedimentary material
is added by volcanic eruption. Fish and other animals from streams away from actual site
ol eruption may colonize the area in the yeats to come.
EarthGuakes, like volcanoes, c& be desmctive when of severe nature. Minor
earthquakes arz occurring ' e ~ e r ~ & ~many
~ i ooft which are, even detected. Major
earthquakes; like the 31 May 1970 event at Peru, can 'Bffect vast areas. In Peru, for
example, the 1970 earthquake damaged over 85,000 square kilometer area. Earthquakes
can somctimcs raise the ground level or sink it. Wvers may alter their course, lakes may
be destroyed or created.
Earthquake and volcanic eruption can occur together, especially in case like island
volcano of Mount St Helens. Landslides, mudflows and debris fill up rivers and lakes.
The sediments block river or stream flows and cause abnormd flooding. The worst event
is production of giant waves (tsunami) in h e sea as an after effect of
volcano-earthquake. Such waves can swallow whole islands or inundate major coastal
areas with saline waters. Such tidal i~lundationc k seriously affect terrestrial freshwaler
ecosys tern.
Fire : It is true that extensive forest fires or grasslandlprairie fires destroy considerable
amount of vegetation and kill wildelife. Ecological research has, however, show11 that
such fires are important in the life and development of forest as well as grassland
ecosystems. Such fires are regular features in these ecosystems and Ule biotic
communities are actually adapted to such fires. Odum, a veteran ecologist, treats flre as
an ecological lactor.
In large or crown fires entire ecosystem is destroyed and the biotic community must start
to develop all over again. Even then the whole ecosystem returns to its normal state after
several years. Surface fires, which just bum of the undergrowth, are often less
devastating. Such fires often kill surface animals only. Bacterial activity is often rapid
after such fires and it makes useful nutrients available for subsequent plant growth.
The long-leaf pine forest of Southeastern USA maintains ilself by regular fire episodes.
If fire is prevenled then other vegetation practically chokes the pine trees. Even grasses
and legumes that arc part of normal pine forest vanish. Natural fires however eliminate
the 'weedy' vegetation. Since pine buds are protected by long leaves, the buds are not
darnaged by fires. Lcgumes also bcnefit from fires. Aulomalically Ule 'weeds' are
relnovcd and Ihc ecosystem returns to its original state within few years.
Thus, what you must understaid is that forest fires are no1 all thal destructive always.
The ecosystems, where such fires occur regularly, are actually adapted to such changes.
Ecology 23.2.2 Ecological hmstability : Huntan Activity Factor
Agriculture : The most important single event in the evolution of human culture was the
development of agriculture. As he became more bound to the soil he cultivated, he
started settling in ever increasing comnuities.
~ g r i c u l k r eappears to have originated about 10,0q0 years ago. The development was
simultaneous at many places around the world. Ever since then the human population has
continued to grow. Because 8 to 10,000 years ago the population was not more than
about 5 million people, the impact of agricultural practices on ecosystems was at best
minimal.
Modem agricultural practices introduced new cultivated foods. Between 1500 to 1700
A.D., potato, maize and rice were cultivated everywhere. Many animals were also
domesticated by this time.
Food production began to increase UI 1850 as a result of agricultural research.
Knowledge of soil nutrients, fertilizers, role of microorganisms and development of
irrigation techniques improved food yields. Present mode of agriculture is highly
mechanised. Technology is constantly inventing newer and newer machines for
agriculture. This is compulsory since the population is increasing even today, especially
in developing countries.
Such "industrialized" agriculture is the root cause of environmental problems. Today's
agriculture is consuming tremendous amount of energy, chiefly in the form of fossil
fuels: These fuels are required to run machines for agriculture and also for production of
huge amount of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. These latter vroducts are also
seriously polluting our environment and destabilizing it.
Fertilizers draining into streams and rivers add extra 'energy'. This causes blooms of
algae and macrophytes (large plants) haquatic ecosystems. Whole ecosystem structure
gets modified in the long term.
Pesticides are after all biocides and are not selective. Alongwith pests, the pesticides kill
useful animals (honey bees, lady bird, beetles, etc:) and even soil microorganisms. There
are several well documented cases of devastating effects of the various pesticides and
you may look up Rachel Carson's famous book 'Silent Spring' for additional
information. Pesticides poisoned the whole terrestrial food chain and the terminal
elements of the food chain, the predatory birds like hawks, falcons and eagles, were
nearly wiped out in some parts of Europe and America.
Another problem of agriculture is availability of suitable land. As human population is
expanding, the developing countries are forced to convert many forested areas, wetlands
and other productive areas to agricultural lands. Pristine forests are destroyed in South
America and South East Asia for agriculture, which unfortunately cannot be a good
choice. These areas (though they support huge forests) are not having very fertile soils
and within two years the crop production becomes uneconomical. Over the years, man
has converted a major proportion of forested land to agriculture and damaged the
ecosystems. Additional destruction will have serious consequences on climate,
hydrological cycle and mineral balance. Above all additional destruction of forest will
cause extinction of many important plant and animal species, the organisms which we
have not even seen and described so far.
Industrialization : Over the last 200 years, science and technology brought about
industrial revolution. Industries of every kind appeared first in the Northern hemisphere
and, now, are slowly taking over the southern hemisphere as well. Following the
industrial revolution, the non-agriculhral impacts on the ecosystem started becoming
prominent. With more and more powerful machinery, we are capable of altering the
earth's surface significantly and that too in n very short time span.
Agricultural revolution and industrial revolution together allowed rapid growth of human
population. This is the reason why, sirice the beginning of industrial revolution, energy
requirements and the demands for the raw material has increased. With the increasing
industrialization there has been continuous deterioration of our eiivironment. We will
further see how different gases are released in our atmosphere and how industrial wastes
are polluting our precious water bodies. There is no doubt that environmental pollution is Ecological Lbshbility
a direct consequence of industrialization.
As we shall see later, mining activity and urbanization were also products of industrials
revolution. Industries also forced development of large power plants (electricity
generating plants), hydroelectric, coal fired or nuclear energy utilizing types. Not only
that but it was also necessary to dig for petroleum or coal. The ecological instability
caused by each of these industries can be a topic for detailed discussion, so vast are the
consequences.
Urbanization : Urbanization, that is process of urban development, was simultaneous
process along with the industrialization. Job opportunities led to mass migrations of
people from rural areas to industrial areas. In the USA the period between 1900 to 1970
AD was most significant period. By 1920, more than 50 % of the USA population was
living in the cities. On the basis of the whole world, about 28% population was
city-dwelling in 1925 while in 1980 more than 40 % population was city dwelling. The
trend continues in developing countries, though in the USA and Europe there is now a
reverse trend.
By 1960 there were only about 100 cities with a population more than 1 million. In 1980
there were 220 cities of that size or more. Mexico and Tokyo, the large cities have about
20 million people each.
One can easily imagine how much land must have been consumed to build such giant
urban centres. Precious.farming lands in riverine deltas (such as the river Nile delta in
~ g ~ pandt ) elsewhere was lost to urbanization. Thousands of acres are still lost every
year in all the countries of the developing world, further damaging the environment.
As the land use pattern changes from rural to urban, a lo1 of vegetation or wetland is
replaced by sterile concrete and asphalt. Pollution associated with urban activities results
in spectrum of chemical and biological changes in the ecosystem.
We will later discuss how massive sewage pollution can modify aquatic ecosystem
totally. This sewage pollution is present in all major cities, at least in the developing
countries. Air and soil pollution can also modify nearby or rcmote ecosystcms. For
example, polluted air from Eugliu~dand central Europe can damage aquatic ecosystems
in Scandinavian countries as it causes acid rains. Similarly, air pollution in the USA can
damage Canadian ecosystcms. Thus, air pollution can be considered as transfrontier
pollution.
While urbanization is in process, nearby areas undergo considerable nlodification. Large
amount of sand is removed from river beds and used in the coiistruction activity, This
makes riverine ecosystem unstable due to abnormal, large pits created in the river bed.
Larger the city, greater are its demands. The principle demands that have serious
consequences on the ecosystems are
(a) demands for energy (electricity, wood, charcoal, petrol and diesel)
(b) demands for building material
(c) demands for potable and usable water
(d) demands for minerals,
All these demands once again produce hazardous wastes that pollute our environment.
Cement production, for example, damages terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to a great
extent. In developing countries wood and charcoal requirements are damaging prinstuie
forest ecosystems. Wood is also required for furniture, plywood boards and for paper and
the demands for all these things increase with urbanization, often with serious
consequences for the forest ecosystem. As remarked earlier, forests regulate climate,
prevent soil erosion, modulate water flow and circulate soil minerals very effectively. All
these benefits are lost and soil erosion is silting the rivers and darns.
Greater demand for water and power make it essential to have large dams. As we shall
see later these dams, in the long run, can prove to be hazardous to the whole ecosystem.
Urbanized areas, once created, are permanent structures, The ecosystems are permanently
replaced by towns - cities - tnegapolises. In many counlries now there are protected
 areas where wildlife can survive. National parks, sanctuaries and such other strilctures
are essential. Stringent pollution control laws can significantly reduce pollution.
'Cleaner' technology is being developed and all this may partly allow some natural
ecosystems to survive around the artificial urban areas.
Miming : Industrial growth of the past 200 years would not have become possible
without increased mineral output. In response to industrial needs, the exploitation of the
mineral resources has increased several fold.
Mining, whether it is at the surface or underground, alters the whole landscape and
existing ecosystem. It must be understood that minerals are extracted where they are
available. Mining activity cannot be shifted elsewhere because it will damage a certain
valuable ecosystem.
Minerals are part of the environment and hence their removal must upset pre-existing
conditions. Over 500,000hectares (1.24 x 10 hactares) of land is directly disturbed each
year, Coal mines in UK and USA have so far left large amount of wastes (the so called
tailings) that contain toxic chemicals like mercury and sulfides of iron. The waters in
these areas have also become very acidic. No plant grows, no animal survives in such
areas. Lead mines from Roman timzs have left waste that is not yet re-vegetated. It will
be thousands of years befoie the coal mine areas of the present century will be
repopulated by plants and animals. Ecosystems have been so completely altered in
England, the USA and even in India.
Surface mining can also leave huge depressions that lack soil and are sterile. Subsurface
drainages, groundwater, etc. are affected and growth of vegetation is impossible. Surface
mines for coal. lead, copper and gold can thus modify the ~reviousecosystem.
Because of the critical role of minerals in industrial and technological development,
mining activity will continue. Stone quarries (for sandstone, basalt, granite or marble)
will continue to expand as cities expand. What is essential is a planned mining activity
which takes into consi&ration whole surrounding ecosystem. In the past, mining activity
has given rise to vast areas of wastelands that are useless from the point of view of
agriculture or agroforestry. Major efforts will be required to undo the damage of mining
activity. Fortunately, this activity has begun at least in some parts of the world.

(a) Explain why periodic riverine floods are nnwesaary for floodplain ecosystem?
(b) Explain l~owvolcanic eruption can darnage an ecosystem?
(c) Enlist tile problems associaled with modern agricultural practices.
(d) Enumerate the rquiaelnentrr of a large urbmized area and p i n t out the
environmental modification caused in the process of urbanization.

13.3 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

It is often difficult to give precise definition of the term pollution, Broadly speaking, any
undesirable change in the physico-chemical or biological properties of the environnbent is
termed environmental pollution. It is true that many natural processes themselves cause
considerable pollution of our environment, for instance, volcanic eruption, degassing of
certain rocks which liberate mercury, etc. However this pollution is often rather local and
its consequences are not felt over prolonged period. It is the ilctivity of man with which
we are more concerned as far as environmental pollution is concerned.
 or our convenience, environment is considered to be compartmented into air, water and
soil and hence we often speak of air pollulion, water pollution and soil pollution rather
'than environmental pollution. You must, however, remember one fact that all the three
so called compartments (i.e. air, water and soil) are interconnected and that anything
liberated into one compartment is automatically found in the other compartinent
(Figure 13 2).

MAN CAUSED

TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS

PATHWAY OF POLLUTANT IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Figure 13.2 : lntcrrcltrtcdness of Air, Wntcr a11d Soil Etlvironn~cnts.Pollutants Like Heavy Melds
Relcnsed into Anyutlc Environmc~ltFind thcir Way into Otlrcr

Not only that but all the living orgmisms arc also exchLmgingcorrlpollcnts with Uieir
environmenl,so that therc is every chlmce that Ihe substances releascd into my
component of the environment will also come in contact wilh tJ~eliving organisms. This
is the basic principle underlying the various biogeochcmical cyclcs.

c
Living organisms Non-living surrounding
(biotic component of the ecosystem) (Abiolic componerlt of tl~eccosyslem)
i------'
Pollutants are Ule substances that pollulc our environment. Thcse pollulanls primarily
affect the living organisms (including man,of course) though cffects on non living
colnponents are also known (dissolulion of marble statues, rusting/dissolution of iron,
etc.).
We broadly divide pollutants into two categories
(a) biodegradable pollutanls, and
(b) non-biodegrable pollutants.
Biodegradable pollutants are those that are easily degraded by microorganisms and these
include all organic substances of planthima1 origin. Even petroleum ( m d e oil) arld
related substances are biodegradable. Somc synthelic organic chemicals are also
biodegradablq. Nbn-biodegradable poIlutants on the other hand are not degradable easily.
Heavy metals, and other metallic ions, plastics, some synthetic fibres and pesticides, etc.,
come under this category. Some heavy metal salts (mercury, for example) are actually
Ecology converted into more dangerous organometallic compounds by bacteria present in the
aquatic environments.

13.3.1 Environment Pollution : Types

As pointed out in the introduction, we understand 3 arbitrary divisions of our
environment, namely air, water and soil. We shall now briefly studv the problems of
pollution associated with each of these.
Air Pollution : At present the air is polluted with numerous pollutants, some of which
are gaseous while others are particulate. We will consider only those that are relatively
abundant, problematic and global in distribution.
Sulphur dioxide (SO,) is an unpleasant gas with an irritating smell. The gas is potentially
dangerous to human beings at a concentration of 10 ppm and above.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO,) and other oxides of nitrogen (NO,) are chief air pollutants in
urbanized areas. Concentration of NO, beyond 2 ppm can be dangerous.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is yet another gas present in industrialized and urbanized areas.
It is a well known poisonous gas. Since industrialization, carbon dioxide (CO,) is also
becoming a major pollulant (Figure 13.3).

Y CAR

Figure 13.3 : Rising Level of COa Gas in the Atmosphere. What will be the Situation at 2000 AD
and Beyond 7 Burning Fossil Fuels is the Main,Reasonfor Ulis Rise

Hydrocarbon pollutants are also present in significant quantities in developed and

developing countries. These include methane, ethane, propane, toulene, etc.
Most of the above gaseous pollutants are called as primary pollutants. Interaction of
primary pollutants with water and other chemicals produces other pollutants that ire
called secondary pollutants in the air. For example nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to
produce nitrogen dioxide. Thus
2 NO + 0, @2N02 N204(dinitrogen tetroxide)
Similarly, ozone, another gaseous pollutant can produce NO2
Thus, /

The so called photochemical smog that develops in areas with high air pollution is also

NO, +hydrocarbons + Solar Energy -

due mainly to a number of secondary pollutants, particularly NO,. For example
NO, + 0, + PAN
 (Where PAN is peroxyacetyl nitrate, a complex compound ; NO, means various nitrogen Ecological Instability
oxides.)
Another kind of smog is interaction of smoke (which itself has CO,, unbumt carbon and
CO, etc.) and fog (moisture). The term aerosol is used to denote particulate matter
suspended in water droplets of the atmosphere. Particulate matter can be asbestos, cotton
fibres, metallic ions from rusting metals, dust, ore-matter (minerals), unbumt carbon and
such other items.
Water Pollution : Water bodies around us (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, oceans) are
grossly polluted due to human activity. Practically every chemical that we use fiids its
way into water or aquatic ecosystem. Broadly we can recognize two types of water
pollutants a) Inorganic and b) Organic. Within organic we can recognize biodegradable
and non biodegradable pollutants, as pointcd out earlier. Some people like to add
radioactive pollutants as yet another type, though many of the radioactive elements used
in industry are inorganic in nature and can be considered under that category. Addition
of heated water, however, leads to a really different kind of water pollution which we
can call c) Thermal pollution.
11' wc uy to classify water pollution into different types based on the nature of aquatic
ecosystem then we can recognize i) ground water pollution and ii) surface water
pollution (river pollution, lake pollution, marine pollution being the other subtypes of
surface water pollution). What is important to note is that we are also polluting our
precious ground water resources along with surface waters.
Of the inorganic pollutants, several heavy metal salts are of particular importance. These
include salts of mercury, copper, cadmium, chromium and lead. Further, addition of
nilrates, phosphates, sulfates, chlorides of various metalsJinorganics like sodium,
potassium, calcium is equally noteworthy. Sorne rusting metals like iron bars are also
encountered as pollutants.
Organic chemicals likewise are far too numerous to discuss in detail. Sorne of these
chemicals are natural subslances while others are,man-madeor synthetic. These organic
chemicals can be metabolic,wastes of plants and animals. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
nucleic acids, etc. are all present in water. These may be contributed by organisms living
in that water body itself or by organisms away from it.
Man-made or synthetic organic chemicals may be pesticides, dyes, drugs, synthetic
yarns/fabrics, etc.
Thermal pollution, the third type of water pollution, occurs when heated water mixes
with nalural. cool water.
Soil Pollution : Soil is a precious component of our planet. It supports growth of the
vegetalion. In recent years soil is also subjected to pollution. The main pollutants are
improperly used agrochemicals, mainly pesticides and fertilizers. In addition a large
[lumber of industrial chemicals are also polluting the soil.
Sound Pollution or Nolse Pollution : Though not falling into any type described above
(i.e. air, water and soil pollution), it is also being considered as one of the problematic
issuc especially in industrial areas and highly urbanised centres dl over the world. It is
caused by annoying and irritating sound in our surrounding.

13.3.2 Environmental Pollution: Sources

As remarked in the introduction, here we are concerned with those human activities that
cause pollution.
Air pollution is principally caused by industrial activity. Most industries consume lot of
coal or petroleum products (the so called fossil fuels) and this burning produces various
gaseous pollutants. SO,,CO, C 0 2 are common pollulants of this activity. Other gaseous
pollutants are also contributed by different industries that use various organic chemicals.
Gases like xylene, methane, toulene come under this category. Methane is produced by
decomposition activity as well as by rumigant livestock domesticated by human being.
Cement producing factory causes immense air pollution - the main pollutant being the
dust. Ash is generated by coal-burning power stations and furnaces. Mining and ore
Ecology pmessing also cause severe air pollutio~tPesticide manufacturing industries often have
to use poisonous gases and these gases often cause pollution. Accidental release of such
gases can cause disaster, as was experienced in Bhopal. Chlorine and ammonia are
likewise routinely used industrial gases with a potential to cause pollution.
Apart from industry, the second major contribution to air pollution comes from
automobile exhausts. In highly urbanized areas, the mixture of air pollutaits produces
secondary air pollutants and gives rise to what is called as photochemical smog.
The name ''photochemical" implies that the reactions are helped by sunlight, which is
indeed the case. PAN or peroxyacetyl nitrate is one of the compound that is formed in
the atmosphere as a secondary pllutant. Various nitrogen oxides are also the products of
petrol combustion.
Various particulate pollutants are also products of industrial activity. Stone-crushing,
glass manufacturing, cement production, etc. generate lot of dust particles. All coal
burning machines (including the locomotives that are now replaced) produce lot of
unburnt carbon. Motor cars, heavy transport vehicles and others using diesel oil cause
significant air pollution by generating particulate matter, especially carbon.
Air-conditioners, refrigerators and some sprays use clilorofluorocarbon- CFC - gas.
This has turned out to be one of the most serious gaseous pollutant of the century. There
ace now restrictions on production and utilisation of this gas. Jet aeroplanes also cause
air pollution and so is the case with satellite launching vehicles (rockets).
Thus, air pollution may be caused by numerous activities and we must be conscious of
the pollutants we are releasing into OF environment.
As far as water pollution is concerned, there are three major sources
a) Sewage
b) Industrial effluents and
c) Agricultural wastewater.
Also remelnbe~that whatever is released into air will always come down with rain or
snow and contribute to water and soil pollution again.
Sewage, if it is not mixing with the industrial wastes, contributes chiefly to organic
pollution. The undigested wastes and urir~eare biodegradable organic compounds. In
addition sewage also contains laundry wastes and hence detergents/soaps/whiteners/
disinfectants, etc. Kitchen waste also contains a few additional organic as well as
inoxganicchemicals. These chemicals are salts, preservatives, baking powder and such
other things-even vegetable matter.
Industrial wastes are too diverse to generalise. Thousands of chemicals are used as
intermediates in industry and most of those chemicals (along with products) find their
way into industcia1effluents. Some broad groups of water pollutants and their sources
can be considered here.
Dyes and complex aromatic organic chemicals are found in the wastes of dye
manufacturing industries, organic industries as well as textile dyeing units.
Strong acids and alkalies are, in general, found in the wastes of soap manufacturing
industries as well as fertilizer industries and electroplating industries.
Pesticides and related chemicals come from pesticide manufacturing industries.
Mercury salts are in the wastes of paper and pulp industry add chlorine producing
industry.
Chromium, copper and nickel salts are the pllutants found in the wastes of
electroplating works while lead, cadmium salts, may be found in the effluents of battery
producing plants. Some heavy metal salts are also found in the wastes of paint
manufacturing industries. All these are toxic inorganic chemicals.
Petroleum refineries produce wastes that contain hundreds of chemicaIs, mainly
hydrocarbons. Saw mills and plywood manufacturers contribute Saw-dust that floats on
water.
Food processing industries produce waste containing a lot of organic matter. Dairy waste Ecological Instability
also contains organic matter.
Thus, a lot of pollutants are of industrial origin. If power (electricity) production is also
industrial activity, then atomic energy utilizing power plants can produce wastes that
contain radioactive material. Heated effluents (thermal pollution) also come from such
plants.
Run-off water coming from agricultural area contains a lot of agrochemioals. Major and
problematic agrochemicals are, of course, pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, weed
killing herbicides, nematode killing nematicides, etc) and fertilizers (nitrates and
phosphates).
Thus, we have seen three major sources of water pollution and all these sources are
related to human activity. Soil pollution likewise, is caused by industrial and agricultural
activity. Once again air pollution as well as water pollution can contribute to soil
pollution because of the interrelatedness of the environmerital compartment.. Let us now
turn our attention to the effects of pollutants.

13.3.3 Environmental Pollution: Effects

It has been pointed out earlier that although the pollutants affect the non-living
components (such as rock, water) their effects on living animals (either direct or indirect)
is the cause of concern. This subject is too vast lo deal ,md wc will only briefly discuss
Chis issue.
Air pollution affects forests, lakes and aquatic tmimals and plants as well as terrestrial
organisms (including man).SO, or NO, canform sullirric and nitric acid respectively.
This, when mixed with snow or rain, comes down as acid rain with pH (a measure of
hydrogen ion concentration) lcss than about 4.5 (Figure 13.4).
- --

Figure 13.4 : Fornation of Acid Rain and i t s Possiblc Conscqucncc~

Ecology This directly damages leaves and shoot and later acidifies soil. Such soils are toxic to
root cells. Acidified soils also mobilize unwanted minerals (like aluminium) that are
toxic and usually such soils are poor in useful microflora (bacteria and fungi). Large
scale damage to prime forests has been noted in Europe (especially Germany) where acid
rains are frequent. One of the worst aspect of air pollution is that the pollutants released
into air do not know political boundaries. It has often been found that air pollution is
created by one nation and the sufferer is another nation (Figure 13.4).
Acid rains have also acidified a major proportion of freshwater lakes in the Scandinavian
countries. Acidification of these lakes has killed all its aquatic fauna and flora. The lakes
that once supported huge fishery are now completely sterile. Most fishes and amphibians
are killed at pH below 4.5, as the acid damages skin, eyes and gills of these animals.
Excess acid in their surroundings also puts the animals under great physical stress,
making them lose vital minerals like sodium, for example.
With respect to hwnan beings, gases like SO, and NO, produce consigerable irritation of
nose and throat. Under prolonged exposure conditions even the lungs are damaged.
People with respiratory problems (asthma patients, for example) suffer more. In that
notorious London Smog (smoke + fog) hundreds of people died in 1952. CO (carbon
monoxide) is also a poisonous gas that rapidly damages the respiratory pigment
(haemoglobin) and reduces its oxygen carrying capacity. People exposed to even mild
levels of CO suffer from lack of oxygen. Prolonged exposure can be fatal as CO has
great affinity for haemoglobin. Reaction of CO and haemoglobin forms
carboxyhaemoglobin while its compound with oxygen is called oxyhaemoglobin.
While the usual smog (smoke + fog) is dangerous to human health the photochemical
smog is even more dangerous. Aldehydes present in the photochemical smog cause sore
throat, eye inflammation and respiratory illness. Ozone present in photochemical smog
bleaches paintings, rubbers, etc.
CO, (carbon dioxide) is a greenhouse gas in that it traps the heat reflected back from the
earth. It is feared that this is the major cause of rise in the overall temperature of the
earth. This is called as 'global warming' and it may lead to melting of the ice on the
polar caps. This, in turn, is expected to elevate the present mean sea levels, drowning
many coastal areas. Overall change in earth's mean temperature may also affect the
climate and particularly the monsoon pattern all over the world.
Chlorofluorocarbons released in air go up and damage the ozone layer. When ozone
layer is destroyed, there is possibility that damaging Ultra Violet (Uv) rays from the Sun
will not be filtered. More Uv rays will then reach the earth, and as a consequence, there
will be greater incidence of skin canqer in lhuman population. Other living organisms
also will be badly affected. In fact, one of the factors that may be responsible for decline
in amphibian population in Northern Henlisphere is believed to be increased Uv radiation.
Thus, air pollution can have serious effects on human beings and other organisms. Acid
rain has also damaged some man-made buildings and monuments. Buildings (like Taj
Mahal) of marble (CaCO,) are very susceptible to acid rains. Not only that but metallic
objects also corrode and decay under the influence of acidic fumes.
Water pollution, in similar manner, has far reaching consequendes. Sewage pollution (or
for that matter pollution by other non-toxic, easily biodegradable natural products) when
mild, poses no problem, the river can self-purify. Gross sewage pollution, however, can
totally disrupt lake or river ecosystem. The organic matter added will be degraded by
bacteria and, in the process, the dissolved oxygen from water will be consumed. The
water will be practically devoid of dissolved oxygen, if sewage load is too much.
Naturatly all organisms that require good amount of dissolved oxygen will move away
from such waters. Other organisms that either can tolerate low dissolved oxygen or those
that can breath atmospheric oxygen are not much affected. Many fishes as well as
aquatic snails and insects can breath air and hence can s w i v e in such waters. In
addition some typical sewage pollution specific organisms are present in large numbers.
Tubificid worms and chironornid larvae are two such animals that are abundant in
sewage polluted areas. In fact, where tubificid worms appear in large numbers the
bottom mud will appear blood red in coiour. Chironomid larvae (which are similar to
 mosquito larvae) also are red in appearance and the red colou in both these 'animals is @cological Instability *

due to haemoglobin (respiratory pigment) present in their blood.

Sewage fungus, a cottony growth containing bacteria, fungi and protozoa, is yet another
assemblage always encountered in sewage polluted areas.
A lot of suspeilded matter is also present in water polluted by sewage. Bacterial
population is very high and so also the populatioil of protozoa that feed on bacteria.
Physico-chmical properties are also grossly altered so Ulat sewage polluted waters can be
easily identified using a certain paruneters like biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved
oxygcn concentration, susper~dcdsolid etc. (see Figure 13.5).

-2-0- .-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-a_.-. -.-.-.-

SUSPENOED SOLIDS

SEWAGE AFFECTING RIVER ECOSYSTEM

Figure 13.5 : Physico-clrcmical and Biological Effects of Sewnge Pollution in a River

Water pollution by industrial wastes is far more dangerous because these wastes contain
chemicals that do not degrade. Not only that, some industrial chemicals (like heavy
metals, phenolic compounds, etc) are actually accumulated by organis~nsrendering them
unsuitable for consumplion. Many industrial chemicals are highly toxic (for example
cyanide, mercury salts, phenol, dye intermediates elc.) and rapidly kill aquatic organisms.
Large scale mortality of fish and other animals is often observed in rivers heavily
polluted with industrial wastes. In some cases long stretches of rivers will be made
practically sterile by pollution. Mining activity is also known to be causing such effects.
w
' I

~cology Organisms like fishes and prawns exposed to toxic wahtes often suffer from pathological
lesions, physiological stress, reproductive failure, abnormal developmerit of embryos and
larvae, etc. It must be noted here that survival (of animals) alone is not sufficient, the
waters must be good enough to allow normal life and reproduction of aquatic animals.
~
I
I '
I

I
I

EUTROPHICATION PROCESS

(a) Excess Nutrients Like Phosphates and Nitrates Provide Ideal Condition for Excess
Growth of Aquatic Vegetation. This is Eutrophication

(b) Photograph Showing Water Hyacinw'ChoLInga Small River

Figure 13.6
78
 Water pollution caused by fertilizers can cause eutrophication of water wherein there is Ecolugicnl Instability '
excess growth of aquatic vegetation (algae or macrophytes). When water bodies are 1
choked with vegetation, there are often other changes in the fauna and flora
(Figure 13.6). On the other hand toxic pesticides can kill plants and animals of aquatic
ecosystem. Especially dangerous are those pesticides that are highly persistent.
Overall issue of water pollution is quite complicated. There are simply too many
pollutants and their effects are equally diverse. Further, very little is known about the
effects of one or more pollutants in combination. Because many pollutants often occur
together, this fact deserves careful attention,
Soils are important for growth of vegetation. Soil is rich with bacteria and fungi and
these microorganisms are essential for healthy growth of vegetation. Soil pollution often
kills useful organisms and renders soils useless. Toxic chemicals like pesticides can
persist in soils for years and continue to slowly poison the soil. Soil pollution can also
affect human behgs directly if my of the polluted sites is unknowingly used for
habitation. Such accidents have happened in developed countries of the world.
Uncontrolled irrigation has also turned fertile soils into sterile saline soils. This also
should be treated as pollution.

, t ) Dei irle f l ~ j:t:fi,in

c cr~?~ir't~a~hs?~:raI;~I,
~rb)!Bfi.4i11j11.

(c) Explairm.t%actlilfc'erencebetwet:m p9t'ilnh;uy ;air pollalaalb and secmatl;aa.$liilr

poll%nt:ia~ls.
(d) M,&e a list of proillrniaae~ltdn'gao8Pant;snts.
(e) Make a kist of toxic metaallic po1hlt;cnts found in i k t l ~ l l tand
i ~ terrestrial
cco:; ystems.

(g j Wtay C:3i':C is; s.l;angr?n:cusair pollAuffa~n81

13.4 SUMMARY
Ecosystems are really never completely stable. They appear so to human observer
because of the relatively short life span of human species. Ecosys@msare dynamic and
are undergoing change in response to various factors. Both the natural forces and human
activity can bring about considerable change in the environment thereby making the
ecosystems unstable. FlooQs and forest fires are natural events which may devastate the
whole ecosystem. Such systems can return' to nonnal state after some tihe. Not onIy
that, floods and fires are regular and necessary events in some ecosystems. Even
volcanic eruption, a natural event, destroys vast areas of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Such ecosystems also recover from damage and start all over again,
1
Human activity also modifies the environment. Forest ecosystems are replaced by
monoculture agriculture or'cement houses or industries. Lands once lost in @isfashion ,.
I c;.

are permanently lost, the original ecosystems are permanently replaced within a very 11
short time, Increase in human population is tremendously increasing pressures on various I!
Ir
'I 'r
ecosystems (forests, rivers and oceans) and it is unlikely that such over stressed .,b
ecosystems will recover if we continue to disregard our environment. I(

79 111
Environmental pollution, that is air,water and soil pollution, is the outcome of our
unplanned economic growh or industrialization. Our immediate environment is polluted
with hazardous gases and chemicals that are harmful to living organisms including man.
Our agricultural activity is also releasing unwanted chc~nicalsin nearby rivers and lakcs.
These, in turn, are completely modifying the ecosystenu. The chemicals released in the
environment may have even global effect.

Aerosol : Tiny particles (less than 0.1 micrometer in size) of

liquid or powder which stay suspended in the
atmosphere.
Acid rain : Rain which contains higher level of acid than normal.
Usually rain with pH below 5 or 4.5 is termed acid
rain.
Biodegradable : A substance which can be easily decomposed
(degraded) by bacteria or fungi.
BOD : Biochemical oxygen demand. That is oxygen
required for biodegradation of organic matter.
Delta : A triangular piece of land, at the mouth of a large
river, formed by silt carried by the river.
Degassing : Natural escape of the gas trapped in the earth's crust.
Eutropllication : A process in which lakes or rivers become practically
choked with aquatic vegetation. This process is due
to mineral enrichment particularly nitrates and
phosphates of water body.
Hydrocarbons : Compounds of hydrogen and carbon.
Floodplain : Wide flatter part of the bottom of a valley which is
usually covered with water when tile river floods.
: Pcroxyacetyl nitrates, a group of highly reactive
compounds. They cause irritation of eyes, Ulroat, etc.
They are mostly formed from no and unburnt
hydrocarbons.
Pesticides : Substances that kill pest. These are usually poisons or
biocides. Different subtypes are recognized under this.
Photochemical smog : Smog generated by action of sunlight on polluting
gases.
Primary air pollutants ' : Pollutant gases like SO,, NO,, CO which are releascd
directly into atmosphere.
Smog : Smog originally meant smoke and fog. 111 those days
smoke was largely due to ,burning coal. Today the
smoke is mainly from the auto-exhausl and industries.
Secondary air pollutants : Pollutants formed by interaction of primary air
pollutants and sunlight. For example PANS even
Ozone.
TsunamI : Tidal wave generated by an earthquake under the sea.
I

Weed : Wild plant which grows profusely in cultivated fields I

or in aquatic environments. Examples are parthciliutn I

on land and hyacinth in water.
I
Wetland : An area of land which is often covered by water or is I

marshy. I

I
I
Green house effect and : Effect produced by the accumulation of carbon
Global warming dioxide, methane and other gases along with water
vapour, which prevents heat loss fYom the earth. This,
in turn, raises atmospheric temperature.
Organometallic : Combination of organic group and metals like
mercury. For example methylmercuric chloride where
methyl group reacts with mercury.
: Parts per million, which is equivalent of milligrams
per litre (mghitre).
: Parts per billion, which is equivalent of micrograms
per litre (pghitre).

13.6 FURTHER READINGS

(1) Dash, M.C. (1993), Fundamentals ofEcology, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
(2) Manivasakm, N. (1984), Environmental Pollution, National Book Trust, New Delhi.

(3) Anderson, S.H., Beiswenger, R.E. and Purdom, P.W.(1993), Environmental

Science, 4th Edition, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
(4) Wcllburn, A. (1994), Air Pollution a d Climate Clznnge - The Biological Impact,
Lorigman Scientific & Technical, Essex, U.K.
"Scienlijic American" and "National Geographic" are the two ~nagazincswhich of ten
contain articles on specific issues. These articles are written by scierltists but u e in
sin~plelanguage. You can look up-for these magazines in the libraries nearby.

13.6 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1
(a) Periodic floods bring valuable sediments and nutrients it1 the floodplain
ecosystem. These are essential for the growth of appropriate vegetation
which, in turn, provides food for animals. Such floods also forrn temporary
water bodies that provide home for many organisms. Breeding of many
species of fish (and other animals) may be associated with flood. Thus,
floodplain ecosystem as a whole is adapted to pcriodic floods. Such floods
are natural beneficial events.
(b) Volcanic eruption sends out large quantity of hot ash, rock, other debris and
poisonous gases into the atmosphere. Deposition of this volcanic material
can affect vegetation on land and kill large number of animals. In addition
molten, hot rock can bum vegetation and kill animals. There may tie severe
fall in ambient temperature as solar radiation is trapped by the ash. Volcanic
eruption and earthquake can occur together and sometimes produce giant
waves in sea (tsunami) that can inundate vast areas inland.
(c) Modern agriculture is intensive, industrialized or mcchanised agriculture.
The problems associated with modem agriculture are:
i) excessive use of pesticides that kill useful animals and produce resistant
pests,
ii) indiscriminate usc of fertilizers pollute soil and water, leading to
eu~ophicationof lakes and stream$,
iii) need for long irrigalion canals associated with luge dams oAen causes
salinization of soils and modifies tlie entire riverine ecosystem, and
iv) excess consumption of fossil fuels.
 (d) Urbanized areas require:
i) vast area for housing and industrial activity. This means major ecosystems
(like forests, grasslands, floodplains) will be modified or destroyed,
ii) tremendous quantity of energy to run the urban household machines, lights,
automobiles and industries. This necessitates construction of power
generating plants that can damage environment and put severe pressure on
resources. Overall consumption of fossil fuels (coal and petrolldiesel) is
great in urban areas,
iii) water in large quantities. Reservoirs become therefore necessary, which
means rnajor riverine ecosystems will be modified, and
iv) transport facilities: construction of roads, highways, rail-tracks all becomes
mandatory. This happens at the cost of precious agricultural lands,
All the activities of the urbanized people generate tremendous wastes that
pollute our environment. It must be noted that urbanization not only modifies
local environment but distant places are also directly or indirectly affected.
SAQ 2
(a) A widely accepted definitions of the word pollution is "the introduction by
human action, directly or indirectly of substances or energy into the
environment, resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger
human health, harm living resources or ecosystems, and impair or interfere
with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment."
(b) Biodegradable pollutants are easily degraded or broken down into simple
compounds by micro-organisms. Such pollutants are various organic waste
products of human being and other animals. Dead plant and animal remains
ate also biodegradable. Plastics, complex synthetic organic chemicals,
inorganics etc., on the other hand, are not degraded by micro-organisms and
hence are called as non-biodegradable.
(c) Primary air pollutants are gases like sulfur dixoide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide. These are direct products of burning fossil fuels. Secondary
pollutants are produced by reactions of primary pollutants with the other
atmospheric gases. Thus generation of ozone and PANSas secondary
pollutants is common.
(dl SO,, NO,, C02, CFC, aerosol, metallic dust, organic chemicals, etc.
(e) Mercury (Hg),Copper (Cu), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr) and
Zinc (Zn).
(f) Greenhouse effect is the atmospheric trapping of the heal radiated by the
earth. The earth radiates energy in the form of long wavelength
electromagnetic waves and these are readily absorbed by gases like C 0 2 and
methane. This eventually warms air. So when there is an increase in COz,
there will be more warming. The worst outcome will be overall rise in the
earth's mean annual temperature (global warming) eventually leading to
melting of the polar ice-caps and coastal flooding.
(g) CFCs or Chloroflurocarbons are dangerous gases because they damage the
layer of ozonc in the upper atmosphere. This ozone layer works like an
umbrella trapping radiation (especially ultraviolet and X and gamimt
radiation) that is harmful for living organisms on the earth.
(h) Acid rains of pH Iess than 4.5 acidify soils and lakes. Acidified soils leach
toxic metals that kill root cells and useful micro-organisms. Acid raifis also
directly damage leaves and stems. In Norlh America several acidified lakes
have become completely sterile as no organism survives this condition. The
extreme physiological stress created by loss of valuable ions as well as direct
toxic action of excess hydrogen ion eliminates all organisms from acidified
lakes.