GEERT HOFSTEDE: Cultural Dimensions

| Who is Geert Hofstede?

Geert Hofstede was born in a peaceful country, but his teenage years saw the second World War
rage across Europe. He started working as an engineer during turbulent years of rebuilding, and soon
became a personnel manager. Fascinated by the human in the system, he did a PhD in organizational
behaviour. This landed him a job with the personnel research department of IBM international. In the late
sixties he began analysing the data from a company wide personnel survey exercise. That period of
pioneering discovery yielded the book Culture's Consequences.

Geert's ideas about dimensions of culture were so outrageous that seventeen publishers refused
the manuscript before a visionary boss at Sage accepted it. the book appeared in 1980. The rest is history.

The model has undergone various major extensions since the first study. It now counts six
dimensions instead of the original four. They are described in the 2010 popular edition Cultures &
Organizations, Software of the mind By Geert, his son Gert Jan and culturologist Michael Minkov.

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the
workplace are influenced by culture.

Through the publication of his scholarly book, Culture’s Consequences (1980, new edition 2001, Geert
Hofstede (1928) became the founder of comparative intercultural research. His most popular book, Cultures and
Organizations: Software of the Mind (1991, newest edition 2010, co-authored with Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael
Minkov), has so far been translated into 20 languages.

Geert Hofstede’s articles have been published in social science and management journals around
the world. He is recognised internationally for having developed the first empirical model of
“dimensions“ of national culture, thus establishing a new paradigm for taking account of
cultural elements in international economics, communication and cooperation. Later, he also
developed a model for organisational cultures.
Through his varied and numerous academic and cultural activities in many different countries, Hofstede can
be regarded as one of the leading representatives of intercultural research and studies. The findings of his research
and his theoretical ideas are used worldwide in both psychology and management studies.

| What is Culture?

Simply said, culture is how you were raised. It developed while you grew up. With a computer
metaphor, culture is the software of our minds. We need shared software in order to communicate. So
culture is about what we share with those around us. In action in social life, culture constitutes the unwritten
rules of the social game.

These rules do not specify any details, but they specify the basic structure of the social landscape.
They are about things such as independence, belonging, love, hate, respect, fear, and loyalty. They specify
which contrasts matter in life: small versus big, clean versus dirty, man versus woman.

Note that culture is about what we share with others. It is NOT something like personality, which
is unique to an individual.
| Hofstede's Model: National Culture

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the
workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind
distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others”.

The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert
Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.
The application of this research is used worldwide in both academic and professional management settings.

| DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE

The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions
represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather
than individuals) from each other.

The country scores on the dimensions are relative, in that we are all human and simultaneously we are all
unique. In other words, culture can only be used meaningfully by comparison. The model consists of the following
dimensions:

1. POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and
expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities
among people.

People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which
everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people
strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

THE PHILIPPINES: This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal
– it expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance is
defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within
a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.

At a score of 94, The Philippines is a hierarchical society. This means that people accept a
hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification.
Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular,
subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat.

2. INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-
knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate
families.

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which
individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty.
 A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms
of “I” or “we.”

THE PHILIPPINES: The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of
interdependence a society maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-
image is defined in terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies people are supposed to look after
themselves and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies people belong to ‘in groups’ that
take care of them in exchange for loyalty.

The Philippines, with a score of 32, is considered a collectivistic society. This is manifest in a
close long-term commitment to the member ‘group’, be that a family, extended family, or extended
relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal rules
and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for
fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to shame and loss of face,
employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family link), hiring and
promotion decisions take account of the employee’s in-group, management is the management of
groups.

3. MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism,
assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite,
Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society
at large is more consensus-oriented.

In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as “tough versus
tender” cultures.

THE PHILIPPINES: A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society
will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by
the winner / best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues throughout
organisational life.

A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for
others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and
standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates
people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine).

The Philippines scores 64 on this dimension and is thus a Masculine society. In Masculine countries
people “live in order to work”, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the
emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts are resolved by fighting
them out.
4. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel
uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the
fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?

Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant of
unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice
counts more than principles.

THE PHILIPPINES: The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society
deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just
let it happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal with
this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by
ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these
is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance.

The Philippines scores 44 on this dimension and thus has a low preference for avoiding
uncertainty. Low UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts
more than principles and deviance from the norm is more easily tolerated. In societies
exhibiting low UAI, people believe there should be no more rules than are necessary and if
they are ambiguous or do not work they should be abandoned or changed. Schedules
are flexible, hard work is undertaken when necessary but not for its own sake, precision and
punctuality do not come naturally, innovation is not seen as threatening.

5. LONG TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS SHORT TERM NORMATIVE ORIENTATION (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the
present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently. Societies who score low
on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing
societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they
encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

In the business context, this dimension is referred to as “(short-term) normative versus (long-term)
pragmatic” (PRA). In the academic environment, the terminology Monumentalism versus Flexhumility is
sometimes also used.

THE PHILIPPINES: This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its
own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these
two existential goals differently. Normative societies. which score low on this dimension, for
example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change
with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic
approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

A very low score of 27 indicates that the Philippines are more normative than pragmatic.
People in such societies have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth; they
are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small
propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results.
6. INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IND)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human
drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of
needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small children
are socialized. Without socialization we do not become “human”. This dimension is defined as the extent
to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively
weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively strong control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can,
therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained.

THE PHILIPPINES: With a low score of 42, the culture of the Philippines is one of Restraint.
Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism.
Also, in contrast to Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure
time and control the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the perception
that their actions are Restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is
somewhat wrong.

ABOUT THE RESEARCH

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the
workplace are influenced by culture. He analysed a large database of employee value scores collected
within IBM between 1967 and 1973. The data covered more than 70 countries, from which Hofstede first
used the 40 countries with the largest groups of respondents and afterwards extended the analysis to 50
countries and 3 regions. Subsequent studies validating the earlier results include such respondent groups
as commercial airline pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries, ‘up-
market’ consumers in 15 countries, and ‘elites’ in 19 countries.

In the 2010 edition of the book, “Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind”, scores on
the dimensions are listed for 76 countries, partly based on replications and extensions of the IBM study
on different international populations and by different scholars.

| The 6-D model of national culture

Geert Hofstede, assisted by others, came up with six basic issues that society needs to come to
term with in order to organize itself. These are called dimensions of culture. Each of them has been
expressed on a scale that runs roughly from 0 to 100.

A. Individualism
• (1920s, 1960s, adopted from psychological notes.)
• Task first, relationship later
• High context vs. low context
• Harmony is the keyword of the Collectivist Society
• Measured relative to the society related to it, there is no exact measure.
• Wealthy countries vs. poorer countries.

Individualism is the extent to which people feel independent, as opposed to being interdependent
as members of larger wholes.
 Individualism does not mean egoism. It means that individual choices and decisions are expected.
Collectivism does not mean closeness. It means that one "knows one's place" in life, which is determined
socially. With a metaphor from physics, people in an individualistic society are more like atoms flying around
in a gas while those in collectivist societies are more like atoms fixed in a crystal.

MAP: Individualists come more from Western countries (North American countries, European
countries). Collectivists can be found in South American, African and Asian Countries.

B. Power Distance

Power Distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions
(like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

This dimension is thought to date from the advent of agriculture, and with it, of large-scale
societies. Until that time, a person would know their group members and leaders personally. This is not
possible where tens of thousands and more have to coordinate their lives. Without acceptance of leadership
by powerful entities, none of today's societies could run.

MAP: Smaller power distance can be found in North American Countries and some European
countries. Large power distance is found in majority of the globe.

C. Masculinity

Masculinity is the extent to which the use of force in endorsed socially.

In a masculine society, men are supposed to be tough. Men are supposed to be from Mars, women
from Venus. Winning is important for both genders. Quantity is important and big is beautiful. In a feminine
society, the genders are emotionally closer. Competing is not so openly endorsed, and there is sympathy
for the underdog.

This is NOT about individuals, but about expected emotional gender roles. Masculine societies are
much more openly gendered than feminine societies.

MAP: More masculine societies are found majority around the globe. A few countries such as from
Spain, parts of Africa, of Southeast Asia and parts of South America are found to be more feminine.

D. Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.

Uncertainty avoidance has nothing to do with risk avoidance, nor with following rules. It has to do
with anxiety and distrust in the face of the unknown, and conversely, with a wish to have fixed habits and
rituals, and to know the truth.

MAP: Those tolerant are found in North American countries. Those with fixed rituals and norms
are found mostly around the globe but a bit welcoming to innovative changes. South American and
European countries tend to be more avoiding of these ambiguities.
 E. Long Term-Orientation

Long-term orientation deals with change.

In a long-time-oriented culture, the basic notion about the world is that it is in flux, and preparing
for the future is always needed. In a short-time-oriented culture, the world is essentially as it was created,
so that the past provides a moral compass, and adhering to it is morally good.

MAP: Those more welcome to societal change can be found in Russia, China and Japan, with
moderately on Western countries including some parts of South American and some East and South
East Asian countries. Those who honor long-time traditions and suspect societal change are those
found in Arab countries, some African Countries, Brazil, the Philippines.

F. Indulgence

Indulgence is about the good things in life.

In an indulgent culture it is good to be free. Doing what your impulses want you to do, is good.
Friends are important and life makes sense. In a restrained culture, the feeling is that life is hard, and duty,
not freedom, is the normal state of being.

MAP: More indulgent countries come from the modern West countries (North and South American
countries). The rest of the globe would be moderate and generally restrained.