␣ Collection␣ Technique␣ ..........................................................................

Cahier technique no. 193

MV breaking techniques

S. Théoleyre
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no. 193
MV breaking techniques

Serge THEOLEYRE

Dr. Theoleyre joined Schneider Electric in 1984 after having obtained

a Doctorate in Engineering from the “Ecole Nationale Supérieure
d’Ingénieurs Electriciens” in Grenoble in 1983. Initially he took charge
of research and development and then marketing for the Power
Capacitor activity.
Since 1995, he has been responsible for Schneider Electric’s actions
in the fields of standardization and technical communication within
the Transmission and Distribution Business sector (HV/MV).

ECT 193 first issue, June 1999

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.1

Lexicon
Breaking Capacity:
A presumed current value that a switching
device must be capable of breaking under the
recommended conditions of use and behavior.
Earthing fault:
Fault due to the direct or indirect contact of a
conductor with the earth or the reduction of its
insulation resistance to earth below a specified
value.
Fault:
Accidental modification affecting normal
operation.
Ir:
Rated current corresponding to the rms. value of
the current that the device must be capable of
withstanding indefinitely under the recommended
conditions of use and operation.
Isc:
Short-circuit current.
Overvoltage:
Any voltage between a phase conductor and the
earth or two neutral phase conductors where the
peak value exceeds the highest voltage
acceptable for the equipment.
Overvoltage factor:
Ratio between the overvoltages’ peak value and
the peak value of the maximum voltage
acceptable by the device.
Rated value:
Value generally set by the manufacturer for
given operating conditions for a component, a
mechanism or piece of equipment.
Re-ignition:
Resumption of current between the contacts of a
mechanical switching device during a breaking
operation, within a quarter cycle after passing to
0 current.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.2
Re-striking:
Resumption of current between the contacts of a
mechanical switching device during a breaking
operation, after a quarter cycle after passing to 0
current.
Short-circuit:
An accidental or intentional connection through a
resistance or relatively low impedance, of two or
more points on a circuit normally existing at
different voltages.
Switching device:
Device intended to establish or interrupt current
in an electrical circuit.
Switchgear:
General term applicable to switching devices and
their use in combination with control,
measurement, protection, and command devices
with which they are associated.
Time constant for de-ionization:
Time at the end of which arc resistance will have
doubled assuming that its rate of variation
remains constant.
Transient recovery voltage:
Recovery voltage between the contacts of a
switching device during the time where it
presents an noticeable transient character.
Ur:
Rated voltage corresponding to the rms. value of
the voltage that the device must be capable of
withstanding indefinitely under the recommended
conditions of use and operation.
 MV breaking techniques

The ability to break current in an electrical circuit is essential in order to

guarantee the safety of people and property in the case of faults, as well as
to control the distribution and use of electrical energy.
The aim of this Cahier Technique is to detail the advantages,
disadvantages and applicational fields of past and present Medium Voltage
breaking techniques.
Having defined the currents to be broken and discussed breaking on a
theoretical level, the author goes on to present breaking in air, oil, and in
SF6, finishing with two comparative tables.
To date, breaking using electrical arcing remains the only viable solution,
whether in SF6 or under vacuum; it requires expertise that this
Cahier Technique invites you to share.

Contents
1 Introduction p. 4
2 Breaking load and fault currents 2.1 Breaking principle p. 6
2.2 Breaking load currents p. 9
2.3 Breaking fault currents p. 13
3 Breaking techniques 3.1 Breaking medium p. 17
3.2 Breaking in air p. 18
3.3 Breaking in oil p. 19
3.4 Breaking under vacuum p. 21
3.5 Breaking in SF6 p. 24
3.6 Comparison of the various techniques p. 29
3.7 What possibilities for other techniques? p. 30
4 Conclusion p. 31
Bibliography p. 32

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.3

1 Introduction
Electrical energy is transmitted from the
generating power station to consumer points via
an electrical network (shown in figure 1 ).
It is essential to be able to interrupt the current at
any point in the network in order to operate or
maintain the network or to protect it when a fault
occurs. It is also necessary to be able to restore
current in various normal or fault situations.
In order to choose the devices intended to
accomplish this task, information on the current
to break and the field of application is crucial
(see fig. 2 ). It can fall into one of three
categories:
c Load current, which is normally smaller than
the rated current Ir. The rated current, Ir is the
rms. value of current that the equipment must be
capable of withstanding indefinitely under the
recommended conditions of use and operation.
c Overload current, when the current exceeds its
rated value.
c Short-circuit current, when there is a fault on
the network. Its value depends on the generator,
the type of fault and the impedances upstream of
the circuit.
Furthermore, when opening, closing or in
continuous service the device is subjected to
several stresses:
c dielectrical (voltage),
c thermal (normal and fault currents),
EHV HV
transmission network subtransmission network
800 kV - 300 kV 300 kV - 52 kV
Power EHV/HV
station transformer
substations
HV
consumers
Fig. 1 : diagram of an electrical network.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.4
c electrodynamic (fault current),
c mechanical.
The most important stresses are those which
occur during transient operation and breaking,
which are accompanied by electrical arcing
phenomena. Arcing behavior is difficult to predict
despite current modeling techniques.
Experience, know-how and experimentation still
play a large part in designing breaking devices.
They are called “electromechanical” devices,
since at present static breaking in medium and
high voltage is not technically and economically
viable.
Of all of these breaking devices, circuit breakers
are the most interesting since they are capable
of making, withstanding, and breaking currents
under normal and abnormal conditions (short-
circuit). This Cahier Technique will mainly
discuss breaking alternating current using circuit
breakers.
The voltage range considered is that of Medium
Voltage (1 kV - 52 kV), since it is in this voltage
range that the greatest number of breaking
techniques exist. The first part of the document
will deal with phenomena occurring during
breaking and closing. The second part presents
the four most wide-spread types of breaking
techniques currently used i.e. breaking in air, oil,
vacuum and SF6.
MV LV
distribution network distribution network
52 kV - 1 kV 1 kV - 220 V
HV/MV MV/LV
transformer transformer
substations substations
MV LV
consumers consumers
 c IEC definition Opening Closing Isolating

c Function

Disconnector c Mechanical connection device yes no no yes no yes v yes

which in an open position
guarantees asatisfactory isolating
distance under specific conditions.
c Intended to guarantee safe
isolation of a circuit, it is often
associated with an earthing switch.

Earthing c Specially designed switch for yes no no yes no yes v no

switch connecting phase conductors to the earth.
c Intended for safety in case of work
on the circuits, it relays the de-energized
active conductors to the earth.

Switch c Mechanical connection device capable yes yes no yes yes yes yes v
of establishing, sustaining and breaking
currents under normal circuit conditions
eventually including overload currents in
service.
c Intended to control circuits (opening
and closing), it is often intended to
perform the insulating function.
In public and private MV distribution
networks it is frequently associated
with fuses.

Contactor c Mechanical connection device with yes yes no yes yes yes no
a single rest position, controlled other
than by hand, capable of establishing,
sustaining and breaking currents under
normal circuit conditions, including
overvoltage conditions in service.
c Intended to function very frequently,
it is mainly used for motor control.

Circuit c Mechanical connection device capable yes yes yes yes yes yes no
breaker of establishing, sustaining and breaking
currents under normal circuit conditions
and under specific abnormal circuit
conditions such as during a short-circuit.
c General purpose connection device.
Apart from controlling the circuits it
guarantees their protection against
electrical faults. It is replacing contactors
in the control of large MV motors.

= at no load = under load = short-circuit v = depending on the case

Fig. 2 : various switching devices, their functions and their applications

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.5

2 Breaking load and fault currents
2.1 Breaking principle
An ideal breaking device would be a device
capable of breaking current instantaneously.
However, no mechanical device is capable of
breaking current without the help of electrical
arcing. This phenomenon limits overvoltages and
dissipates the electromagnetic energy of the
electrical circuit, but it delays complete breaking
of the current.
The ideal switch
Theoretically speaking, being able to break
current instantaneously, it involves being able to
pass directly from the state of conductor to the
state of insulator. The resistance of the “ideal”
switch must therefore pass immediately from
zero to infinity, (see fig. 3 ).
This device must be capable of:
c absorbing the electromagnetic energy
accumulated in the circuit before breaking, i.e.
1 2
Li in case of a short-circuit due to the
2
reactive nature of the networks;
R L
e Load
i c It is practically impossible to separate the
Break
t
R and lead to the immediate breakdown across the
t remain greater than the transient recovery
Fig. 3 : breaking by an ideal switch.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.6
c withstanding the overvoltage (Ldi/dt) appearing
across the terminals of the device and which
would have an infinite value if passing from
insulator to conductor occurred in an infinitely
small period of time. This would inevitably lead to
dielectric breakdown.
Assuming that these problems have been
eliminated and that perfect synchronization has
been achieved between the natural passing of
the current to 0 and the device’s insulator-
conductor transition, there still remains another
difficult aspect to take into consideration, that of
transient recovery voltage (TRV).
In fact, just after the current has been
interrupted, the recovery voltage across the
switch’s terminals joins the network voltage
which is at its maximum at this moment for
reactive circuits. This occurs without an abrupt
discontinuity due to the parasite capacitances of
the network. An unsteady state is set up whilst
the voltage comes back in line with that of the
network. This voltage, called transient recovery
voltage (TRV), depends on network
characteristics and the rate of increase (dv/dt) of
this voltage can be considerable (several kV /
microsecond). To put it simply this means that to
avoid breaking failure, the ideal switch must be
capable of withstanding several kV less than one
microsecond after the transition from conductor-
insulator.
Breaking using electrical arcing
Two reasons explain the existence of electrical
arcing:
contacts exactly at the natural 0 current point
due to the uncertainty in the measurement-order:
for an rms. value of 10 kA, the instantaneous
current 1 ms before 0 is still at 3,000 A. The
instantaneous overvoltage Ldi/dt which would
appear across the terminals of the device if it
immediately became insulating would be infinite
inter-contact gap which is still small.
c Separation of the contacts must be
accomplished at sufficient speed for the
dielectric strength between the contacts to
voltage. This requires mechanical energy close
to infinity, that no device can provide in practice.
The electrical arcing breaking process takes
place in three phases :
v the sustained arc phase,
v the arc extinction phase,
v the post-arcing phase.
c Arc propagation phase
Before reaching zero current the two contacts
separate causing dielectric breakdown of the
inter-contact medium. The arc which appears is
made up of a plasma column composed of ions
and electrons from the inter-contact medium or
metal vapor given off by the electrodes
(see fig. 4 ). This column remains conductive as
long as its temperature is maintained at a
sufficiently high level. The arc is thereby
“sustained” by the energy that it dissipates by the
Joule effect.
The voltage which appears between the two
contacts due to the arc’s resistance and the
surface voltage drops (cathodic and anodic
voltage) is called the arcing voltage (Ua).
Its value, which depends on the nature of the
arc, is influenced by the intensity of the current
and by the heat exchange with the medium
(walls, materials, etc.). This heat exchange
which is radiative, convective and conductive is
characteristic of the device’s cooling capacity.
The arc voltage’s role is vital since the power
dissipated in the device during breaking strongly
depends on it.
t arc
W = ∫t0 Ua idt where t0 is the moment of arc
initiation and tarc is the moment of breaking.
In medium voltage and high voltage, it always
remains well below network voltages and does
not therefore have a limiting effect, except in
particular cases discussed further on. Breaking
is therefore near the “natural” zero of the
alternating current.
c Arc extinction phase
Interrupting of the current corresponding to arc
extinction is accomplished at zero current on
condition that the medium quickly becomes
insulating again. For this to occur, the channel of
ionized molecules must be broken. The
extinction process is accomplished in the
following manner: near zero current, resistance
to the arc increases according to a curve which
mainly depends on the de-ionization time
constant in the inter-contact medium (see fig. 5 ).
a R
Rr
Re

Anode
t

b i, u
ur
ion –
e

e
N ue
e
ion +

ir t
ion +

e Post arc
e current

Cathode
Fig. 4 : electrical arcing in a gaseous medium.
ie
Fig. 5 : change in arc resistance [a] current and
voltage [b] during the extinction phase in case of
successful breaking (r) or thermal failure (e).

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.7

 At zero current, this resistance has a value which A circuit breaker must be capable of breaking all
is not infinite and a post-arcing current once currents less than its breaking capacity for all
again crosses the device due to the transient TRVs whose value is less than the rated TRV
recovery voltage which appears across the value.
terminals.
If the power dissipated by the Joule effect exceeds
the characteristic cooling capacity of the device, a U
the medium no longer cools down: thermal
runaway followed by another dielectric breakdown
takes place: resulting in thermal failure.
If on the other hand the increase in voltage does
not exceed a certain critical value, the arc’s
resistance can increase sufficiently quickly so
that the power dissipated into the medium
remains less than the cooling capacity of the
device thereby avoiding thermal runaway.
c Post-arcing phase
In order for breaking to be successful, it is also 0 t
necessary for the rate of dielectric recovery to be
much quicker than that of the TRV (see fig. 6 )
b U
otherwise dielectric breakdown occurs.
At the moment when dielectric failure occurs, the
medium once again becomes conductive,
generating transient phenomena which will be
looked at in more detail further on.
These post-breaking dielectric failures are called:
v re-ignition if it takes place within the quarter of
a period following the zero current,
v re-striking if it takes place afterwards.
c TRV in the standards
Even though the rate of increase of TRV has a 0 t
fundamental impact of on the breaking capacities
of devices, this value cannot be precisely Recovery voltage
determined for all network configurations.
Standard IEC 60056 defines a TRV range for Dielectric regeneration curves
each rated voltage corresponding to the
requirements normally encountered (see fig. 7 ). Recovery voltage if no restriking
The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is
therefore defined as: the highest current that it Recovery voltage with restriking
can break at its rated voltage with the Fig. 6 : dielectric recovery curves:
corresponding rated TRV. successful breaking [a] or dielectric failure [b].

UTRV

UC
Rated voltage 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 52
(Ur in kV)
Peak TRV value 12.3 20.6 30 41 62 89
(Uc in kV)
Time t3 (in µs) 52 60 72 88 108 132
Rate of increase 0.24 0.34 0.42 0.47 0.57 0.68
(Uc / t3)
t3 t
Fig. 7 : rated transient recovery voltage in the case of a short-circuit across the terminals of a circuit breaker
(§ 4.102 IEC standard 60056).

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.8

2.2 Breaking load currents
Under normal operation, in MV, circuit breaking arc instability and an oscillating phenomena
occurs: occurs which is “seen” by the breaking device
c with a load current from a few to a few hundred and the inductances (see fig. 9 and fig. 10 ).
amperes, a low value relative to the short-circuit During this high frequency oscillation (of around
current (from 10 to 50 kA); 1 MHz) passing to zero current is possible and
the circuit breaker can interrupt the current
c with a power factor greater than or equal to
before it passes to its natural zero at the
0.8. The phase shift between the electrical circuit
industrial frequency (50 Hz).
voltage and the current is small and the
minimum voltage occurs around the current’s
minimum (highly resistant circuit).
The voltage across the terminals of the breaking Ua U
L
device is established while network voltage is
practically without any transient phenomena
(see fig. 8 ).
Under such conditions, breaking generally L1 C1 U1 U2 C2 L2
occurs without any problems since the device is
dimensioned for high currents in quadrature with
the voltage.
L1 , C1 = upstream inductance and capacity
Breaking inductive currents (supply source),
c Current chopping L2 , C2 = downstream inductance and capacity
Breaking inductive currents can give rise to (transformer primary),
overvoltages caused by early breaking of the L = connection inductance downstream of circuit
current, otherwise known as “current chopping” breaker D (busbars or cables).
phenomena. Fig. 9 : diagram of the circuit on breaking a low
For low inductive currents (from a few amperes inductive current.
to a several dozens of amperes), the cooling
capacity of the devices dimensioned for the
short-circuit current is much higher in relation to i
the energy dissipated in the arc. This leads to

U (between contacts)

a100 V i

i ii
ia

Natural t
t current zero
Arc period

i = current in the circuit breaker,

Separation Effective current ii = current value leading to instability,
of contacts breaking ia = chopped current value.

Fig. 8 : there are very few transient phenomena during Fig. 10 : high frequency oscillating phenomena or
the breaking of a resistive load current. “current chopping” on breaking an inductive current.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.9

 This phenomenon, called “current chopping”, is On the supply side, the voltage value is equal to
accompanied by a transient overvoltage mainly the value of the chopping voltage tending
due to the oscillatory state which is set up on the towards the network voltage, Un with an
load side (see fig. 11 ). oscillating state depending on C1 and L1. The
The maximum value of the overvoltage (UCmax) voltage value between the contacts of the circuit
on the load side is given by the following breaker is equal to the difference between these
equation: two voltages.
These equations clearly show the influence of
 η L i2 
2
UCmax = ua2 +  m 2 a  the network’s characteristics, bearing in mind
 C2  that the chopping current depends strongly on
C1 and on the concerned device.
in which:
ua = chopping voltage, c Re-ignition
ia = chopping current, Another phenomena can lead to high
ηm = magnetic efficiency. overvoltages. It is re-ignition during opening.
Generally speaking, re-ignition is inevitable for
short arcing periods since the distance between
Current to be interrupted contacts is not sufficient to withstand the voltage
which appears across the terminals of the
device. This is the case each time an arc appears
just before the current passes to natural zero.
The voltage on the load side rejoins the voltage
on the supply side with an unsteady state
oscillating at high frequency (around 1 MHz).
t The peak value of the oscillation, determined by
the load voltage of the downstream parasite
capacitances is therefore twice the preceding
Load voltage value.
Source voltage If the circuit breaker is capable of breaking high
frequency currents, it will manage to break the
current the first time it passes to zero a few
microseconds after re-ignition. Re-ignition is very
likely to reoccur due to the increase in the
amplitude of oscillation and the phenomena is
repeated causing an escalation in voltage which
t can be dangerous for the load
(see Cahier Technique no. 143).
It should be noted that the same phenomena
appears during device closure: it causes pre-
striking when the contacts are brought
sufficiently close together. As in cases of
successive re-ignition, the stored energy
Voltage across the increases at each breaking attempt but the
circuit-breaker terminals voltage increase is limited by the bringing
Source voltage
together of the contacts.
c Field of application
In Medium Voltage this involves the magnetizing
currents of transformers under no load or low
load, motors and shunt inductances.
t
v Transformers under no load or low load
Transformers can be operated under low load
conditions (e.g. at night) for network
management requirements. The currents
corresponding to their magnetizing currents vary
from a few amperes to several dozens of
amperes and their chopping factor can be very
high. However, even if the current is chopped at
Fig. 11 : voltage and current curves at the time of its peak value, the possible overvoltage factors
breaking low inductive currents. are generally low taking into account the
capacitances and the inductances involved.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.10

In overhead distribution, the risk related to the
appearance of overvoltage current is even lower
since it is limited by lightning arrestors.
Furthermore, standards relating to transformers
define impulse wave tests which confirm their
capacity to withstand operational overvoltages.
v Shunt inductances
These inductances are used to compensate for
the reactive component of the lines or to avoid
increases in voltage on very long lines with low
loads. They are most often used in HV but can
also be used in MV.
Breaking overvoltages generally remain below
an overvoltage factor of 2.5 due to the
impedances involved. If there is a risk that the
breaking overvoltage will exceed this limit,
lightning arrestors and breaking resistors are
connected in parallel with the circuit breaker.
v Motors
Stator and rotor windings of motors are so that
the current absorbed under no load conditions by
these motors as well as the start-up currents are
basically inductive. Given the great number of
switching operations, overvoltages occur very
often and can become critical because of the
progressive deterioration in the insulation that
they engender, in particular if opening occurs
during the start-up phases.
As a general rule, circuit breakers must be
chosen that do not re-strike or that have a low
probability of re-striking. Otherwise, R-C systems
can also be placed across the motor’s terminals
in order to deviate high frequency transient
currents or ZnO type voltage limiting systems.
c Breaking inductive currents and the standards.
International standards do not exist regarding the
breaking of inductive currents, however IEC
technical report 61233 stipulates tests for circuit
breakers used to supply the motors and shunt
inductances.
v Motors
For circuit breakers with rated voltages between
1 kV and 17.5 kV, a standardized circuit
simulating a blocked motor is specified for
laboratory tests.
v Shunt inductances
They are not very wide-spread in MV,
nevertheless, they are sometimes used in 36 kV.
The tests carried out in a laboratory are solely
defined for three phase circuits with a rated
voltage greater than 12 kV.
Breaking capacitive currents
Breaking capacitive currents can cause to
overvoltages due to re-striking during the voltage
recovery phase.
c In theory, capacitive currents can be broken
without any difficulty. In fact, when the device
interrupts the current, the voltage across the
terminals of the generator is at its maximum
since the current and the voltage are out of
phase by π/2; since the capacitor remains
charged at this value after current breaking, the
voltage across the terminals of the switch,
initially at 0, slowly increases without TRV and
with a derivative in relation to time (dv/dt) equal
to zero at the origin.
c On the other hand re-striking problems are
difficult. In fact, after a 1/2-period, the network
voltage is reversed and the voltage across the
terminals of the switch reaches twice the peak
value. The risk of re-striking between the
contacts is therefore increased and this is
proportional to the slowness of opening.
If there is re-striking at peak voltage, the
capacitor is discharged in the circuit’s inductance
creating an oscillating current with a peak
voltage of 3 (see fig. 12 ). If breaking is effective
at the following zero current, the capacitor
remains charged at a voltage of 3.
u
L
I
Ua Ub
e C C
Ub Current
Peak oscillations
voltage
I Ua
Voltage
oscillations
Current after
restriking
Ub after
restriking
-3 peak voltage
Fig. 12 : diagram of a circuit with a capacitive load:
during breaking if the circuit breaker does not open
quickly enough, successive re-striking can cause
dangerous overvoltages for the load.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.11
 When voltage “e” is once again reversed, the
peak voltage across the terminals of the switch L0 L
becomes equal to 5. The overvoltage can
therefore lead to re-striking again. The
phenomena can continue with a voltage across
the terminals of the switch capable of reaching
values of 7, 9, etc. e C
For all re-striking occurring 1/4 of the period
following zero current, an “escalation of voltage”
can be observed which can lead to unacceptable
peak values for loads.
On the other hand re-striking, which occurs SA
depending on the breaking device’s dimensions, Network voltage (upstream
overvoltage)
is tolerable: the oscillating voltage across the
terminals of the capacitor remains at an absolute
value less than the peak value of the generator’s
voltage, which does not represent any particular
danger for the devices.
As a reminder, capacitor overvoltage testing is
performed at 2.25 times the rated voltage value.
SB
Dielectric recovery of the inter-contact medium
(downstream
must therefore be sufficiently quick for no re- overvoltage)
striking to occur after the quarter period.
Capacitor voltage
c Making capacitive currents and pre-striking
When closing the control device supplying
capacitive loads, phenomena specific to
capacitive circuits are produced.
Thus, energizing a capacitor bank causes a high
Ip
overcurrent at high frequency (see fig. 13 ) for (peak closing
which the peak magnitude is given by the current)
equation:
U 2 C Capacitor current
Ip =
3 L0 + L
where
L0 = upstream network inductance fe (oscillating
L = capacitor bank link inductances, generally frequency)
low in relation to L0. Fig. 13 : shapes of voltage and current (pre-strike
overvoltage) during the coupling of a single stage
In the case of multi-stage banks, the phenomena
capacitor to the network.
is even more accentuated by the presence of the
energy stored in the already energized
capacitors: the transient currents can reach The aforementioned equation becomes:
several hundreds of times the rated current with
frequencies of several kHz due to the low values U 2 C n
Ip =
of link inductance between stages of the banks. 3 L n +1
During pre-striking at the breaking device where
contacts (ignition of a conductive arc before the n = number of capacitor bank stages with a
contacts join) these high transient currents cause value of C.
early erosion of the breaking device contacts and L = limiting inductances (impulse impedances),
eventually weld them. Limiting inductances higher in relation to L0.
(impulse impedances) are series connected with Note that devices adapted to this application
the bank in order to limit these phenomena. exist and must be specified.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.12

 c Fields of application
Capacitive currents mainly have two origins:
cables and lines, and capacitor banks.
v Cables and lines
This involves load currents in no-load cables and
long overhead lines (compensated or not). In a
number of European countries (especially
countries in Southern Europe, France, Italy,
Spain, etc.), MV overhead networks are long and
therefore particularly sensitive to atmospheric
overvoltages meaning a high amount of tripping
occurs on these lines… therefore a lot of re-
striking.
v Capacitor banks
Capacitor banks are series connected to the
networks and are used to compensate for the
lines’ reactive energy (transmission network) and
loads (MV/LV). They enable the transmitted
active power to be increased and line losses to
be reduced. They can be:
- used alone in the case of low compensation
and a stable load,
- staggered (multiple or divided). This type of
bank is widely used by major industries (high
installed power) and by utilities companies. It is
associated with an automatic control and the
number of operations can be high (several
operations per day): devices capable of
withstanding a suitable number of operations
should be specified.
c Breaking capacitive currents and the
standards
The current IEC standard 60056 (4th edition,
1987) gives values, for all voltages, of the rated
breaking capacity of circuit breakers used to
2.3 Breaking fault currents
In the case of a short circuit, the phase shift
between the current and the voltage is always
very large (0.07 i cosϕ i 0.15), since networks are
basically inductive. When the current passes to 0,
network voltage is at, or almost at, its maximum.
In MV, short-circuit current reaches values of a
few tens of thousands of amperes.
Consequently, breaking takes place without
current chopping since the arc is very stable. As
for load currents, arcing can be broken down into
three phases:
c a sustained arc phase till passing through zero
current,
protect cables which may have no load. Its
application is not mandatory and it is considered
inappropriate for voltages less than 24 kV.
Regarding the rated breaking capacity of lines
under no load, the specification is limited to
devices with a rated voltage of 72 kV.
No value has been specified for capacitor banks.
IEC 60056 also specifies switching tests
(see fig. 14 ) for protection and control devices
under capacitive current conditions for lines and
cables under no load and for single stage
capacitor banks but does not specify anything for
long lines nor for banks of filters.
Standards for capacitive current applications are
tending to develop towards the definition of
devices with a low probability of re-striking
together with a broader specification of values
and a higher number of switching operations in
order to guarantee their suitability to the
application.
Testing Isc of the supply Testing
duty circuit as a function current
of circuit breaker’s (% of rated
breaking capacity Icapa)
(Isc / Breaking
capacity) x100
1 < 10 20 to 40
2 < 10 > 100
3 100 20 to 40
4 100 >100
Fig. 14 : testing specified by IEC 60056 for capacitive
currents.
c an extinction phase,
c a recovery phase.
Short-circuit currents
c The various fault types
(see Cahier Technique no. 158)
Among the various types of faults (three-phase,
two phase, single phase and earthing), the most
frequent fault is the single phase earthing fault
(80% of short-circuits). It is generally caused by
phase-earth insulation faults following over-
voltages of atmospheric origin, due to broken or
faulty insulation or due to civil engineering works.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.13
 Three-phase short-circuits are rare (5% of the c Shape of the short-circuit current plot
cases) but serve as a test reference since the The intensity of the current corresponding to the
short-circuit current and the TRV are higher than transient period during a short-circuit is the sum
in single phase or two phase faults. of two components, one symmetric or periodical
Calculation of the fault current requires (ia) and the other asymmetric or continuous (ic)
information on the network’s characteristics and (see fig. 16 ).
the neutral arrangement (insulated, directly
earthed or impedant neutral). Methods of
calculating have been developed and
X1 X2
standardized (IEC 60909). Currently, calculation
through computer simulation is fairly wide-spread,
and all Schneider departments have developed
software which they have at their disposal
e1 Iscfeeders e2
enabling them to obtain very reliable results.
c Fault location
v Faults on the circuit breaker’s downstream
terminals X1 Isccoupling X2
It is under these conditions that short-circuit
current is greatest since it is only limited by the
impedances situated upstream of the device.
Even though this type of fault is quite rare, it is e1 e2
the one that is chosen for MV circuit breaker
specifications.
v Line faults
with e1 = e2 = e and X1 = X2 = X
This type of fault is more common than the
e e 2e
previous type in overhead networks, but in MV, Iscfeeder = + =
circuit breaker arcing characteristics and circuit X X X
breaker/ cable / line connections mean that the 2e e
Isccoupling = =
stresses generated are less than those caused 2X X
by a short-circuit across the terminals. There are Fig. 15 : breaking under out-of-phase conditions
therefore no specific tests for MV circuit breakers. during the coupling of two generators which are out
In HV, this type of short-circuit requires specific of synchronization.
tests for near-by faults since wave reflection
phenomena cause extremely damaging TRVs.
v Phase opposition type coupling (see fig. 15 ) i
This is a special short-circuit scenario occurring
when two unsynchronized generators are
coupled.
When the two generators are out of
synchronization, the voltage across the terminals
of the coupling circuit breaker is equal to the sum
of the voltages of each generator. The current ia
which the circuit breaker must break can reach
half the value of the current corresponding to a ic
short-circuit at the point of coupling. The t
maximum is then attained during phase
opposition type coupling.
IEC standard 60056 (§4.106) in this case requires
that the device must be capable of breaking 25% Fig. 16 : during a short-circuit the current is the sum of
of the fault current across the terminals at a the two components, one symmetric or periodical (ia)
voltage of 2.5 times the voltage to earth, and the other asymmetric or continuous (ic).
covering the values encountered in practice.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.14

The symmetric component (ia) is created by the
alternating source which supplies the short-
circuit current.
The continuous component (ic) is created by the
electromagnetic energy stored in the inductance
at the time of the short-circuit. Its value at the
moment of the fault is opposite and equal to that
of the symmetric component to ensure the
continuity of current. It decreases with a time
constant L/R, characteristic of the network, for
which the standardized value is 45 ms, resulting
in the following equation:
ia = I sin(ωt + θ)
ic = - I sinθ e(-t/(L/R))
I = maximum intensity = E/Zcc
θ = electrical angle which characterizes the time
between the initial moment of the fault and the
beginning of the current wave.
Two extreme cases:
v The short-circuit occurs at the moment at
which voltage (e) passes to 0. The symmetric
component and the continuous component are at
their maximum value. This state is called fully
asymmetrical.
v The initial moment of the short-circuit coincides
with the 0 point of the current’s alternating
component: the continuous component is zero
and this state is called symmetrical.
Breaking capacity
Short-circuit breaking capacity is defined as the
highest current that a device can break under its
rated voltage in a circuit in which the TRV meets
a specific specification.
1 A
3 B
Ur N 1.5 Ur / e
2 C
Fig. 17 : voltage UAA’ withstood by the first pole which opens in a three phase device.
The device must be capable of breaking all
short-circuit currents with a periodic component
less than its breaking capacity and a certain
percentage of the aperiodic components that do
not exceed the defined value.
According to the type of device, some fault
currents less than the breaking capacity can
prove difficult to break. They cause long arcing
times with risks of non-breaking.
c Three phase breaking
Due to the phase shift of three phase currents,
breaking occurs in the following manner:
v The circuit breaker breaks the current in the
first phase (phase 1 in figure 17 ) in which the
current passes to zero.
The arrangement becomes two-phased and
everything occurs as if point N is shifted to N’.
The voltage established in the first phase, across
the terminals of the open AA’ contact, is that
already existing between A and N’, it therefore
equals:
UAA’ = kV = kUr / e
k is the factor of the first pole. Its value varies
from 1 to 1.5 depending on whether the neutral
is directly earthed or perfectly insulated.
v 1/2 a period later each of the other two phases
pass to zero, the circuit breaker breaks and the
network becomes stable again in relation to the
neutral point.
The TRV therefore depends on the neutral
arrangement. The standard specifies the chosen
values for the tests taking a value of 1.5 for MV
in insulated neutral type networks and a value of
1.3 for other cases.
A'
1 A
B' Ur / e
N
3
C'
2 N'
A', B, B', C, C'
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.15
 c Closing of a circuit breaker under a fault standardized exponential decay is 45 ms.
current Other greater values are currently under
Since faults are often spurious, it is common research in certain particular cases.
practice under normal operation to reclose the Short-circuit breaking tests are carried out at
circuit breaker after interrupting a fault current. defined TRV values, for current values of 10, 30,
However some faults are permanent and the 60 and 100% breaking capacity according to the
circuit breaker must be able to restore the short- table in figure 18 .
circuit current. The rated switching operation sequence is
Closure accompanied by pre-striking causes a defined as follows, apart from in special
high gradient voltage wave in which the current’s circumstances:
peak can reach 2.5 Isc, supposing complete v for devices without quick automatic reclosing:
asymmetry, a time constant of 45 ms at 50 Hz O - 3 mn - CO - 3 mn - CO
and no phase shift between the poles. A closing
or
capacity is therefore required for circuit breakers.
CO - 15 s - CO,
c Standardized breaking capacity
v for devices intended for quick automatic
Circuit breaker compliance with standards reclosing:
notably shows their ability to break all currents O – 0.3 s - CO - 3 mn - CO.
up to the rated breaking current, including the
so-called critical currents. with:
IEC Standard 60056 (4.104) requires a series of O = opening operation,
tests enabling the validation of the device’s CO = closing operation immediately followed by
breaking capacity and the verification of its an opening operation.
capability in terms of repeated opening and
closing switching operations.
The rated breaking capacity is characterized by Testing % de Ia % de Ic
two values. duty (symmetric (asymmetric
v The rms. value of the periodic component, component) component)
generally called breaking capacity 1 10 < 20
The standardized values of the rated breaking 2 30 < 20
capacity are taken from the Renard series (6.3, 8,
3 60 < 20
10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100 kA),
knowing that in practice short-circuit currents 4 100 < 20
have values between 12.5 kA and 50 kA in MV. 5* 100 according to the
v The asymmetric component percentage standardized
decay curve
This corresponds to the value attained at the end
of a period τ equal to the minimal duration of *: for circuit breakers with a time τ less than 80 ms.
circuit breaker opening, to which is added a half- Fig. 18 : defined values of TRV for short circuit
period of the rated frequency for devices with breaking testing of circuit breakers.
auxiliary sources. The time constant for

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.16

3 Breaking techniques

In order to break load or fault currents, mediums: air, oil, vacuum and SF6. While
manufacturers have developed and perfected breaking in air or oil is tending to disappear, the
breaking devices, and in particular circuit same cannot be said for breaking under vacuum
breakers and contactors, using various breaking or in SF6, the “champion” of medium voltage.

3.1 Breaking medium

The preceding chapter described how successful
breaking occurs when:
c the power dissipated in arcing through the
Joule effect remains less than cooling capacity of
the device,
c the de-ionization rate of the medium is high,
c and the inter-contact space has sufficient
dielectric strength.
The choice of breaking medium is therefore an
important consideration in designing a device. In
fact this medium must:
c have high thermal conductivity, and especially
This insulating quality is measured by the
dielectric strength between the contacts which
depends on the gas pressure and the distance
between the electrodes. The Paschen curve
(see fig. 20 and 21 ), which gives the breakdown
voltage as a function of the inter-electrode
distance and the pressure, enables three zones
to be determined according to gas pressure.
Vs (V)
106

in the extinction phase to remove the arc’s

thermal energy,
105
c recover its dielectric properties as soon as
possible in order to avoid spurious re-striking
104
( figure 19 shows the special properties of SF6
in this regard), 103
c at high temperatures, it must be a good
electrical conductor to reduce arc resistance thus 102 pds
the energy to be dissipated, (bar.cm)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
c at low temperatures, it must be a good electrical 10 10 10 10 10 1 10
insulator to make it easier to restore the voltage. Fig. 20 : change in the dielectric strength of air as a
function of the pressure, in a slightly heterogeneous
field (Paschen curves).
θ (µs) Air
150 Voltage in kV
He
100 Ar 300
H2 SF6 at 5 bars
250
50 CO2 Oil (hydrogen)
Vacuum
200
ρ (bar)
0 5 10 15 150
θ (µs)
SF6 at 1 bar
100
0.50
0.25 SF6
50
ρ (bar)
Air at 1 bar
0 5 10 15 0
ρ pressure 0 10 20 30
θ deionization time constant Distance between electrode in mm
Fig. 19 : deionization time constants as a function of Fig. 21 : influence of inter-electrode gap on dielectric
the pressure of various gases. strength.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.17

 1- The high pressure zone called the
“atmospheric state” in which the dielectric
strength is proportional to the gas pressure and Voltage
(kV)
the inter-contact distance.
800
2- The low pressure zone in which dielectric
strength reaches a true minimum between 200
and 600 V depending on the gas used (Paschen 220
minimum). It is reached at a determined value of
the product of the pressure and the inter-contact
distance at around 10 2 mbar.cm.
3- The vacuum zone in which breakdown voltage
only depends on the inter-contact gap and 36
contact surface condition. Conductivity is
provided by the electrons and the atoms pulled 24
off of the contacts under vacuum and in a gas by
the quick ionization of the gas’ molecules. 12

These curves highlight the performances that are 3

possible as a function of the breaking medium:
air at atmospheric pressure or high pressure, Air Compressed Oil Vacuum SF6
air
hydrogen produced by the decomposition of oil,
vacuum or SF6. Figure 22 shows the voltage Fig. 22 : types of breaking devices used according to
ranges in which each of these techniques is voltage values.
currently used.

3.2 Breaking in air

Devices breaking in air at atmospheric pressure
were the first to be used (magnetic circuit
breakers).
Despite its relatively weak dielectric strength and
its high de-ionization time constant (10 ms), air
at atmospheric pressure can be used to break
voltages up to around 20 kV.
For this it is necessary to have sufficient cooling
capacity and a high arcing voltage after the
current passes to zero in order to avoid thermal
runaway.

The air breaking mechanism

The principle involves maintaining a short arc as
long as the intensity is high in order to limit the
dissipated energy, then lengthening it just as the
current nears zero.
This principle has led to the creation of a
breaking chamber for each pole of the device.
The breaking chamber, situated around the inter-
contact space is made up of a volume divided by
refractory panels (panels with a high specific
heat capacity) (see fig. 23 ) which the arc
stretches between.
In practice, when the current decreases, the arc,
which is subjected to electromagnetic forces,
penetrates between these panels. It lengthens
and cools on contact with the refractory material
Fig. 23 : lengthening of an electrical arc between
ceramic refractory panels in a breaking chamber of an
air breaking circuit breaker (Solénarc type Circuit
Breaker - Merlin Gerin Brand).
until its arcing voltage becomes greater than that
of the network. The arcing resistance therefore
greatly increases. The energy which is provided
by the network then remains less than the
cooling capacity and breaking takes place.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.18

 Due to the high deionization time constant for
this technology, the arcing energy to be
dissipated remains high. However, the risk of
overvoltage at breaking is virtually non-existent
(see fig. 24 ).
Main characteristics of an air breaking device
The dimensions of the breaking chamber are
mainly defined by the network short-circuit power
(in MVA).
Ideal Air breaking
i,u i,u
i r
r 800 kV).
i
0 0
u
R R
u since breaking in air has several disadvantages:
E E
t t
0 0
Fig. 24 : behavior comparison between an ideal device
and an air breaking device.
3.3 Breaking in oil
Oil, which was already used as an insulator, has
been used since the beginning of the century as
a breaking medium because it enables relatively
simple and economic devices to be designed. Oil
circuit breakers are mainly used for voltages
from 5 to 150 kV.
The principle
The hydrogen obtained by the cracking of the oil
molecules serves as the extinction medium. It is
a good extinguishing agent due to its thermal
properties and its deionization time constant
which is better than air, especially at high
pressures.
The contacts are immersed in a dielectric oil. On
separation, the arc causes the oil to break down
releasing hydrogen (≈70%), ethylene (≈20%)
In Solenarc type devices, the extreme length of
the arc (several meters at 24 kV) is achieved in a
reasonable volume thanks to the development of
the arc in the form of a solenoid. Taking into
account the required rate of opening of the
contacts, (i.e. a few m/s), the operating energy is
of the order of a few hundreds of Joules.
Fields of application for breaking in air
This type of device was commonly used in all
applications but it remains limited to use with
voltages of less than 24 kV. For higher voltages,
compressed air is used to improve dielectric
strength, cooling and deionization rate. The arc
is therefore cooled by high pressure puffer
systems (between 20 and 40 bars). This
technique has been used for high performance
circuit breakers or for higher voltages (up to
The air breaking technique at atmospheric
pressure is universally used in LV due to its
simplicity, its endurance, its absence of
overvoltage and the limiting effect obtained by
the lengthening of the relatively high voltage arc.
In MV other techniques have taken its place
c size of device (greater dimensions due to
length of arc),
c breaking capacity influenced by the presence
of metal partitions of the cubicle containing the
device and air humidity,
c cost and noise.
MV circuit breakers using air breaking are
practically no longer manufactured today.
methane (≈10%) and free carbon. An arcing
energy of 100 kJ produces approximately
10 liters of gas. This gas forms a bubble which,
because of the inertia of the oil’s mass, is
subjected during breaking to a dynamic pressure
which can reach 50 to 100 bars. When the
current passes to 0, the gas expands and blows
on the arc which is extinguished.
The various types of oil breaking
technologies
c High volume oil circuit breakers
In the first devices using oil, the arc developed
freely between the contacts creating unconfined
gas bubbles. In order to avoid re-striking
between phases or the terminals and earth,
these bubbles must not in any case reach the
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.19
 tank or join together (see fig. 25 ). These
devices can consequently be extremely large.
In addition to their cumbersome size, these
devices have numerous disadvantages such as
the lack of safety due to the hydrogen produced
which accumulates under the lid and the high
level of maintenance necessary to monitor the
purity of the oil and maintain its dielectric
properties.
To eliminate these disadvantages (hazards,
large devices), manufacturers have developed
low oil volume circuit breakers.
c Low oil volume circuit breakers
The arc and the bubble are confined in an
insulating breaking chamber. The gas pressure
increases as the arc passes through a
Fig. 25 : cross sectional diagram of high oil volume
circuit breakers.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.20
successive set of chambers, then it expands
through a duct in the arcing zone when the
current passes to 0. The latter is therefore
energetically swept, thus restoring the inter-
contact dielectric properties.
v Impact of the current value on breaking
capacity
For large currents, the quantity of hydrogen
produced and the corresponding pressure
increases are very high. In consequence the
minimum arcing times are short.
On the other hand, for small currents the
pressure increases are slight and the arcing time
is long. This arcing time increases up to a critical
level where it becomes difficult to accomplish
breaking. Complementary puffer mechanisms at
the end of the sequence can improve this point.
v Main characteristics of low oil volume circuit
breakers
Short-circuit current or rated current values
require the mobile contact to have a minimal
diameter. The length of the breaking chamber
and the travel of the mobile components are
practically proportional to the applied voltage.
To avoid excessive pressure, the minimum
arcing time to break a high current must be less
than 10 ms and it must remain less than 40 ms
for critical currents.
The insulating enclosure of the breaking
chamber must also be designed to withstand the
much higher pressure caused by consecutive
faults, since the reduction of pressure requires
approximately one second.
However, despite the reduction in the volume of
oil, this technique still has certain drawbacks:
- Oil breakdown is not reversible.
- Oil breakdown and contact wear deteriorate
dielectric strength thus causing supplementary
maintenance costs.
- In the case of quick reclosing the pole remains
at a high pressure and its breaking capacity is
reduced.
- The risk of explosion and fire is not completely
eliminated.
Fields of application for breaking in oil
This breaking technique has been widely used in
electrical energy transmission and distribution. It
is progressively being replaced by vacuum and
SF6 breaking techniques which do not have any
of the disadvantages detailed in the preceding
paragraphs.
3.4 Breaking under vacuum
The dielectric properties of vacuum have been
known for a long time and have been used e.g.
in vacuum bulbs and x-ray tubes. The use of
vacuum in switchgear had been considered as
early as 1920, but it was never applied at an
industrial level until 1960 because of
technological contingencies. Since the 1970s,
the vacuum technique has been increasingly
used due to the advantages that it offers:
reduced dimensions, improved safety and
greater endurance.
Dielectric properties of vacuum
In theory the vacuum is an ideal dielectric
medium: there is no substance therefore there is
no electrical conduction. However, the vacuum is
never perfect and in any case has a dielectric
strength limit.
In spite of this, a true “vacuum” offers
outstanding performance levels: at 10-6 bar
pressure, dielectric strength in a uniform field
can reach a peak value of 200 kV for an inter-
electrode distance of 12 mm.
The mechanism at the origin of dielectric
breaking under vacuum is linked to cold
electronic emission phenomena, without any
ionization snowballing effect. This is why the
dielectric strength is almost independent of
pressure as soon as the latter is less than
10-6 bar. It then depends on the nature of the
materials, electrode shape (in particular the
presence of poinys or asperities) and inter-
electrode distance. The shape of the curve of the
breakdown voltage as a function of the inter-
contact distance (see fig. 21) shows why the
applicational scope of vacuum technology
remains limited in terms of voltage. In fact the
required distances for dielectric strength
increase quite quickly as soon as the voltage
exceeds 30 to 50 kV which leads to prohibitive
costs in relation to other technologies. In addition,
more x-rays would be emitted at higher voltages.
The vacuum breaking mechanism
Breaking under vacuum is fairly unique due to
the specific characteristics of the arc under
vacuum.
c Electrical arcing under vacuum
The arcing column is made up of metal vapor and
electrons coming from the electrodes as opposed
to the other breaking techniques previously
discussed where this column is mainly made up
of inter-contact gas ionized by collisions.
It can occur in two ways, diffused arcing or
concentrated arcing, depending on the current
intensity that is present.
v For high current values (u 10,000 A) the arc is
concentrated and single, as in traditional fluids
(see fig. 26a ). Cathodic and anodic spots of
several mm2 are raised to extremely high
temperatures. A fine layer of contact material is
vaporized and the arc develops in a metal vapor
atmosphere which occupies all of the space.
When the current decreases, these vapors
condense on the electrodes themselves or on
the metal screen placed for this purpose. In this
arrangement, arcing voltage can reach 200 V.
v For current values less than a few thousand
amperes, this arc becomes a diffuse shape. It is
made up of several arcs separated from one
another and conical in shape with the peak at the
cathode (see fig. 26b ). The cathodic roots of the
arcs, called spots, have a very small surface
area (10-5 cm2) and current density is very high
there (105 to 107 A/cm2). The extremely high
local temperature (3,000 K) leads to very intense
combined thermo-electronic / field effect
emission, though the evaporation of contact
material remains limited. The current is therefore
basically caused by the flux of electrons.
The positive metal ions produced at the cathode
have sufficient kinetic energy (between 30 and
50 eV) that they fill all of the space up to the
anode. Thus they neutralize the inter-contact
space charges, resulting in a low potential
gradient and low arc voltage (80 V maximum).
a b
Anode
Cathode
Fig. 26 : concentrated arcing [a] and diffused arcing [b].
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.21
 c Passing to 0 current c Choice of magnetic field
In a diffuse arcing arrangement, either obtained Two types of magnetic fields are used: radial or
instantly or long enough after a single axial.
concentrated arc so that the metal vapor has had v Radial magnetic field technology (see fig. 27 )
time to condense, breaking occurs easily at zero
The field is created by the current circulating in
current.
the electrodes designed for this purpose. In the
In fact, when the current nears zero, the number
case of concentrated arcing, the roots of the arc
of spots decreases until the last one which
move in a circular motion, the heat is uniformly
disappears when the energy provided by the arc
distributed limiting erosion and metal vapor
is no longer sufficient to maintain a high enough
density. When the arc is diffused, the spots
temperature at the foot of the arc. The abrupt
move freely on the surface of the cathode as if it
extinction of the last spot is the reason behind
were a solid disk.
the chopping phenomena frequently
encountered with this type of technology. It The fairly complex dielectrode shapes used with
should be noted that at voltage reversal, the this technology make dielectric strength between
anode becomes a cathode, but since it is cold it electrodes more difficult.
cannot emit electrons. This thus corresponds to
an excessively small deionization time constant.
Vacuum devices can in consequence break
currents with extremely high TRV gradients as
well as high frequency currents.
For high currents, an arc plasma may remain at
0 current and breaking becomes uncertain. It is
therefore essentially the density of the residual
metal vapor which determines the breaking I
capacity.
c Re-ignition and re-striking phenomena
These occur when the contacts release too →
much metal vapor. We consider that if vapor F
density after zero current exceeds 1022/m3 the
probability of breaking is almost non-existent.
→
Generally speaking, these phenomena are B
almost impossible to reproduce and difficult to
model. Numerous tests are then required to
validate the designs. In particular, dielectric
failures can be observed late after breaking,
eventually becoming spurious, linked to the
presence of metal particles or condensation
I
products.

The various types of vacuum breaking

technology
All manufacturers have been confronted with the
same requirements:
v reducing current chopping phenomena to avoid
overvoltage problems,
v avoiding early erosion of the contacts to
maintain greater endurance,
v delaying the appearance of the concentrated
arc state to increase the breaking capacity,
v limiting the production of metal vapor to avoid
re-striking,
v maintaining the vacuum, essential to retaining
breaking properties, throughout the device’s life.
They have developed mainly in two ways: arc
control by magnetic field and contact material
composition.
Fig. 27 : contacts creating a radial magnetic field. The
arc obeys electromagnetic laws, therefore it moves
from the center to the outside of the “petals”.
v Axial magnetic field technology (see fig. 28 )
The application of an axial magnetic field
requires the ions to take a circular trajectory
which stabilizes the diffuse arc and delays the
appearance of the concentrated state. The
appearance of the cathodic spot is avoided,
erosion is limited and this enables fairly high
breaking capacities to be reached.
This magnetic field can be generated by internal
or external bulb windings in which the current
flows permanently. Internally they must be
protected from the arc.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.22

 I
I Axial current
incomer

4 turn quarters

Contact plates
(the slits stop induced
currents flowing opposing the
current flowing through the turns)

4 turn quarters
→ →
B B
Axial current
feeder
I I

Fig. 28 : contacts creating an axial magnetic field.

Externally this risk is eliminated, but in this case, v High metal vapor pressure enables arc
dimensions are larger and limits could arise due stabilization and limits current chopping
to the risk of the turns over-heating. phenomena (overvoltages).
The table in figure 29 compares both of these v In contrast, low metal vapor pressure is more
technologies. favorable to the interruption of high currents.
c Choice of materials Furthermore it is necessary for its resistance to
be low, for it to have a low tendency to weld and
In order to maintain the quality of the vacuum, it
good mechanical strength.
is essential that the materials used for the
contacts and the surfaces in contact with the Copper/chrome alloy contacts (50-80 % Cu,
vacuum be very pure and gas-free. 50-20 % Cr) are mainly used in circuit breakers
due to their corrosion resistance, their low
The materials that the contacts are made of is
equally important since the saturating vapor electrical resistance and their low vapor pressure.
pressure in the bulbs must not be too high nor Other materials such as copper/bismuth
too low: (98% Copper, 2% Bismuth) or more recently
Ag/W/C are used in high switching rate devices
(e.g. contactors) since they do not cause
chopping and have a low tendency to weld.
Concerning the other components in contact with
Radial Axial
the vacuum, ceramic materials used with the
field field
high temperature welding process are for the
Contact resistance/ + – moment the most suitable to maintain a high
temperature vacuum level (pressure usually less than
Arcing voltage – + 10-6 mbar).
Contact erosion – + c Chamber and breaking device design
Breaking capacity/ = = The key constraint is that of sealing the bulb
diameter under vacuum: e.g. mobile inserting parts must
be avoided.
Fig. 29 : table comparing radial field and axial field Particle sensitivity and the possibility of cold
technology. welding means that sliding contacts are not used
under vacuum. Consequently, the contacts are

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.23

 simply placed end to end and the operating
energy for such devices is therefore low (30 to
50 J). On the other hand, contact pressure must
be high in order to minimize contact resistance
and avoid separation of the contacts when a
short-circuit current passes. The required contact
pressure leads to high mechanical stresses.
Considering the small insulation distances under
vacuum and the simplicity of the mechanisms,
bulbs can be very compact. Their volume is a
function of the breaking capacity (bulb diameter)
however it is the dielectric strength of the
external enclosure which becomes important in
defining the device size.
This technology is now well mastered by major
manufacturers and the devices have a life-
expectancy greater than 20 years. It must be
noted that permanent monitoring of the vacuum
in operation is not possible since it requires a
suitable metering device and de-energizing of
the equipment. The predictive maintenance
required, for accidental leaks, in order to monitor
the reliability of the MV electrical switchboards is
therefore not appropriate with this technology.
Fields of application for vacuum breaking
This breaking technique currently enables
devices to be produced with great electrical
endurance, and greatly increased TRV
gradients.
This technique is most widely used in MV:
general purpose circuit breakers are now
available for various applications with all of the
usual breaking capacities (up to 63 kA). They are
used for protection and control of:
c overhead cables and lines,
c transformers,
c single bank capacitors,
c shunt motors and inductances.
They are particularly well suited for controlling
arcing furnaces (high electrical endurance) but
must be used with care for controlling parallel
connected multi-bank capacitors.
3.5 Breaking in SF6
Sulfur hexafluoride -SF6-, is a gas that is
appreciated for its many chemical and dielectric
qualities. The breaking technique using this gas
was first developed in the 1970s similarly to
vacuum-type breaking.
Properties of SF6
c Chemical properties
In its pure state SF6 is a non-polluting colorless,
odorless, uninflammable and non-toxic gas. It is
insoluble in water.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.24
This technology is also used for contactors which
require high endurance, but rarely for switches
for economic reasons.
In low voltage the use of this technique has
remained marginal for reasons of cost and the
absence of limiting power. Generally speaking, in
LV its use is limited to the range between 800
and 2,500 A rated current and for breaking
capacities less than 75 kA.
High voltage applications (U to 52 kV) remain for
the future.
Comments :
c When breaking capacitive current, post-
breaking dielectric strength under vacuum is
random, and leads to a high risk of re-striking.
Vacuum circuit breakers are therefore poorly
suited to protection of capacitive networks with
voltages greater than 12 kV or those containing
capacitor banks .
c For vacuum contact type switches: there is a
risk of welding the contacts after closing under
short-circuit conditions. This is the case in
certain circumstances e.g. fault locating or during
standards testing cycles.
In fact, welding occurs when the contacts are
closed under load. When consequently opening
under no load, the lack of arcing means that the
roughness, that remains from the breaking of the
weld, is not eliminated. This deterioration of
surface condition makes pre-arcing even easier
during successive closures and increases the
degree of the welding, with the risk of definitive
welding taking place.
The use of these switches therefore requires
certain precautions.
c For motor control: it is necessary to take
special precautions due to the fact that the circuit
breakers or contactors are breaking high
frequency currents (re-ignition phenomena)
which therefore cause overvoltages. Even
though there exist specific devices, it is
preferable to associate these circuit breakers
with ZnO type overvoltage protection devices.
It is chemically inert: all chemical bonds on the
molecule are saturated and it has a high
dissociation energy (+1,096 kJ/mol) as well as a
high evacuation capacity for the heat produced
by arcing (high enthalpy).
During the arcing phase, in which the temperature
can reach between 15,000 K and 20,000 K the
SF6 breaks down. This decomposition is virtually
reversible: when the current is reduced the
temperature is reduced and the ions and
electrons can reform to make the SF6 molecule.
A small number of by-products are obtained from
SF6 breakdown in the presence of impurities like
sulfur dioxide or carbon tetrafluoride. These by-
products remain confined in the bulb and are
easily absorbed by active compounds, such as
aluminium silicate, which are often placed in the
breaking environment.
IEC report 61634 on the use of SF6 in breaking
switchgear gives standard values which can be
encountered after several years of use. The
quantities produced remain low and are not
hazardous for people or the environment:
air (a few ppmv), CF4 (40 ppmv to 600 ppmv),
SOF2 and SO2F2 (in negligible quantities).
c Physical properties
v Thermal properties
The thermal conductivity of SF6 is equal to that
of air but research on SF6’s thermal conductivity
curve at high temperature reveals a peak at
SF6’s dissociation temperature (see fig. 30 ).
-1 -1 -2
Thermal conductivity (W cm K 10 )
4 (x 103K)
3.5
2.5
2 High electrical
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Temperature (K 10 )
Fig. 30 : SF6 thermal conductivity curve as a function
of temperature.
v Dielectric properties
SF6 has a very high dielectric gradient due to the
electronegative properties of fluorine (see fig. 21):
- The life span of the free electrons remains very
low and with the SF6 molecules they form heavy
ions with low mobility. The probability of
dielectric failure by a snowballing effect is
thereby delayed.
- This gives this medium an extremely low de-
ionization time constant of 0.25 ms (see fig. 19).
The SF6 breaking mechanism
c Electrical arcing in SF6
Thermal study of electrical arcing has enabled it
to be described as being formed by a dissociated
SF6 plasma, in a cylindrical shape, made up of a
very high temperature core surrounded by a colder
sheath of gas. The core and the sheath are
separated by a temperature difference related to
the dissociation temperature of the molecule.
Around 2,000°C this threshold remains unchanged
as the current intensity varies (see fig. 31 ).
During this arcing phase the sum total of the
current is carried by the core since the threshold
temperature at this stage is less than the
minimum ionization temperature and the external
sheath remains insulating.
The characteristic magnitudes of the arc depend
on the type of breaking used (self-compression,
rotary arc, self-expansion) and are given in the
paragraphs discussing each of these breaking
types.
Temperature
15
conductivity
5 Ionization level
14 Good electrical
3 insulation
Thermal
2 threshold
i < iarc < iarc
Very good arc
electrical insulation
Arc core
Fig. 31 : temperature distribution curve of an arc
contained in a cylindrical tube filled with SF6.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.25
 c Passing to 0 current
With the decrease in current, the temperature of
the core drops and therefore electrical
conductivity also begins to fall.
Approaching zero current, the thermal
exchanges between the sheath and the core
become very high. The former disappears
leading to the disappearance of conductivity with
a time constant that is extremely low (0.25 ms)
but not sufficient to break high frequency
currents (no re-ignition).
Various types of SF6 breaking technology
and their fields of application
In SF6 devices, the contacts are located within a
sealed enclosure filled with gas in which the
pressure varies according to voltage and design
parameters. These enclosures are generally
sealed for life since the leakage rate can be kept
to a very low level. Pressure and / or density
measurement systems can be installed which
enable permanent monitoring of gas pressure in
the enclosure.
Several types of SF6 device technology exist,
differing in terms of arc cooling methods and
each having varying characteristics and
applicational fields.
a
b
Fig. 32 : principles of self-compression [a], and rotary arc [b] breaking.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.26
c Self compression breaking
In this type of circuit breaker, the arc is blown out
by the release of a volume of SF6 compressed
by a piston action: when the device opens, a
cylinder attached to the mobile contact moves
and compresses a volume of SF6 (see fig. 32a ).
A puffer nozzle channels the gas in the arc axis
which is then ejected in the hollow contacts.
At high currents, the arc causes a blocking effect
which contributes to the accumulation of
compressed gas. When the current nears zero,
the arc is first of all cooled then extinguished due
to the injection of new SF6 molecules.
The average value of the arc’s voltage is
between 300 and 500 V.
This technology enables all currents up to the
breaking capacity to be broken without any
problems and without any critical current, since
the energy required to blow out the arc is
produced by the mechanical order which is
independent of the current to be broken.
v Characteristic values
The relative pressure of SF6 generally used varies
from 0.5 bar (16 kA, 24 kV) to 5 bars (52 kV),
which enables the achievement of sealed leak-
proof enclosures with guaranteed safety.
Mobile contact
Fixed contact
High pressure zones
Mechanical and thermal compression
Low pressure zone
Movement of the mobile contacts
Movement of the gases
Movement of the arc
The factors influencing the dimensions of the
breaking chamber are the following:
- The test voltage withstand of the input/output
which determines the insulation distance
between the open contacts. It can be constant
and of the order of 45 mm depending on the SF6
pressure used.
- The short-circuit current to be broken determines
the diameter of the nozzle and the contacts.
- The short-circuit power to be broken determines
the puffer piston dimensions (at 24 kV the
volume of gas blast is of the order of 1liter for a
breaking capacity of 40 kA).
The opening energy of 200 J (16 kA) to 500 J
(50 kA) remains relatively high despite the
compactness of the devices due to the energy
required for gas compression.
v Fields of application for self-compression
breaking
The principle of self-compression is the oldest of
them all and has been used for all types of
general purpose circuit breakers. It involves
relatively low overvoltages since there is little
chopping phenomena and there is no risk of
successive re-ignition.
Self-compression circuit-breakers are well suited
to capacitor bank operation since they have a
low re-strike probability as well as a high
endurance to closing currents.
However, the relatively high operating energy
leads to quite high stresses on the operating
mechanism and possibly to a limitation in terms
of the number of operations.
This technology is still widely used today
especially for high intensity devices and voltages
greater than 24 kV.
c Rotary arc breaking
In this technology, the arc cools through its own
movement through the SF6. The high speed
rotary movement of the arc (which can exceed
the speed of sound) is caused by the magnetic
field created by a winding through which the fault
current flows.
When the main contacts open, the current is
switched to the winding and the magnetic field
appears. The resulting Laplace force accelerates
the arc in a circular movement. The arc contacts
have the shape of circular tracks which can be
either concentric (radial arc and axial field) or
face to face as seen in figure 32b (axial arc and
radial field). The arc is thereby cooled in a
uniform manner in the SF6. The device’s cooling
capacity therefore depends directly on the value
of the short-circuit current which gives these
devices a gentle breaking capacity only requiring
low operating energy: the energy required on
breaking is completely supplied by the arc and
the low currents are broken without chopping or
overvoltages.
Because of the quick movement of the arc’s
roots, hot spots releasing metal vapors are
avoided and contact erosion is minimized in
particular in the case of axial geometry.
It must be noted that nearing zero current, the
magnetic field is reduced. It is important that it
keeps a non-zero value in such a way that the
arc is kept moving in the cold SF6 when the TRV
appears, thereby avoiding the appearance of
critical currents This is achieved by inserting
short-circuit rings which force the magnetic field
to be in slight phase displacement relative to the
current.
v Characteristic values
In MV, the arc rotating in SF6 has a voltage of
between 50 and 100 V for a length of 15 to
25 mm.
Due to the low breaking energy, the devices are
very compact even at a relatively low filling
pressure (of around 2.5 bar) and opening energy
is less than 100 J.
v Fields of application
Rotary arc breaking is well suited to operating
devices sensitive to overvoltages such as MV
motors and alternators. Its excellent endurance,
due to low contact wear and low control energy
make it of use in applications with a high number
of switching operations (contactor function).
The rotary arc technique used on its own only
enables a limited breaking capacity to be
achieved (25/30 kA at 17.5 kV) and only applies
to voltages less than 17.5 kV.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.27
 c Self expansion
Self-expansion breaking uses the thermal energy
dissipated by the arc to increase the pressure of
a small volume of SF6 which escapes through an
orifice crossed by the arc (see fig. 33a ). As long
as the current in the arc is high, it has a blocking
effect which prevents the outflow of gas through
the orifice. The temperature of the cold gas
blocked in the volume increases due to the
thermal dissipation of the arc (mainly by
radiation), therefore its pressure increases as
well. At zero current the plug disappears and the
SF6 expands and blows out the arc. The puffer
effect depends on the current value, which
enables low control energy and gentle breaking,
but with a risk of critical currents as well. These
are generally found at approximately 10% of the
breaking capacity.
v Two methods of arc guiding have been
developed, mechanical guiding and magnetic
guiding, which enable the stabilization of the arc
in the puffer zone as well as the elimination of
critical currents.
- Mechanical guiding (self-compression type)
(see fig. 33b )
The arc is maintained centered between the two
contacts by insulating walls confining the
gaseous flux in a manner similar to the nozzles
used in self-compression.
This technique is safe and simple but it
increases the energy required for control. In fact,
the presence of these mechanisms in the arc
a b
∆P
Insulating
walls
Fixed contact
Mobile contact
Movement of the mobile contact
Movement of the expanding gas
Fig. 33 : self-expansion, its principle [a] and the two methods of arc guiding, mechanical [b] and magnetic [c].
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.28
zone reduces the dielectric performance of the
SF6 during the restoring phase, which leads to
an increase in the inter-electrode gap and
contact displacement rates, and even the
pressure of the SF6.
- Magnetic guiding (rotary arc type)
(see fig. 33c )
An appropriately dimensioned magnetic field
enables the centering of the arc in the SF6
expansion zone while giving it a rapid rotational
movement similar to that with rotary arc
technology. This technology, which requires
expertise in design and simulation, offers the
advantage of avoiding having substances other
than SF6 in the arcing zone. Thermodynamic
efficiency is optimum and the SF6 keeps all of its
dielectric qualities. Therefore the insulation
distances can be reduced to their minimum and
the required control energy is low.
v Characteristic values
For low currents the puffer action is almost non-
existent and arc voltage generally does not
exceed 200 V.
The bulb filling pressure is close to atmospheric
pressure and thermal puffer volume is between
0.5 and 2 liters.
Control energy under 24 kV is less than 100 J.
All of these characteristics mean that the self-
breaking technique is the best performing
technology to date. The breaking capacities can
be very high while still having low pressure and
control energy, therefore giving great reliability.
c
Coil
Guiding
zone
 v Fields of application
This technology, developed for breaking fault
currents, is well suited for breaking capacitive
currents since it accepts overcurrents and
overvoltages. It is also suitable for breaking
slightly inductive currents.
Without any additional means thermal expansion
devices have limited breaking capacity and
operating voltages. The self-expansion
technique is often associated with rotary arc or
piston assisted self-compression. It is then used
in devices intended for MV and even in HV for all
applications.
The performance levels achieved by combining
thermal expansion and rotary arcing are such
that the technique is considered for use in circuit
breakers used in extremely demanding
applications, e.g. to protect power station
alternators (high asymmetry and TRV) or for
applications requiring great endurance.

3.6 Comparison of the various techniques

Currently in the LV sector, magnetic breaking in
air is, with the exception of a few rare cases, the %
only technique used. 100
In EHV, the SF6 breaking technique is practically
the only one used. 80
In MV applications, where all the technologies
can be used, SF6 breaking and vacuum breaking 60
have replaced breaking in air for reasons of cost
and space requirements (see fig. 34 ), and 40
breaking in oil for reasons of reliability, safety
and reduced maintenance (see fig. 35 ). 20
Vacuum or SF6 breaking techniques have similar
performance levels and their respective qualities 0
mean that one or other is better suited for certain 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
applications.
Air Oil Vacuum SF6
According to the country, one or other of these
technologies is primarily used mainly for Fig. 34 : development of the MV circuit breaker market
historical reasons or manufacturer’s choice. in Europe.

Oil Air SF6 / Vacuum

Safety Risk of explosion and fire if
increase in pressure
(multiple operations) causes
failure.
Size Fairly large device volume.
Maintenance Regular oil replacement
(irreversible oil breaking-down
during each break).
Sensitivity to The breaking environment can be changed by the environment Insensitive: sealed for life type
the environment itself (humidity, dust, etc.).
Quick cycle The long pressure reduction
breaking time requires de-rating of the
breaking capacity if there is
a risk of successive breaks.
Endurance Mediocre.
Significant external effects
(hot and ionized gas
emissions during breaking).
Installation requiring large
distances.
(unconfined breaking).
Replacement of arcing
contacts when possible.
Regular maintenance of
the control mechanism.
bulb.
The slow evacuation of hot
air requires the breaking
capacity to be de-rated.
Average.
No risk of explosion nor of
external effects.
Small.
Nothing for the breaking
components.
Minimal lubrification of the
control mechanisms.
Both SF6 and the vacuum
recover their dielectric
properties very quickly:
no need to de-rate the
breaking capacity.
Excellent.

Fig. 35 : comparison of performances of various breaking techniques.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.29

 The following table figure 36 summarizes the
respective features of each of these two
techniques.
v SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers are general
purpose circuit breakers and can be adapted to
all applications.
Technological progress in terms of vacuum bulb
production has enabled very reliable and
competitive devices to be obtained in the same
way as SF6 devices.
The vacuum breaking technique is easier to
implement at low voltages (voltage less than
7.2-12 kV). On the other hand, the SF6 breaking
technique enables higher breaking performances
to be more easily achieved (voltage or short-
circuit current).
v Vacuum technology is widely used in control
functions (contactor) (moderate voltage or current,
high endurance requirement) despite the
precautions to be taken concerning overvoltages.
On the other hand, it is almost non-existent in
switch functions for economic reasons; in
particular, the excellent dielectric strength of SF6
after breaking enables a single device to integrate
the functions of switching and isolation, which is
not possible under vacuum. Today, most major
manufacturers use both these breaking techniques
in their switchgear according to their requirements.

SF6 Vacuum
Applications Motors, All. Relatively suited to high breaking All. Relatively suited to low voltages
furnaces, performances (I and U). and very quick TRVs.
lines, etc.
Circuit All. Isolating functions are prohibited.
breakers,
contactors,
etc.
Characteristics Endurance Satisfactory for all current applications. Can be very high for certain special
applications.
Overvoltage No risk for low inductive currents. Overvoltage protection device
Very low probability of re-striking for recommended for motor and
capacitive currents. capacitor bank switching.
Isolation Very stable, enabling isolating functions.
between
contacts
Dimension Very compact at low voltages.
Functioning Loss of Up to 80% of performances
safety tightness maintained at Patm.
Possibility of continuous monitoring.
Maintenance Reduced for the control mechanism. Reduced for the control mechanism.
Possibility of permanent monitoring Occasional control of the vacuum
of gas pressure. possible.
Number of Very low (< 4/10,000), mainly due to Very low if the bulb production
failures the auxiliaries. procedure is well controlled.

Fig. 36 : compared features of SF6 and vacuum breaking techniques.

3.7 What possibilities for other techniques?

For several decades, engineers have been
seeking to develop circuit breakers without arcs
or mobile parts, notably by using electronic
components.
Thyristors enable breaking devices to be
produced in which the behavior can be near to
the ideal switch since they break the current
when it passes to zero; furthermore, their
endurance is exceptional under normal
conditions of operation. Unfortunately, apart from
their cost, static components have a few
disadvantages:
c high thermal dissipation,
c high sensitivity to overvoltages and
overcurrents,
c leakage current in a blocked state,
c limitation in reverse voltage.
These features make it necessary to combine
them with:
c radiators,
c overvoltage protection devices,
c ultra-quick fuses,
c switches or isolators,
c and of course electronic control systems.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.30

 Semi-conductors: thyristors, GTO, IGBT have
made enormous progress and are widely used in
LV in various applications, e.g. to produce
contactors every time the operating rate is very
high.
In HV, thyristors are placed in impedance
regulation control devices comprising self-reactors
and capacitors, in FACTS -Flexible Alternating
Current Transmission Systems-, whose role is to
optimize and stabilize the network and in Custom
Power for distribution networks.
4 Conclusion
Of all the MV breaking techniques only SF6 and
vacuum breaking offer significantly better
performance levels.
The choice between vacuum and SF6 depends
entirely on the applicational field and the
technological choices made by each country and
manufacturer: resulting in the differences in
geographic spread of the devices using SF6 or
vacuum breaking techniques.
Currently no other technique capable of
replacing vacuum or SF6 breaking is on the
horizon. These two techniques have numerous
advantages relative to the older techniques:
c Safety: no risk of explosion or fire and external
effects during breaking.
c Compactness: vacuum and SF6 are very good
insulators, thus the devices are not as big.
In MV, applications are very rare and static
circuit breakers remain in the prototype phase;
this is because, in addition to their weaknesses
listed above, it is necessary to use several
components in series to withstand the rated
voltage.
In conclusion, except for very specific
applications, static breaking currently does not
have a very bright future.
Electrical arc breaking currently remains the
unavoidable solution.
c Reliability: few moving parts and low control
energy which means high availability, reduced
maintenance and a very long life span.
c Placing these devices in enclosures and the
production of very compact ready-made
MV switchboards is another important advantage
since the breaking capacity is not affected by the
presence of metal partitions.
Due to current computing technology, which
enables modeling and simulation, switchgear is
constantly improving.
However, the most important gains in terms of
operational dependability of installations
(reliability, safety, maintainability) are related to
the widespread use of equipment that is in a
factory-made and tested enclosure, associated
with the integrated protection, monitoring and
control systems.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.31
Bibliography

Standards Various works

c IEC 60034: Rotating electrical machines.
c IEC 60056: High-voltage alternating-current
circuit-breakers.
c IEC 60909: Short-circuit current calculation in
three-phase AC systems.
c IEC 61233 report: High-voltage alternating
current circuit-breakers - Inductive load
switching.
c High Voltage Circuit Breakers-Design and
Applications-. RUBEN, D. GARZON.
c Disjoncteurs HAUTE TENSION : Comparaison
des différents mode de coupure.
B. JOYEUX-BOUILLON (GEC ALSTHOM) &
J.-P. ROBERT (Merlin-Gerin)
c Disjoncteurs SF6 : Evolution de 1959 à 1994.
D. DUFOURNET, (GEC ALSTHOM- T&D).

c IEC 61634 report: High-voltage switchgear and c Manœuvre des courants capacitifs - Etat de
controlgear - Use and handling of sulphur l’art -. ELECTR n°155, Août 1994.
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and controlgear. disjoncteurs de distribution. IREQ, Avril 1991.
c Guide technique du disjoncteur.
Schneider Electric’s Cahiers Techniques P. POLO & P. ATTIER, 1993.
c Analyse des réseaux triphasés en régime
perturbé à l’aide des composantes symétriques.
B. DE METZ-NOBLAT, Cahier Technique no. 18.
c The breaking process with a Fluarc SF6 puffer-
type circuit-breaker.
J. HENNEBERT, Cahier Technique no. 112.
c Calculation of short-circuit currents.
B. DE METZ-NOBLAT, G. THOMASSET,
R. CALVAS and A. DUCLUZAUX,
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c Control, monitoring and protection of HV motors.
J.-Y. BLANC, Cahier Technique no. 165.
c Breaking by auto-expansion.
G. BERNARD, Cahier Technique no. 171.
c SF6 properties, and use in MV and HV
switchgear.
D. KOCH, Cahier Technique no. 188.
c Manœuvre et protection des batteries de
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Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 193 / p.32

 © 1999 Schneider Electric

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