Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
DECivil
GESTEC
MASONRY
PATHOLOGY OF BRICK
1/105
TECHNICAL TEAM
DECivil
Coordination:
GESTEC • Prof. Fernando Branco (fbranco@civil.ist.utl.pt)
• Prof. Jorge de Brito (jb@civil.ist.utl.pt)
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Contents:
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
2/105
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
DECivil
1.1. The brick masonry construction
GESTEC 1.2. Field of application
1.3. Advantages
1.4. Limitations
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
3/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
4/105
1. INTRODUCTION
BRICK MASONRY
DECivil
GESTEC
Subchapters:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
5/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
construction
1.1 The brick masonry
1. INTRODUCTION
6/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The brick masonry construction
DECivil
Brick remained throughout the centuries one of the main construction
GESTEC materials. In the XX century, stone masonry walls were replaced by
brick walls, going from a single-leaf stone or brick wall until the recent
double-leaf walls incorporating various components (insulation, water
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Present walls are linked to more efficient, thinner and lighter structural systems than
in the past
7/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The brick masonry construction
DECivil
Masonry:
GESTEC
Assemblage of stones, bricks or other materials that, conveniently
laid and locked by superimposition using mortars, are used for the
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
“It is estimated for our country that masonry works, including their renders,
correspond to around 13% to 17% of the overall construction value.” - in Regulation
and Standardization of Masonry Construction - Studies Planning, from LNEC
8/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The brick masonry construction
DECivil Ceramic brick masonry is made of bricks (solid or hollow) and
GESTEC
their laying and/or coating mortars.
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Production in Portugal
9/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The brick masonry construction
Brick
uncoated
DECivil
Bricks shape:
GESTEC
NP 834 defines the acceptance criteria of ceramic
bricks in terms of their aspect, touch, mechanical
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
and durability.
Types of bricks
Bricks sizes
10/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
11/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
DECivil
GESTEC
Roman construction
13/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
DECivil
In the Middle Ages, around the XII century, the manufacture of
GESTEC
bricks restarted in Holland and in some areas of Germany, where
the stone and timber available for construction was scarce. From
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Construction in
Reggio Emilia (Italy)
14/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
Until the beginning of the XIX century, the brick manufacturing
DECivil
GESTEC
process was manual. In the middle of that century, with the
increase in populations and the beginning of the industrial
revolution, the brick with horizontal holes as an industrial product
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
15/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
DECivil
GESTEC
In the beginning of the XX century, the masonry load-bearing walls
were relegated to second place in favour of other construction
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
solutions.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
16/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
Buildings/monuments: Bullfighting arena, Lisbon
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
Chimneys:
Bridges:
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Field of application
18/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
1.3 Advantages
1. INTRODUCTION
19/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.3 Advantages
DECivil Brick masonry, as long as it is designed and executed according to
GESTEC
the adequate codes and construction rules, are capable of
performing an appropriate load-bearing and hygrothermal role,
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
20/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
1.4 Limitations
1. INTRODUCTION
21/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.4 Limitations
DECivil
• Greater execution complexity for double-
GESTEC leaf walls;
• Qualified workmanship required;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
DECivil
GESTEC
definitions
1.5 Types and
1. INTRODUCTION
23/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil a) Classification from a structural viewpoint:
GESTEC
bearing) masonry.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Filling or
structural
masonry?
24/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil Filling masonry:
GESTEC
Double-leaf wall
25/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil Structural masonry:
GESTEC
European countries.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
GNR station, in
Ourique
27/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil
GESTEC Structural masonry differs from current masonry, not only in the
design method and planning, but also in the construction methods
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
walls.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
29/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil Mixed walls
GESTEC
walls.
30/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil
Pombaline system (cage)
GESTEC • Masonry made of stone and solid ceramic brick, with a timber truss;
• Walls with an important role in the structures’ global interlocking, decisive
for the performance against horizontal loads;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
31/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
DECivil Classify the masonry used in external walls in Portugal from a
GESTEC
structural and composition viewpoint
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
32/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
Double-leaf filling masonry
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
joint
them according to the type of
the constituent materials and, Uncoated Single-leaf walls Double-leaf walls
units
complementarily, according to
the type of leaves and their
connections.
Cladding
Types of masonry walls wall
35/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.5 Types and definitions
In terms of the actions they can be subjected to and the structural
DECivil
GESTEC role they play, EC6 classifies the walls as:
• Load-bearing walls;
• Bracing or shoring walls;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Reinforced masonry-
cracking prevention
36/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
1.6 Chapter
conclusions
1. INTRODUCTION
37/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.6 Chapter conclusions
DECivil . Since human beings started building shelters clay was a material
GESTEC
often used. The use of bricks goes back to faraway times;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
38/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.6 Chapter conclusions
Conjugation of various classification types:
DECivil
SOLID BRICK MASONRY
GESTEC
LOAD-BEARING NON LOAD-BEARING
EXTERNAL/INTERIOR EXTERNAL/INTERIOR
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
NON LOAD-BEARING
EXTERNAL INTERIOR
DOUBLE-LEAF SINGLE-LEAF
WITH AIR CAVITY
WITHOUT INSULATION WITH INSULATION
39/105
1. INTRODUCTION
1.6 Chapter conclusions
DECivil
. The industrialization of construction, the short deadlines of
GESTEC construction and the growing size of buildings have definitely
relegated to a second plan the development of load-bearing
masonry (in the inverse proportion of the development of
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
reinforced concrete);
. The recent publication of Eurocode 6 and its future application,
will allow a new boom of the use of structural masonry;
. In Portugal, the present situation corresponds to filling double-leaf
walls, made with ceramic brick with many horizontal holes and
mechanically weak, very frequently using insulation in the air
cavity;
. There are several research studies developed within the
Portuguese universities related with the use of structural single-
leaf walls.
40/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
CHAPTER 2
ANOMALIES
DECivil
GESTEC
Subchapters:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical source)
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
2.4 Anomalies (biological source)
2.5 Chapter conclusions
42/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
2.1 Introduction
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
43/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
DECivil
The materials characteristics (design), the execution and the
GESTEC
maintenance actions are decisive factors for the good performance
of masonry during its service life, minimizing the occurrence of
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
anomalies.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
The main anomalies that occur in brick masonry are related with
cracking or water action related phenomena. It is stressed that
these two phenomena are not independent, and each of them may
cause or worsen the other.
44/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
Anomalies classification:
DECivil
GESTEC Anomalies with a Anomalies with a Anomalies with a
physical/mechanical chemical source biological source
source
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
45/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
DECivil
Actions that may cause anomalies:
GESTEC
• Excess weight;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
• Foundations settlement;
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
• Seismic actions;
• Temperature changes;
• Freeze/thaw cycles;
• Cryptoflorescence;
• Extreme temperatures;
• Water absorption;
• Pollution;
• UV rays.
The actions originate the causes that
lead to given consequences, the
anomalies (action - cause - effect).
46/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
Design and execution errors:
DECivil
GESTEC
The brick masonry performance is strongly influenced by the design
(detailing and materials characteristics) and execution (specialized
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
workmanship) quality.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Opening of grooves
47/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
DECivil Brick:
GESTEC
Brick is a porous material with great water absorption capacity.
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Open porosity
Water absorption by
cold immersion
Saturation coefficient
Water absorption by
capillarity (1 min)
- Rain;
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
- Ground humidity;
- Condensation;
- Leakages; Water
-… action
Cracking Disaggregation
49/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.1 Introduction
Natural ageing:
DECivil
GESTEC Lack of maintenance associated to the long age of the buildings
worsens most of the anomalous situations, contributing decisively to
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
the materials degradation state and very often to the very collapse
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
of the structure.
Various forms of manifestation:
• Water leakage;
• Materials detached from the walls;
• Areas where the masonry is exposed
(degradation of the external coatings
and/or finishes);
• Dispersed cracking in the walls;
• Degradation of the frames of the
external windows/doors;
• Corrosion of the metal elements.
50/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
2.2 Anomalies
(physical/mechanical source)
51/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil A) Cracking:
GESTEC
Detail 1
52/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
A) Cracking (cont.): source)
DECivil
GESTEC EXTERNAL CAUSES :
(external actions)
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
INTERNAL CAUSES :
(internal actions)
Cracking caused by
• Cryptoflorescence;
external causes • Freeze/thaw cycles;
• Thermal expansion;
• Oxidation of metal elements.
53/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
A) Cracking (cont.): source)
DECivil
GESTEC More frequent cracking in partition walls
In frame structures, CONTRACTION OF FLEXURAL DEFORMATION
THE WALL OF THE PAVEMENTS
Mostly in buildings with a
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
lower pavement
more deformable
and the consequent
deformation of the
structural elements may
impose high stresses to THERMAL
CHANGES
the masonry, mostly in the
windows lintels, upper pavement
more deformable
cantilevered sections and
other locations where
stresses concentrate.
FOUNDATIONS
SETTLEMENT
54/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil a) Cracking due to excessive
GESTEC
deformations of the support:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Main causes:
• Deflections of the reinforced concrete
elements, increasingly flexible with
slenderer cross-sections;
• Characteristics of the masonry (size of
the bricks, type of the joint,
characteristics of the laying mortar and
size of the spans).
55/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
Examples of cracking:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
56/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil a) Cracking due to excessive deformations of the support:
GESTEC
Examples of cracking: Upper pavement more
deformable than the lower one
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
58/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
b) Cracking due to differential settlements:
59/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
b) Cracking due to differential settlements(cont.):
GESTEC
Aspect of the
cracks
Due to the greater strength of the solid brick, the crack tends to propagate
through the mortar going round the brick (for low stresses).
61/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
62/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
c) Cracking due to loads application (cont.):
Main causes:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
• Vertical loads;
• Loads binary;
• Concentrated loads;
• Eccentric loads;
• Among others.
63/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC c) Cracking due to loads application (cont.):
Examples of cracks due to the application of loads on the masonry:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
64/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
d) Cracking due to insufficient support of the masonry:
GESTEC
Main causes:
• External correction of thermal bridges due to the concrete structure;
• Execution of big panels of uncoated brick.
Interior
It is recommended to
support the brick in at
least 2/3 of its width,
Exterior
Plan increase the thickness
of the external leaf and
clamp it to the interior
leaf.
Section
65/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
e) Cracking due to temperatures changes:
GESTEC
Main causes:
• Physical properties of the materials (different
thermal expansion coefficients);
• Extent of the temperature changes (amplitude
and speed of the thermal phenomenon);
• Type of structure (restriction degrees);
• Lack of expansion joints.
Wall
Wall Wall
67/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
B) Crushing:
Crushing is associated to situations of excessive compressive
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Main causes:
• Increase of concentrated
loads;
• Decrease of the wall’s
strength capacity.
Main causes:
• Insufficient characteristics of the foundations;
• Incapacity of the ground to withstand the loads.
Angular distortion
Main causes:
• Cracking evolution;
• Climatic actions (e.g. wind);
• Damping of the materials;
• Seismic actions.
71/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
E) Spalling:
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
Anomaly resulting from the
development of internal cracks in the
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Main causes:
• Temperature changes;
• Freeze/thaw cycles;
• Cryptoflorescence.
Spalling of bricks
72/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil F) Erosion:
GESTEC
73/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC 1 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
74/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
DECivil
GESTEC
2 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
75/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical
source)
Cracking
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Cracking Cryptoflorescence
Spalling
Application of loads
(loads binary)
77/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
source)
2.3 Anomalies (chemical
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
78/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
CONSTRUCTION WATER
79/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil a) Construction humidity:
GESTEC
Main causes:
• High water content used in the execution of the masonry;
• Water that reaches the materials during their execution (rain or
other random causes).
80/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC
b) Condensation humidity:
It results from the water vapour that is condensed on the exposed
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
hot and humid air from a location comes in contact with a cold
area (thermal bridge). This anomaly may be permanent or
temporary.
Main causes:
• Deficient thermal insulation;
• Low ambient temperature;
• Deficient ventilation.
Condensations
81/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC
c) Precipitation humidity:
External humidity (rainwater driven by wind) that infiltrates
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Critical areas:
• Brick joints;
• Low section of the walls; Protected
• Various crack types; area
• Connection masonry/structure;
• Connection masonry/windows.
Roof
protection
Exposed area
82/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC
d) Humidity due to random causes:
The humidity problems may be due to random causes, such as:
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Main causes:
• Rising damp, through the foundations
and/or walls, of the water in the
ground;
• Hydrostatic pressure in basement
walls, when the groundwater level is
higher than the element level.
84/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
4.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC
B) Efflorescence:
Crystalline deposit of water soluble salts (sulphates, sodium,
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
86/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil C) Swelling:
GESTEC
Superficial layer non adherent to the substrate; generally it precedes
the fall of the material. The word swelling is used in particular for
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
88/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil D) Stains:
GESTEC
Colour changes (variation of one or more parameters that define the
colour) in a circumscribed and contrasting area with the adjoining
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
ones.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Rust stains
89/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
F) Disintegration of the joints:
GESTEC
90/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC 1 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
91/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
DECivil
GESTEC
2 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
92/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)
Swelling Stains due to rising damp
DECivil
GESTEC
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Dirt deposition
94/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
source)
2.4 Anomalies (biological
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
95/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.4 Anomalies (biological source)
DECivil a) Vegetation growth:
GESTEC
Presence of biological manifestations such as mosses and
higher rank plants.
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Main causes:
• Biophysical processes - plants
and trees feed on nutrients
that masonry contains; their
roots cause mechanical attack.
96/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.4 Anomalies (biological source)
DECivil b) Moulds/fungi:
GESTEC
Development of biological microorganisms (algae, bacteria
and lichens), that develop fertile grounds for the development
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
of fungi.
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
98/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.4 Anomalies (biological source)
DECivil c) Other biological agents:
GESTEC
99/105
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
DECivil
GESTEC
2.5 Chapter
conclusions
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
100/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.5 Chapter conclusions
DECivil
. Most of the anomalies affect the visual aspect of masonry, its
GESTEC mechanical properties, the physical properties of materials and the
habitability conditions and the durability of buildings;
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
101/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.5 Chapter conclusions
DECivil
GESTEC
. The relationship between the anomalies and their sources is a
complex issue, due to the diversity of sources and inter-relation
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
102/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.5 Chapter conclusions
Summary of some anomalies and causes:
DECivil
GESTEC ANOMALY CAUSE
CRACKING DEFORMATIONS
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
EXTERNAL ACTIONS
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
INTERNAL ACTIONS
BULGING DEFORMATION
SETTLEMENTS
103/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.5 Chapter conclusions
Summary of some anomalies and causes (cont.):
DECivil
GESTEC ANOMALY CAUSE
HUMIDITY WATER
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
SUPERIOR
LATERAL
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
INFERIOR
EFFLORESCENCE SALTS
GROUND
MORTAR
WATER
STAINS
CARBONATES DEPOSITS
SILICATES DEPOSITS
HUMIDITY STAINS
MICROORGANISMS STAINS
RUST STAINS
POLLUTION STAINS
104/105
2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES
2.5 Chapter conclusions
P- design TM- solid brick
C- execution TV- hollow brick
Correlation causes/anomalies: U- use
DECivil MECHANICAL
ANOMALIES NON-MECHANICAL
GESTEC
EFFLORESCENCE
DISINTEGRATION
OF THE JOINTS
DETACHMENT
BUCKLING
CRUSHING
CRACKING
SWELLING
HUMIDITY
EROSION
LOSS OF
COLOUR
STAINS
SOURCE
Construction Pathology and Rehabilitation
CAUSES
Integrated Master in Civil Engineering
Deformation of the
structure
Action of loads
Settlement
(foundations)
Water
rain + wind
Water
vapours
Water
ground
Freeze/thaw cycles
Thermal expansion
Oxidation
Soluble salts
UV rays
Pollution, etc.
Acids
105/105