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ABSTRACT. Peterson, M.D., M.R. Rhea, and B.A. Alvar. Appli- depth, as subspecialties within these professions emerge.
cations of the dose-response for muscular strength development: Unfortunately, this progression is not controlled, because
A review of meta-analytic efficacy and reliability for designing our field and the public fails to hold fitness professionals
training prescription. J. Strength Cond. Res. 19(4):950–958.
to rigorous standards of knowledge, practice, and/or qual-
2005.—There has been a proliferation in recent scholarly dis-
cussion regarding the scientific validity of single vs. multiple ification. The ensuing spread of tangential information
sets of resistance training (dose) to optimize muscular strength leads to confusion and discrepancy of fundamental prin-
development (response). Recent meta-analytical research indi- ciples, as well as innovative scientific findings. Equipping
cates that there exist distinct muscular adaptations, and dose- students of the exercise sciences with the appropriate
response relationships, that correspond to certain populations. tools to convey sound exercise prescription and applica-
It seems that training status influences the requisite doses as tion in the professional setting is the foremost imperative
well as the potential magnitude of response. Specifically, for in- step. However, by promoting the distribution of research
dividuals seeking to experience muscular strength development findings to the general exercising public, we can begin to
beyond that of general health, an increase in resistance-training
control the integrity and uniformity of this available in-
dosage must accompany increases in training experience. The
purpose of this document is to analyze and apply the findings of formation, and facilitate its propagation.
2 meta-analytical investigations that identified dose-response Moreover, the other end of the applied-fitness spec-
relationships for 3 populations: previously untrained, recreation- trum, which comprises the leaders of sport performance
ally trained, and athlete; and thereby reveal distinct, quantified, enhancement, is highly specialized, but is also devoid of
dose-response trends for each population segment. Two meta- thorough standardization. The conventional expectation
analytical investigations, consisting of 177 studies and 1,803 ef- that professional and elite sport will continue to steadily
fect sizes (ES) were examined to extract the dose-response con- progress in grandeur encourages the ongoing conception
tinuums for intensity, frequency, volume of training, and the and refinement of training technologies and methodolo-
resultant strength increases, specific to each population. ES
data demonstrate unique dose-response relationships per popu-
gies. This has forced performance-enhancement special-
lation. For untrained individuals, maximal strength gains are ists, coaches, and athletes to build on established training
elicited at a mean training intensity of 60% of 1 repetition max- principles, and distinguish auxiliary components, often
imum (1RM), 3 days per week, and with a mean training volume without the endorsement of scientific investigation. Con-
of 4 sets per muscle group. Recreationally trained nonathletes sequently, athletic performance enhancement has devel-
exhibit maximal strength gains with a mean training intensity oped into a volatile, yet especially vital institution and
of 80% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and a mean volume of 4 sets. determinant for today’s sport teams and individual ath-
For athlete populations, maximal strength gains are elicited at letes.
a mean training intensity of 85% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and
Ostensibly, a positive side effect of growth in these
with a mean training volume of 8 sets per muscle group. These
meta-analyses demonstrate that the effort-to-benefit ratio is dif- professions, and subsequent acknowledgment among the
ferent for untrained, recreationally trained, and athlete popu- public, is perpetual evolution of exercise-prescription
lations; thus, emphasizing the necessity of appropriate exercise methods and implementation strategies. The design of an
prescription to optimize training effect. Exercise professionals effective training program is a complex process, however,
may apply these dose-response trends to prescribe appropriate, involving the application and synergism of established
goal-oriented training programs. scientific principles, progressive research findings, vet-
KEY WORDS. progression model, resistance exercise, perfor- eran and modern practices, and professional knowledge
mance enhancement to accommodate individual situations, needs, and goals.
Whether the program is for a recreational exercise con-
sumer seeking improvements in muscular health and fit-
INTRODUCTION ness, or a professional athlete working for an advantage
urrent-day trends have cultivated a steady hi- on the field of play, ethics demand that sound exercise
950
APPLICATIONS OF THE DOSE-RESPONSE 951
purpose of this paper is to discuss the findings of several speculative to many experienced members of the sport-
recent syntheses of strength development research and to conditioning field (3). Furthermore, despite the more re-
discuss the practical applications of these findings. cent comprehensive position stand on progressive train-
ing to accommodate and facilitate higher levels of mus-
A DOSE-RESPONSE FOR MUSCULAR STRENGTH: cular fitness, the debate continues. In June, 2004, Car-
UNDERSTANDING THE DEBATE pinelli et al. released another narrative review, ‘‘A critical
analysis of the ACSM position stand on resistance train-
A topic of scientific and professional significance that ing: Insufficient evidence to support recommended train-
both the American College of Sports Medicine and Na- ing protocols’’ (6). The purpose of this subsequent ‘‘objec-
tional Strength and Conditioning Association have ac- tive’’ follow-up was to critically analyze the contents and
cepted is that of the dose-response for muscular strength supportive rationale behind the 2002 ACSM Progression
training and development (19–21). Historically, a quan- Model. En route to accomplishing this task, the investi-
tifiable relationship between the volume, intensity, and/ gators seemingly rebut each and every one of the defining
or frequency of training, and muscular strength improve- positions set forth by the ACSM. Specifically, regarding
ments, has been elusive and controversial. Although training prescriptions for muscular strength, the authors
much research has examined strength increases accom- claim a copious failure of the cited evidence to support (a)
panying training interventions, most have examined only ‘‘The superiority of free weights or machines for devel-
1 or 2 training programs, providing only glimpses of a oping muscular strength, hypertrophy, power, or endur-
dose-response relationship. Of the various prescription ance’’ (p. 5); (b) ‘‘The superiority of any specific repetition
components, volume of strength training has undoubtedly duration for developing muscular strength, hypertrophy,
received the most research attention (i.e., single vs. mul- power, or endurance’’ (p. 9); (c) ‘‘The claim in the Position
tiple sets). For many years, personal opinion and the ac- Stand that specific ranges of repetitions produce specific
counts of several unscientific literature reviews were the outcomes . . . ’’ (p. 11); (d) ‘‘. . . the superiority of multiple-
primary sources of evidence to support training philoso- set training, while strongly supporting the efficacy of sin-
phies. gle sets’’ (p. 18); (e) ‘‘The claim in the Position Stand that
Particularly, several narrative reviews (4, 9, 10) were the rest time between sets and exercise is dependent on
completed in the 1990s that examined the results of a the specific goals of a particular exercise, that shorter rest
small number of studies using single and multiple-set periods decrease the rate of strength gains, and that mul-
training programs. This type of review, which may be per- tiple-joint exercises require longer rest periods than sin-
ceived as more of an art than science, often relies heavily gle-joint exercises on machines’’ (p. 19); and (f) ‘‘that the
on personal decisions of the reviewer, and contains nu- planned manipulation of the program variables in ad-
merous areas in which bias may persuade the results. vanced trainees can eliminate natural training plateaus
Ultimately, such reviews have proven to be of little value and enable higher levels of muscular strength, hypertro-
in resolving debate or confusion (3, 5). Not in contrast, phy, power, and local muscular endurance’’ (p. 35).
some of the conclusions and assumptions from the nar- Throughout the article, there is a preponderance of
rative reviews regarding volume of training include: (a) the familiar biased dialog that often contaminates nar-
‘‘The opinion that multiple-set protocols are better than rative and critical reviews, confirming once again, the ob-
a single set of an exercise is not supported by the consen- vious downfall of this clumsy (7) style of research. Clear-
sus of scientific evidence’’ (4); (b) ‘‘Multiple set training ly, a more reliable, detailed, quantitative, and objective
has not been shown to provide additional benefits in the method for reviewing very large numbers of research
adult fitness setting’’ (9); and (c) ‘‘The research results studies is needed to shed brighter light on the dose-re-
show very convincingly that 1 set is generally as effective sponse for strength, as well as other fitness endeavors.
as 3 sets’’ (9).
These conclusions, which are in accordance with the META-ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION:
philosophies of many low-volume advocates, presume a QUANTIFYING THE DOSE-RESPONSE
universal relationship between volume of training and re-
sultant strength development, such that large initial im- A powerful investigative method that researchers in sport
provements in muscular strength are achieved from the conditioning rarely use, despite proven efficacy in other
first set of exercise, and very little, if any additional im- disciplines, is the meta-analysis. Nevertheless, this sta-
provements are acquired with successive sets. In essence, tistical review of the literature may potentially become a
this view suggests that the human body is not capable of principal tool to bridge the gap between the science and
hierarchical adaptation to greater stresses, beyond 1 set practice of exercise prescription. The meta-analysis has
of resistance training performed a few times per week. been used to synthesize treatment effects/effect size (ES)
Interestingly, in 2002, the American College of Sports data in many disciplines, including the medical, psycho-
Medicine issued a position stand which highlighted the logical, sociological, and other behavioral fields, to com-
topic of ‘‘Progression Models’’ for individuals seeking mus- bine the results of numerous similar studies, under sim-
cular development beyond that of general health and fit- ilar circumstances, and with similar participants, into 1
ness (14). This position stand was an obligatory re-rec- quantitative analysis. Furthermore, the meta-analysis al-
ommendation of guidelines for resistance-training pre- lows for an objective assessment of the magnitude of ef-
scription. In 1998, the ACSM originally issued the sug- fectiveness for a given treatment or intervention through
gestion (1) that a single set of 8–10 exercises would result established, meticulous statistical guidelines. This tech-
in similar strength improvements as following a training nique has served as a valuable research tool, facilitating
program of higher volume. the observance of dose-response trends, wherein a contin-
Even at that time, such conclusions drastically op- uum of variable doses elicits a continuum of quantified
posed training prescription practices, and seemed highly responses.
952 PETERSON, RHEA, AND ALVAR
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
A respective operational assignment is warranted in fur-
ther discussing the dose-response relationship for these
training variables. Most notably, the designations of
training intensity and volume tend to be consistently in-
congruent among professionals. Intensity of training re-
fers to the percentage of 1RM used for a given exercise.
Progressive muscular conditioning necessitates that
greater mean intensities of training are necessary to max-
imize development of strength. For further clarification,
the number of repetitions performed should not be con-
sidered a component of training volume, because inten-
FIGURE 4. Theoretical dose-response progression continuum.
sity should dictate repetitions, not vice versa. This oper-
ational definition for training intensity generates an ob-
jective, quantifiable unit, which is contrary to the more
theorized progression continuum by establishing the nec- subjective measure of training fatigue, often exploited in
essary mean doses to maximize strength development for low-volume programs (8). On a related note, deliberate,
various populations. To use this data, it is important that slow contraction speed (to accentuate fatigue) is contra-
the professional understand how to convert these findings indicated for maximal strength development because this
to practical entities. Just as an improper prescription of method incorporates absolute training intensities lower
medication may have undesirable effects in a medical set- than necessary for progressive strength adaptation (13).
ting, so too will the improper dosage of training result in Training frequency may be defined as the occurrence
failure of the strength-training program to elicit the de- per unit of time (e.g., calendar week) that a given major
sired muscular developmental effect. Clearly, knowledge muscle group, or prime mover, is trained. Generally,
of how much training is needed to elicit a desired or need- higher-volume training dictates the need to partition a
ed strength improvement would inevitably serve as a given training program into smaller, less indistinct pro-
valuable point of reference for program design. Most prac- grams to accommodate greater time requirements. Full-
titioners regard the processes of exercise prescription as body training, which is often prescribed 2 to 3 days per
a technical, although artistic, endeavor. Accordingly, week, may be reduced to 2 upper-body and 2 lower-body
skillful professionals may use the dose-response data to training sessions per week (4 total sessions). Subsequent-
construct the framework for exercise prescription that, ul- ly, an upper-body and lower-body split regimen may be
timately, may ensure the continued efficiency and effec- further reduced to target a single muscle or movement in
tiveness of a multi-dimensional program. a given training session, twice a week (5–6 total sessions
Although the meta-analyses have greatly reduced the per week for all musculature).
subjectivity of exercise prescription for muscular strength Volume of training refers to the number of sets per-
development, the equivocal task of establishing appropri- formed per muscle group, per workout. For example, 5
ate training doses among specific individuals still exists. sets of bench press and 4 sets of incline bench press is
An overprescribed protocol will, at minimum, negatively equivalent to 9 total sets of training to stimulate strength
affect the training-to-adaptation (effort-to-benefit) ratio. adaptation of the respective prime-mover musculature.
Unless adjusted, overprescription of the training vari- Certainly, all exercises are not created equal regarding
ables may eventually facilitate strength-gain plateaus or limb position, joint articulation, and/or recruitment of
even lead to muscular strength decrements, and cause synergistic/stabilization muscles. However, rather than
adverse side effects associated with overreaching and/or defining training volume as the total number of sets per
overtraining (11). The design of a program must incor- individual exercise, total number of sets per muscle group
porate a systematic method of testing/determining train- is a more appropriate measure of the absolute stress ap-
ing status and muscular development to ensure proper plied to a given primary-mover(s). Interestingly, it is ap-
progression and health. In effect, using the dose-response parent that with this designation, many supposed low-
data may actually demand more time, because careful volume training philosophies are actually higher-volume
scrutiny of training progression is constantly necessary. training practices.
On the contrary, under prescription of training may The inevitable confounding variable that may prevent
be appropriately regarded as training inefficiency. Thus, proper use of the dose-response data is feasibility. High-
underprescription becomes less detrimental, or even ir- er-volume workouts that are more strenuous take more
relevant, to most nonathlete populations, than it is for time, both as individual training sessions and collectively
high-level amateur and professional athletes bound by over time. Many efficiency strategies have been devised
the time constraints of a sport season or the preparation that enable more sets of exercise to be performed in a
phases of training. Program efficiency for sport condition- training routine, such as circuit training, complex train-
ing is, therefore, a measure of developmental effect per ing, super-setting, drop-setting, tri-setting, etc. Profes-
unit of time. Maximizing efficiency is imperative, because sionals are expected to understand these strategies and
numerous training objectives are set forth during an al- be able to implement them at the appropriate place and
lotted phase to facilitate safe, successful sport perfor- time. However, there is an unavoidable downfall to most
mance. The consummate professional must be cautious in of these strategies: a trade-off must take place with in-
their approach to maximize muscular strength-training tensity, accompanying higher training volumes and ulti-
efficiency, because the proper prescription is a highly in- mately, fatigue. As the dose-response data demonstrate,
dividualistic entity. the basic strength phase calls for a simultaneous increase
954 PETERSON, RHEA, AND ALVAR
in volume and intensity of training as additional moti- actually have any influence on the findings and conclu-
vational factors. To do this, specific alterations in the in- sions presented.
tensity and volume may be computed and, thus, the train- The following are several examples of uncalculated ob-
ing sessions (i.e., process) become part of the goals and servations. Ultimately, dissection of this critique from Dr.
ultimate strength development (i.e., product). Winnett (27) actually helps to demonstrate the soundness
with which the meta-analyses substantiate a dose-re-
Training-to-Failure sponse for strength training. The reviewers reported that
One of the most vehement arguments against the dose- the 2 meta-analyses proclaimed to have analyzed ‘‘all’’ ex-
response for strength training has come from high-inten- isting strength-training research articles, to date (Ref. 27,
sity advocates. Accordingly, as theory would suggest, a p. 12; Ref. 23, p. 56). First, there have been no such claims
high-intensity (i.e., single set or very low volume often made wherein ‘‘all’’ studies examining strength develop-
combined with deliberate, low movement velocity) pro- ment were secured; the only claim was to have conducted
gram can be just as effective as a multiple-set program if a search for studies including a strength-training inter-
sets are performed to the point of absolute muscular fail- vention. Indeed, many more studies have been conducted
ure (8). However, again, with simple extrapolation of on strength development than were included in the meta-
training-to-failure data from the meta-analyses, a small analyses. Securing every study ever conducted would be
sample of data and ES were analyzed (n 5 75 studies). unreasonable, because countless more exist. However, we
Each study had to include training-to-failure as a com- have continued to add studies to the database as we se-
ponent of the overall data set, and control for the mag- cure them, and have yet to observe any alteration in the
nitude of training frequency and intensity. dose-response trends presented in our published analyses
As can be seen in the Figure 7, training-to-failure does (19, 21). Based on the size of our current database (.250
not elicit greater gains than not training-to-failure. This studies), it would take literally thousands of ES, all show-
is true even when multiple sets of training-to-failure are ing drastically different strength outcomes than the stud-
compared with training sessions that are not training-to- ies included in the meta-analyses to have a significant
failure. impact on the proposed dose-response data. Such a situ-
ation is unlikely to exist.
The Meta-Analyses The analyses were also criticized for the inclusion of
multiple ES from a single study, suggesting again that
Lastly, it is necessary to briefly address the content of such methodological issues should result in rejection of
several recently published reports on the Internet (23, 27) the findings presented. This is an issue that has received
that have appraised the value of the meta-analyses. Cer- significant discussion and debate in meta-analytic
tainly, these critiques were reasonably predictable be- groups, and, for the most part, there has been an accep-
cause there is a long-standing discord between groups of tance of the inclusion of multiple ES from each individual
conflicting strength-training philosophies. Unfortunately, study, especially when large numbers of studies are in-
whereas dissimilar opinions and viewpoints should, and cluded in the analysis. If, for instance, a small number of
often can, foster development and refinement of the sci- studies were included, and 1 or 2 of those studies included
ences and practices within a field, from time to time, in- many ES, then those studies would have a greater impact
novative research inquiry is touted as undisciplined and/ on the findings of the analysis. However, our analyses
or ‘‘questionable’’ if findings are not in support of a par- included 37 (19), and 140 (21) studies, respectively, with
ticular individual’s or group’s agenda. Specifically, there very few studies only contributing a single ES. Most stud-
are several notorious, self-appointed experts who have ies reviewed included multiple, dissimilar measures of
made a name by aimlessly denigrating the work of others strength (i.e., squat, bench press, etc.). There is no reason
while supporting an obstinate bias, with critiques that to expect, based on the large number of studies included,
lack scrutiny, justification, and accuracy. that our findings were in any way biased by such meth-
The majority of the initial critique (27) focuses on ods. Further, once again the reviewer has provided no
methodological issues relating to the meta-analysis. evidence to otherwise support the claim that such meth-
Methodological debates have existed since the creation of odological issues render the findings worthless.
meta-analytic procedures, as have existed regarding Several additional criticisms were raised regarding
methodologies of narrative reviews and experimental re- our statistical analyses. Shockingly, there were consid-
search. Any suggestion that there is a single correct erable concerns regarding the findings for training vol-
method for conducting a meta-analysis is as imprudent ume. By performing a simple t-test of 2 sets vs. 4 sets,
as suggesting that there is only 1 correct method for con- the reviewer concluded that 4 sets do not elicit greater
ducting experimental research. In fact, the checklist strength gains because a nonsignificant p value was ob-
wherein a given meta-analysis is evaluated is highly var- tained. However, sole reliance on probability values to
iable and is dependant on whichever of the nearly 100 make statistical decisions has received a great deal of
resources that scrutinize the topic of meta-analytic pro- criticism among researchers recently, because numerous
cedure for the various social, behavioral, and health sci- potential errors arise, especially in low-power studies
ences is chosen. Any suggestion that the findings of the (25). One of the benefits of calculating, and combining ES,
analyses are of ‘‘little value’’ as a result of not including is the ability to examine the actual magnitude of the
some of the methodological steps that this particular re- treatment effect instead of relying solely on p values to
viewer presents and references is extremely shortsighted. examine differences between treatments. The use of the
Although we have, as conscientious investigators, ac- reviewer’s t-test (and nonsignificant p value) was the only
knowledged that each of our analyses has its respective source of evidence to support any of the claims made that
limitations, the critique in question provides no quanti- prompted the conclusion that the meta-analyses do not
tative evidence that the methodological criticisms would support the performance of multiple-set training. Inter-
APPLICATIONS OF THE DOSE-RESPONSE 957
estingly, this t-test was performed between 2 sets and 4 levels were equated, the dose-response trends may have
sets—both of which represent multiple-set programs. been different. However, as previously mentioned, we
When analysis of covariance is performed, with intensity have been consistently adding articles and ES calcula-
and frequency as covariates on the different volumes of tions to our databases, with no tangible alterations to
training, it is strongly demonstrated that multiple sets of date. Should there be a change, it would certainly be our
training are more effective at eliciting strength improve- duty—as ethical investigators—to present that informa-
ments than single-set training. Further, whereas 2-, 3-, tion. Further, and related to this issue, the review claims
and 4-set programs did not result in significantly differ- that we have neglected to present any physiological or
ent effects sizes (p . 0.05), it should be noted that, in a theoretical rationale to explain the data and conclusions.
number of the studies within the analyses, control groups Paradoxically, in every published paper, we have dis-
(no training at all) demonstrated improvements in cussed the concepts of overload and progression, two
strength (ES 5 0.30), which, based solely on probability physiological principles of training adaptation that sup-
values, were found to be similar to the amount of strength port, and are supported by, our analyses, whereas oppo-
improvement with 1 set of training (p . 0.05). Therefore, nents of these principles (i.e., single-set advocates) con-
if reliance on probability values is the only source of valid tinually fail to present a physiological rationale for the
information achieved by the research process (as sug- opinion that single-set training will elicit maximal
gested by opponents of the meta-analyses we have con- strength gains.
ducted), then those same p values reject the notion that Without doubt, the field of exercise and sport sciences
single-set resistance training is any better than no train- will continue to evolve only if there is constant critical
ing at all and do not result in the same degree of strength examination of the knowledge disciplines and methods
development as multiple-set programs. that govern the respective research. Nevertheless, if an
Finally, numerous blatant discrepancies between ac- impact is to be made on the rising number of profession-
tual facts from the published analyses and allegations als that administer exercise and sport-conditioning pre-
found in the critiques must be exposed. First, the meta- scriptions, and more importantly, the general consumer
analysis on muscular strength for competitive athletes who seeks education in pursuit of fitness aspirations,
(19) is not a ‘‘subset’’ of the previously published meta- there must be a shift in paradigm to acquiesce to ‘‘com-
analysis on untrained and trained populations (21), as mon goals’’ by means of ‘‘different roles.’’ Much of the clin-
was suggested (Ref. 27, p. 16). Between the 2 analyses, ical credibility lost during the early part of the last 40
less than 10 references contributed to both analyses, years, with the emergence of the first scientific-reminis-
whereas nearly 200 references in total—with a combined cent literature on strength training, has been regained.
1,800 ES—were used. A simple reference check could Relatively speaking, however, the science behind the
have pinpointed this fact and alleviated any related con- principles of strength training and disciplines of sport
fusion. Furthermore, inclusion criteria for the 2 meta- conditioning is still very much in an infancy stage. As a
analyses dictated a rigorous elimination process, whereby result, the professional frontlines of the field have, by ne-
more than 1,000 articles were searched for and coded by cessity, preceded the scientific community for quite some
the primary authors, during the course of almost 4 years. time. Hence, any all-encompassing blanket arguments
Each research article was expected to contain a controlled against the principles that are advocated by the National
strength-training intervention and include a detailed de- Strength and Conditioning Association and the American
scription of the following information for viable inclusion College of Sports Medicine, because of a ‘‘lack of empirical
in the meta-analyses: (a) number of participants (n); (b) support’’ (23), should be viewed merely as spiteful. More-
duration of training (i.e., number of weeks for the train- over, with the availability of today’s training technologies
ing intervention); (c) periodization (coded as: 1 5 tradi- and methodologies, a persistent reliance on age-old be-
tional linear periodization, 2 5 undulating periodization, liefs that ignore valuable and innovative empirical evi-
3 5 no variation-progressive resistance, and 4 5 nonper- dences, so as to oversimplify and over generalize
iodized); (d) mode (coded as 1 5 free weights, 2 5 ma- strength-training prescription, is clearly illogical.
chines, and 3 5 both); (e) volume of training (coded as
sets per muscle group per workout); (f) intensity of train- PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
ing (coded as percent of 1RM); (g) frequency of training A principal objective in sport conditioning includes max-
(coded as number of days trained per week per muscle imizing training effect per unit of time to allow multiple
group); (h) training-to-failure (coded as 1 5 yes, 2 5 no, goals to be met simultaneously. Current dose-response
and 3 5 not specified); (i) status (coded as 1 5 untrained: data establishes the point at which marginal strength is
less than 1 year of consistent strength training, 2 5 re- maximized for various inputs (i.e., volume, intensity, and
creationally trained: more than 1 year of consistent frequency). It should be a primary objective of all profes-
strength training or high school athlete, and 3 5 college, sionals to determine the point at which a given athlete,
professional, and/or elite athlete); (j) creatine use (coded or group of athletes, maximizes progress. The collabora-
as 1 5 yes, and 2 5 no); (k) sex (coded as 1 5 male, and tive results of the 2 meta-analyses demonstrate that de-
2 5 female); (l) age (coded for mean age); (m) preinter- velopment of muscular strength through resistive exer-
vention and postintervention strength measures (coded cise may be optimized through careful prescription and
as means and standard deviation descriptive statistics). manipulation of the training variables, such that distinct
Additionally, in contrast to the claim that we failed to dose-response relationships correspond to specific popu-
address the issue of differing numbers of ES among vary- lations. Furthermore, training status (i.e., training his-
ing training volumes and intensities, each of the papers tory and level of current muscular fitness) directly dic-
actually contained a clear cautionary statement. In fact, tates these optimal doses and influences the potential
we have pointed out several times throughout our anal- magnitudes of the responses. In particular, for healthy
yses that this limitation should be noted, and that, if all individuals seeking to experience muscular strength de-
958 PETERSON, RHEA, AND ALVAR
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sistance training on strength and aerobic capacity in sedentary
creases in training time and experience. These investi-
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