Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook: A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems

Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems

Ninth Edition

Mark J. Kaiser

Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States

E.W. McAllister

Houston, TX, United States

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

About the Authors

Preface

1. General Information

System Schematics

Cables and Ropes

How to designate and classify PE piping materials

2. Construction

Right of Way

Ditching and Trenching

How engineers make pipe fit the ditch

Welding

Cross-country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint

Directional Crossing

Polyethylene Piping

3. Pipe Design

Steel pipe design

How to identify the series number of flanged fittings

4. Electrical Design

Electrical design

Hazardous locations

NEMA enclosure types

Size portable electric generators

Typical wattages for tools and appliances

Knockout dimensions

National Electrical Code tables

Electrical formulas

Full-load currents–single-phase transformers

Conduit size for combinations of cables with different outside diameters

Minimum bending radius for insulated cables for permanent training during installation

Full-load currents–three-phase transformers

Motor controller sizes

Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit

Determine the most economical size for electric power conductors

How to find the resistance and weight of copper wires

What you should remember about electrical formulas

How to calculate microwave hops on level ground

Quick determination of hp per ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at different voltages

Chart of electric motor horsepower for pumping units

Pumping stations

Floodlighting calculations

Point-by-point method

Beam-lumen design method

Conductor size conversion chart—metric to AWG

Commonly used switchgear device numbers

Bonding the grounding system to building and structure foundations

5. Hydrostatic Testing

History of gas pipeline pressure test requirements

The benefits and limitations of hydrostatic testing

Hydrostatic testing for pipelines

Pressure testing and recordkeeping requirements – reconciling historical practices with new requirements

6. Pigging, Cleaning & Drying

A brief history of pipeline pigging

Pipeline dewatering, cleaning, and drying

Moisture content of air

Vacuum drying

Pig trap design

7. Control Valves

Control valve sizing formulas

Sizing control valves for throughput

Avoid cavitation in butterfly valves

How to read a regulator flow curve

8. Corrosion and Coatings

Types of corrosion and control methods

Fundamentals of pipeline corrosion

Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material required for offshore pipelines

Advances in pipeline protection

Estimate the number of squares of tape for pipe coating

Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines near HVAC lines

Pipeline external corrosion direct assessment process

9. Gas—General

Know the gas laws

How to calculate the specific gravity of natural gas

Nomograph for calculating density and specific volume of gases and vapors

Facts about methane and its behavior

Conversion table for pure methane

Glossary of common gas industry terms

10. Gas—Compression

Compressor definitions

Generalized compressibility factor

Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills

Centrifugal compressor performance calculations

11. Gas—Hydraulics

Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations

Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline

Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for compressible flow friction factor for clean steel and wrought iron pipe

12. Liquids—General

Determining the viscosity of crude

Calculate viscosity of a blend

Calculate specific gravity of a blend

Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes

Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible fluids in pipes

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes

Carbon capture and sequestration processes

CO2 pipeline infrastructure in the United States

Effect of variability on CO2 pipeline operation

13. Liquids—Hydraulics

Marine hose pressure loss

Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of liquids in lines for turbulent flow

Drag-reducing agents

How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge from a pipe

14. Pumps

Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pump parameters and applications

How to examine centrifugal pump systems

Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at various speeds

Nomograph for determining specific speed of pumps

Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps

How to select motors for field-gathering pumps

The basics of NPSH and pump operating regions

15. Measurement

Multiphase flow meter

Mass measurement light hydrocarbons

Master meter proving orifice meters in dense phase ethylene

Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate flange taps

Properties of gas and vapors

Determine required orifice diameter for any required differential when the orifice and differential are known

Matching the flow meter to the application

Handling entrained gas

Proving liquid ultrasonic flow meters for custody transfer measurement

V-Cone® flow meter

Sampling and testing program for unrefined petroleum-based products

16. Instrumentation

Types of control systems

Automatic tank gauging systems and proof testing

Instrumentation and sensors for automatic tank gauging

17. Integrity Management

Overview of leak detection technologies

Inspection tools and case studies

Factors to consider when evaluating damage on pipelines

Understanding mechanical damage in pipelines

Understanding stress corrosion cracking in pipelines

When does a pipeline need revalidation?

Modeling pipeline risk assessment

A risk management tool for establishing budget priorities

Floating roof failure modes and risk

Floating roof tanks rainfall risk

18. Tanks

Classification of storage tanks

What is the difference between fixed and floating tank types?

Tank styles and appurtenances

Floating roof applications and components

Summary of federal requirements for aboveground storage tanks

Design and containment for atmospheric storage tanks

Overview of petroleum storage tank standards

Tank weight estimation tool using diameter as input variable

How to estimate flow rate from a leaking tank hole

Charts give vapor loss from internal floating-roof tanks

Estimating the contents of horizontal cylindrical tanks

Tank farm line sizing

Managing oil movement and storage in tank farms

Standard construction practices for LNG storage tanks

Choosing the best containment for LNG storage

A review of API 2350 overfill protection, 4th and 5th edition

Manual tank gauging procedures

How to apply vapor cloud analysis methodology to tank overfills

Simplified procedure to calculate emissions for liquid organic storage tanks

Calculating tank emissions with BREEZE TankESP

19. Economics

Time Value of Money

Decision and Evaluation Criteria

Sensitivity Analysis

Decision Tree Analysis

Accounting Fundamentals

20. Cost

Cost Estimation

Onshore Construction

Onshore FERC gas pipeline cost statistics in the United States, 2014–2019

How to estimate onshore pipeline construction cost using unit costs?

Offshore Construction

U.S. Gulf of Mexico pipeline cost statistics, 1995–2019

How to estimate shallow water pipeline construction cost bounds in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico using empirical data?

Offshore Decommissioning

Offshore pipeline decommissioning cost factors

How to estimate the cost to decommission shallow water pipeline in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?

How to estimate deepwater umbilical, flowline, and riser decommissioning cost in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?

Typical workflows for offshore pipeline decommissioning

Gas Compression Stations

Scaling Rules

Tariff Rates

How to calculate firm service with fixed maximum daily quantity and reservation charge?

How is the cost of service formula applied?

How to compute price adjustments in pipeline system quality banks

21. Health, Safety and Environment

Health

Safety

Crane and hoist safety

Tank fire types and causes

Firefighting protection systems for atmospheric storage tanks

Carbon dioxide pipeline safety and integrity

Environment

Estimating oil spill thickness on water visually

Fast discharge volume calculator for offshore leaking pipeline

Guidelines on oil characterization to inform spill planning and decision making

Oil spills inland response good practice guidelines

Calculating volatile organic compounds flash emissions from crude oil and condensate tanks at oil and gas production sites

22. Specifications

Pipeline Steel Specifications

Main differences between API 5L PSL 1 and PSL 2 pipeline

Pipeline Material Coating Specifications

Fuel Specifications

Transportation fuel specifications

Pipeline Product Specifications

23. Conversion Factors

Metric conversions—metric to English, English to metric

Density conversions

General liquid density nomograph

Chart gives specific gravity/temperature relationship for petroleum oils

Weight density and specific gravity of various liquids

True vapor pressure of crude oil stocks with a Reid vapor pressure of 2–15 psi

Low temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons

High temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon gas viscosity

Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Universal Viscosity

Viscosity–equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Furol Viscosity at 122 °F and 210 °F

Viscosity—general conversions

ASTM standard viscosity temperature chart for liquid petroleum products

Pressure conversion chart

Energy conversion chart

Flow conversion chart

Petroleum fuels volume, weight and calorific value factors

Crude oil approximate conversion factors

Refined products approximate conversion factors

Natural gas and LNG approximate conversion factors

Units and calorific equivalents

Weight of water per cubic foot at various temperatures

Index

Copyright

Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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List of Contributors

Michael S. Choi,     Process Engineering Fellow in ConocoPhillips, Houston, TX, United States

Philip E. Myers,     Founder and Director, PEMY Consulting, Pleasant Hill, CA, United States

Brock Trotter,     E.I.T., PEMY Consulting, Oklahoma City, OK, United States

George G. Woodworth,     Data Analyst, PEMY Consulting, Pleasant Hill, CA, United States

About the Authors

Mark J. Kaiser is a Professor at the Center for Energy Studies at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where he has focused mainly on the oil, gas, and refining industry. His areas of specialization include cost evaluation, economic analysis, field development, production, and infrastructure. He has worked in the United States and internationally on numerous infrastructure and regulatory projects and started at the Center in 2001.

Edward W. McAllister has more than 50 years of experience in the pipeline industry as an Engineer, Administrator, and Project Manager. He has worked for Chevron Pipe Line Company and Gulf Pipe Line Company and has directed his own engineering services consulting firm in Houston, Texas, since 1983.

Preface

Pipeline Rules of Thumb columns began in the 1960s in Pipeline Industry Magazine, where it was conceived and written by Don Taylor, the first editor of the magazine. Don had been a pipeline engineer before transitioning to the publishing business, and he thought it would be helpful to provide veteran and new engineers some basic tips on various aspects of pipelining.

This was years before the pipeline technology that is available today. SCADA systems weren't in wide use at that time. Desktop computers were in someone's dreams, and engineers were still using slide rules. The Office of Pipeline Safety had not been established, and the pipeline infrastructure, especially the natural gas systems, was just starting to expand across North America.

Initially, the Rules of Thumb columns were published each month as a brief item, covering not only oil, gas, and product pipelines but also the power, water, utility, and chemical process industries. Early subjects dealt with the basics, such as how to determine the depth of cover for a new pipeline, the pressure required for a particular length and diameter line, the degrees of a pipe bend, etc.

By the late 1970s, there were sufficient tips to produce a book, and the first printing of the Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook (RoT) was by Gulf Publishing Company in 1978. In 1986, an advertisement for someone to update RoT was placed in Pipeline Industry Magazine. After retiring from Gulf Pipeline Company after 33 years in the pipeline business, Ed McAllister was looking for a new project and answered the ad. After interviewing with B.J. Lowe, who later formed Clarion Technical Conferences, Ed agreed to take on the task of updating the Handbook.

The second edition of the Handbook was published in 1988 and doubled in size to about 400 pages. Subsequent editions appeared every five years or so. The third edition in 1993 was released with a software version, and the 602 page fourth edition was printed in 1998. The seventh edition was printed in 2009 by Gulf Professional Publishing, an imprint of Elsevier, and the eighth edition in 2014 came with an online companion website hosting interactive data tables.

In this ninth edition, Mark J. Kaiser, Professor at the Center for Energy Studies at Louisiana State University, joins as co-editor. After 31 years in academia and not quite ready for retirement, MJK's goal was to update RoT with the latest technical information while maintaining its basic organizational structure and layout.

Today, the pipeline industry is a multibillion-dollar global enterprise that keeps growing with new products, new methods, new technologies, and new standards to improve economics, safety, and reliability. In the future, pipelines will continue to play an important role in the efficient use and distribution of gas and liquid products, and an integral component in the transition to cleaner burning fuels, the sequestration of carbon dioxide, the transport of hydrogen, and new uses we haven't yet imagined.

The Handbook's enduring popularity and success is undoubtedly due to its focus on: (1) short practical quantitative rules of thumb, (2) clear and abundant illustrations, and (3) broad coverage of all topics related to pipelines, from A to Z. In this edition, we build upon each of these features, enhancing and expanding coverage on most major subjects, and expunging antiquated material where needed.

Four new chapters have been added on Cost, Integrity Management, Safety and Environment, and Specifications, along with a significantly expanded Tanks chapter. There is also new material on CO2 pipelines, corrosion fundamentals, hydrostatic testing, lead pipes, LNG, mechanical damage, PE piping, pigging, reading pump curves, risk management, sampling standards, proof testing sensors, stress corrosion cracking, trench shoring, and more. RoT 9th edition checks in at a healthy and hunky 6.2 pounds 2.5 inches.

Long-time readers already know that RoT contains many different types of information in many different forms in addition to rules of thumb—worked examples, design guidelines and operational tips, specification sheets, nomographs, physical properties, numerical simulations, ... Methods described range from back of envelope calculations to the results of mathematical modeling, and the wide variety of technical papers and excerpts provide detailed information to complement engineering basics.

Written by engineers for engineers, managers, and regulators, RoT aims to serve both working professionals and those new to the industry. We hope you agree that one of the pleasures of thumbing through the handbook is in the discovery of hidden gems written by the experts themselves. One cannot help feel sublime awe in the presence of such vast accumulated knowledge and experience.

Readers' comments are welcome.

Mark J. Kaiser

Baton Rouge, LA

E.W. McAllister

Houston, TX

August 2022

1: General Information

Abstract

This chapter explains the basic formulas, rules of exponents, cables and ropes, belts and shafts, and pipeline pigging. Various kinds of rope and chains are available; the possible strength factors are reviewed in this chapter. They allow for safety factor of 4 as based on mild plow steels. Stress in guy wires is also defined, which states that guys are wire ropes or strands used to hold a vertical structure in position against an overturning force. The most common types of guyed structures are stacks, derricks, masts for draglines, reversible tramways, and radio transmission towers. As a general rule, stresses in guys from temperature changes are neglected, but in structures such as radio masts, this is an important feature and must be subject to special analysis. The number of guys used for any particular installation is contingent on several variable factors such as type of structure, space available, and contour of the ground.

Keywords

Belts; Cables; Drills; Pipeline pigging; Ropes; Shafts

System Schematics

Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline system networks

Schematic of natural gas pipeline system networks

Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products

Typical pipeline construction sequence

U.S. Pipeline Maps

Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines circa 2020

Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020

Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020

LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020

CO2-EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020

Permian Basin CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Gulf Coast CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Rocky Mountain CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Mid-Continent CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

U.S. Statistics

Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019

Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering systems in the United States, 1984-2019

Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019

Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018

Liquefied natural gas facilities in the United States circa 2020

Cables and Ropes

Estimating strength of cable

Find the working strength of Manila rope

How large should drums and sheaves be for wire rope?

Find advantages of block and tackle with pull out friction

Safe loads for wire rope

Stress in guy wires

Strength and weight of popular wire rope

Measuring the diameter of wire rope

Wire rope: field troubles and their causes

Capacity of drums

Belts and Shafts

Determine length of a V-belt

Calculate stress in shaft key

Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft

Miscellaneous

Area formula

Surface and volume formula

Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws

Determine pulley speed

ASTM standard reinforcing bars

Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges

How to estimate length of material contained in roll

Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems

How to determine glycol requirements for desired protection

Weight in pounds of round steel shafting

Properties of shafting

Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws

Common nails

Drill sizes for pipe taps

Carbon steel–color and approximate temperature

Bolting dimensions for flanges

Flange bolt tightening sequence

Steel fitting dimensions

ANSI forged steel flanges

Trenching and excavation safety

Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers

Typical wire resistance

How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows

How to read land descriptions

Size an air receiver for engine starting

Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts

Color codes for locating underground utilities

Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of excavations

Wind chill chart

Fluid power formulas

How is pipeline manufactured?

How to designate and classify PE piping materials

Pipeline books published after 2000

System Schematics

Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline system networks

Figure 1  Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline systems from the wellhead to the consumer. Source: PHMSA

Schematic of natural gas pipeline system networks

Figure 2  Schematic of natural gas pipeline systems from the wellhead to the consumer. Source: PHMSA

Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products

Figure 3  Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products. Source: Norwegianpetroleum.no IEA/MPE

Typical pipeline construction sequence

Figure 4  Typical pipeline construction sequence. Source: AOPL

U.S. Pipeline Maps

Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines circa 2020

Figure 5  Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines systems circa 2020. Source: NPMS

Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020

Figure 6  Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020. Source: NPMS

Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020

Figure 7  Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020. Source: NPMS

LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020

Figure 8  LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020. Source: NPMS

CO2-EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020

Figure 9  CO 2 -EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL

Permian Basin CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Figure 10  Permian Basin CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL

Gulf Coast CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Figure 11  Gulf Coast CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2015 and potential proved and produced-to-date tertiary reserves estimates circa 2013

Rocky Mountain CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Figure 12  Rocky Mountain CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL

Mid-Continent CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020

Figure 13  Mid-Continent CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL

U.S. Statistics

Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019

Figure 14  Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019. Source: PHMSA

Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering systems in the United States, 1984-2019

Figure 15  Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering in the United States, 1984-2019. Source: PHMSA

Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019

Figure 16  Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019. Source: PHMSA

Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018

Figure 17  Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018. Source: AOPI, API

Liquefied natural gas facilities in the United States circa 2020

Figure 18  Liquefied natural gas facilities and total storage capacities in the United States circa 2020. Source: PHMSA

Cables and Ropes

Estimating strength of cable

Rule

1. Change line diameter to eighths

2. Square the numerator

3. Divide by the denominator

4. Read the answer in tons

Example

Estimate the strength of ½-in. steel cable:

The approximate strength of ½-in steel cable is 2 tons.

Find the working strength of Manila rope

The working strength of Manila rope is approximately 900 × (diameter)²:

where d is expressed in inches and W is given in pounds.

Example

What is the working strength of a ¾ in Manila rope?

The maximum recommended pull is

Example

Find the maximum working pull for a 1½ in Manila rope.

For rope diameters greater than 2 in, a factor lower than 900 should be used. In working with heavier rigging it is advisable to refer to accepted handbooks to find safe working strengths.

How large should drums and sheaves be for wire rope?

Construction Methods and Machinery, by F. H. Kellogg, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954.

The diameter of sheaves or drums should preferably fall within the table for most efficient utilization of the wire rope.

Example

What size should the hoisting drum on a dragline be, if the wire rope is 6 × 19 construction, ¾ in in diameter?

From the table, good practice calls for 30 diameters, which in this instance would be 22½ in. Loads, speeds, bends, and service conditions will also affect the life of wire rope, so it is better to stay somewhere between the good practice and best wear factors in the table.

Find advantages of block and tackle with pull out friction

The efficiency of various sheaves differs. For one with roller bearings the efficiency has been estimated at 96.2%. For plain bearing sheaves a commonly used figure is 91.7%. The following formula will give close results:

where

MA = Mechanical advantage,

W = Total weight to be lifted by the assembly,

= Maximum line pull at the hoist,

n = Number of working parts in the tackle,

E = Efficiency of individual sheaves.

It is assumed that the line leaving the upper block goes directly to the hoist without additional direction change (requiring a snatch block).

Example

Find the mechanical advantage of a four-part block and tackle using upper and lower blocks having journal bearings, which have an efficiency of 91.7%.

If the load weighed 3250 lb, what pull would be required on the lead line?

Safe loads for wire rope

Stress in guy wires

Guys are wire ropes or strands used to hold a vertical structure in position against an overturning force. The most common types of guyed structures are stacks, derricks, masts for draglines, reversible tramways, and radio transmission towers.

As a general rule, stresses in guys from temperature changes are neglected, but in structures such as radio masts this is an important feature and must be subject to special analysis. The number of guys used for any particular installation is contingent on several variable factors such as type of structure, space available, contour of the ground, etc., and is not a part of this discussion.

It is desirable to space guys uniformly whenever possible. This equalizes the pull, P, on each guy insofar as possible, particularly against forces that change in direction, as when a derrick boom swings in its circle.

It is also desirable to equalize the erection tensions on the guys. When no external force is acting on the structure, the tension in each guy should be the same. A tension indicator is sometimes used to determine the tension in guys. If this instrument is not available, the tension can be very closely approximated by measuring the deflection at the center of the span from the chord drawn from the guy anchorage to the point of support on the structure. A good average figure to use for erection tension of guys is 20% of the maximum working tension of the guy.

Figure 1

This discussion outlines the method for determining the stresses in guys. One of the first considerations is the location of the guy anchorages. The anchorages should be so located that the angle α, between the horizontal plane and the guy line, is the same for all guys (to equalize erection tensions). Angle α, in good practice, seldom exceeds 45°, with 30° being commonly used. The tension in the guys decreases as angle α becomes smaller. The direct load on the structure is also less with a smaller value of α.

To find the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied to any single guy by the force, F, first determine the pull, P, which is the amount required along the guys, in the same vertical plane as the force to resist the horizontal component of the force. This pull is entirely independent of the number of guys. Assume that the following are known:

F = The total resultant external force acting on the structure,

G = The angle between the horizontal plane and the force F,

h = The height of the structure,

d = The horizontal distance from structure to guy anchorage,

m = The vertical height of anchorage above or below the base of the structure,

α = The angle whose tangent is (h ± m) ÷ d. m is added if the anchorage is below the base of the structure and subtracted if it is above.

P represents the total pull acting along the guys at an angle, α, with the horizontal, and in the same vertical plane as the force, F:

As cos α is always less than 1, P is always greater than F cos γ, the horizontal component of force F.

If only one guy were used, P would represent the extra tension, T. In practice, however, a number of guys are always used, and, therefore, the pull on any one guy will not be equal to P. The following table gives factors for any number of guys from 3 to 15, equally spaced about a central structure. To find the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied to any single guy by the force, F, capable of rotating 360° around a vertical axis, it is only necessary to multiply the value of P, as determined above, by the factor for the number of guys used. It must be clearly understood in using this table that the guys are uniformly spaced and under equal tension when no load is acting on the structure.

Example

A derrick mast 90 ft high is supported by nine equally spaced guys anchored at a horizontal distance of 170 ft from the mast, and the elevations of the guy anchorages are 10 ft below the base of the mast. The load on the structure is equivalent to a force of 10,000 lb, acting on an angle of 10° below the horizontal. What is the maximum pull on any single cable?

From Figure 1:

h = 90 ft,

d = 170 ft,

m = 10 ft,

Table 1

∗ These factors are for average conditions. If the guys are erected under accurately measured tensions of not less than 20% of the working load, the factors for five or more guys may be reduced by 10%. If the erecting tensions are low or not accurately equalized, the factors for five or more guys should be increased 10%.

g = 10°00′,

F = 10,000 lb,

From Table 1, T = 11,427 × 0.50 = 5714 lb.

If erection tension is 10% of total working tension, 5714 is 90% of total working tension. Therefore, working tension = (5714 × 100)/90 = 6349 lb.

Strength and weight of popular wire rope

The following tables give the breaking strength for wire rope of popular construction made of improved plow steel.

To apply the above table to wire rope of other construction, multiply by the following factors:

Example

Find the breaking strength of 6 × 29 improved plow steel wire rope 2 in in diameter.

The weight can be found the same way.

Measuring the diameter of wire rope

Wire rope: field troubles and their causes

All wire rope will eventually deteriorate in operation or have to be removed simply by virtue of the loads and reversals of load applied in normal service. There are, however, many conditions of service or inadvertent abuse that will materially shorten the normal life of a wire rope of proper construction although it is properly applied. The following field troubles and their causes give some of the field conditions and practices that result in the premature replacement of wire rope (it should be borne in mind that in all cases the contributory cause of removal may be one or more of these practices or conditions):

Capacity of drums

The capacity of wire line drums may be figured from the following formula:

Figure 1  Capacity of wire line drums.

where

M = Rope capacity of drum, inches,

A = Depth of flange, inches,

B = Diameter of drum, inches,

C = Width of the drum between flanges, inches,

K = Constant depending on rope size

Belts and Shafts

Determine length of a V-belt

Rule: To find the nominal length of a V-belt, lay the belt on a table and place within it a pair of circular objects of the same diameter (flanges, tin cans, or whatever may be at hand). Pull them apart until the belt is fully extended without stretching. Then measure the shortest distance between the two circles, in inches. The belt size is then twice this figure, plus 5.14 times the diameter of the circles. This value, for any standard belt, should be a whole number of inches, which is the belt size.

V-belts are made in four standard sections, classified as A, B, C, and D; the widths (at the widest part) are ½, ⅝, ⅞, and 1⅛ in, respectively. The complete designation of the belt is the letter showing the width, followed by the length in inches; thus, an A26 belt is ½-in. wide and 26 in. long on the inside edge. The pitch length of the belt is measured along a median section and corresponds to the length that runs on the pulley diameter, which determines the actual speed ratio—about half of the depth of the groove. Pitch lengths for A, B, C, and D belts are greater than their nominal lengths by 1.3, 1.8, 2.9, and 3.3 in, respectively.

Calculate stress in shaft key

The shear and compressive stresses in a key are calculated using the following equations:

Ss = Shear stress in psi,

Sc = Compressive stress in psi,

T = Shaft torque inch-pounds,

d = Shaft diameter, inches (for taper shafts, use average diameter),

w = Width key, inches,

L = Effective length of key, inches,

h1 = Height of key in the shaft or hub that bears against the keyway, inches,

h1 = h2 for square keys. For designs where unequal portions of the key are in the hub or shaft, h1 is the minimum portion.

Key material is usually AISI 1018 or AISI 1045 with the following allowable stresses:

Example

Determine key stresses for these conditions: 300 HP @ 600 RPM; 3″ diameter shaft, ¾ × ¾ key, 4″ key engagement length.

The AISI 1018 key should be used since it is within allowable stresses. Note: If shaft had been 2¾″ diameter (4″ long hub), the key would be ⅝ × ⅝ and Ss = 9200 psi, Sc = 18,400 psi, and a heat-treated key, AISI 1045, would have been required.

Reprinted with permission: The Falk Corporation.

Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft

1. Where there are no stresses due to bending, weight of the shaft, pulleys, gears, or sprockets, use

where

D = diameter of shaft, inches,

N = revolutions per minute.

2. For heavy duty service use

Example

What horsepower can be transmitted to an atmospheric cooling coil by a 2 in shaft turning at 1800 revolutions per minute?

Miscellaneous

Area formula

Surface and volume formula

Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws

Determine pulley speed

Speed of Driven Pulley Required:

Diameter and speed of driving pulley and diameter of driven pulley are known.

D1 = Diameter of driving pulley 15 in,

RPM1 = 180 (driving pulley speed),

d2 = Diameter of driven pulley 9 in,

RPM2 = Speed of driven pulley,

Diameter of Driven Pulley Required:

Diameter and speed of driving pulley and speed of driven pulley are known.

D1 = Diameter of driving pulley 24 in,

RPM1 = 100 (driving pulley speed),

RPM2 = Speed of driven pulley = 600.

Diameter of Driving Pulley Required:

D1 = in,

d2 = 36 in,

RPM2 = 150,

RPM1 = 600,

Speed of Driving Pulley Required:

D2 = 4 in,

RPM2 = 800,

D1 = 26 in,

Speed of Driven Pulley in Compound Drive Required:

RPMA = 260,

RPMD = 720 (required),

required speed ratio.

Resolve into two factors

Multiply by trial numbers 12 and 1:

The values 12 and 13 in the numerator represent the diameter of driven pulleys B and D, and the values 24 and 18 in the denominator represent the diameter of the driving pulleys A and B.

ASTM standard reinforcing bars

Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges

How to estimate length of material contained in roll

Where material of uniform thickness, like belting, is in a roll, the total length may be obtained by the following rule:

Measure the diameter of the hole in the center, and of the outside of the roll, both measurements in inches; count the number of turns; multiply the sum of the two measured diameters by the number of turns, and multiply this product by 0.13; the result is the total length of the material in feet.

Example

A roll of belting contains 24 turns. The diameter of the hole is 2 in, and that of the outside of the roll is 13 in.

The roll contains 46.8 ft of belting.

Note: The rule can even be applied to materials as thin as pipeline felt; counting the turns is not as difficult as it might appear without a trial.

Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems

This plot of water volume versus glycol volume at various conditions of temperature and percent of glycol in the system makes winterizing field engines relatively easy.

Example

Determine the amount of glycol to be used in a 200 gallon system for protection to 16 °F.

To use the chart, first find the total system capacity, 200 gallons, at point A on the water volume axis. Point A also can represent 2, 20, 2000, etc. Proceed along the 45° line from point A to point B at the intersection with the 16 °F line. Then, move from point B to point C and read 160 on the water volume axis. This is the amount of water the system should contain. Move from point B to point D on the glycol axis and read 40. This is the amount of glycol that must be added to the system.

How to determine glycol requirements for desired protection

Solve the equation below to find the number of gallons of aqueous solution that must be removed and replaced with glycol.

where

d = Gallons of aqueous solution to be removed from the system and replaced with an equal number of gallons of glycol,

D = Total gallons of glycol required for protection at desired temperature less gallons of glycol in original system,

B = 1.0 − fraction of glycol in system.

Example

Find the number of gallons of existing aqueous solution that must be removed and replaced with glycol in a 1200 gallon system to give protection to −10 °F. Glycol in the system determined by a hydrometer test is 28% (0.28 fraction). The published figure for −10 °F protection is 519 gallons of glycol in the 1200 gallon system.

Then:

Gallons of glycol in system = 1200 × 0.28 = 336 gallons,

D = 519 − 336 = 183 gallons difference,

B = 1.0 − 0.28 = 0.72.

Therefore, 254 gallons of existing aqueous solution need to be removed and replaced with 254 gallons of glycol for the desired protection to −10 °F.

Weight in pounds of round steel shafting

Properties of shafting

Steel shaft sizes calculated for strength

Base Fiber Stress = 60,000 lb sq in.

C = 50 corresponds to very little bending; C = 75, average conditions of bending; C = 100, severe conditions of bending

Haven-Swett Treatise on Leather Belting, American Leather Belting Association.

Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws

Common nails

Drill sizes for pipe taps

Carbon steel–color and approximate temperature

Bolting dimensions for flanges

ASME/ANSI B16.5 provides weld neck, slip-on, socket weld, threaded, lap joint and blind flange dimensions for pipes ranging 1/2 to 24 in classes ranging 150 to 2500.