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1. Cathode Rays
The cathode ray tubes allow the stream of charged particles to be manipulated in two ways:
• Using an external
magnet field to bend
the stream up and down
• Using an external
electric field to bend
the stream left and right
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
𝐹 = Force (N)
𝑞 = Charge on particle (C)
𝑣 = Velocity of particle (ms^-1)
𝐵 = Magnetic Field Strength (T)
𝜃 = Angle between direction of velocity and magnetic field lines
The direction of the force can be determined using the right hand palm rule, where the thumb
represents the movement of the charged particle, the fingers represent the direction of the
magnetic field and the palm represents the direction of the force.
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
The apparatus is as
shown to the right with a
high potential difference
across the cathode and
anode to create a
cathode ray hitting the
end of the vacuum tube
• We know that cathode rays (electrons) are affected by both magnetic and electric fields
• The force on the electron in a magnetic field is given by F = qvB and the force on an electron in
an electric field is given by F = qE
• In Thomson’s apparatus there is both an electric field and a magnetic field that will apply a force
on the electrons (cathode rays) travelling through the vacuum chamber
• By making these two forces act in opposite directions and cancelling them out so that the
cathode ray travels exactly straight (as measured on the glass at the end of the tube), it can be
concluded that the force applied to the electrons by the magnetic field is equal to the force
applied by the electric field
• To express this mathematically:
- F=F
- qvB = qE
- vB = E
- v = E/B
• Because E (electric field strength) and B (magnetic field strength) are both know, the velocity of
the electrons in the cathode ray could be calculated
• The electric field was then switched off and only the magnetic field remained on, causing the
cathode ray to bend down
• We know that charged particles in uniform magnetic fields have a circular motion, and so, the
force applied by the magnetic field F = qvB is equal to the centripetal force F = mv^2/r
• Rearranging:
- F=F
- qvB = mv^2/r
- qvBr = mv^2
- qvBr/m = v^2
- q/m = v^2/vBr
- q/m = v/Br
• From the above we know the value v (velocity of the electrons), the value B (magnetic field
strength) is also known and r (radius) can be calculated by measuring the physical displacement
of the cathode ray from its straight path
• Hence, the charge (q) to mass (m) ratio of the electron can be determined
OSCILLOSCOPES
• Electrodes in the electron gun: the electrodes in an electron gun refer to the cathode and
anode. A potential difference is present across the electrodes, and hence, a stream of electrons
(a cathode ray) travels towards the display to create the shape of the wave.
• The deflection plates or coils: deflection plates (which create an electric field) and coils (which
create a magnetic field) can be used to change the direction of the cathode ray, and thereby,
controls which part of the screen the ray hits. In oscilloscopes, two sets of deflection plates are
usually used, one of which alters the y-coordinate, and the other the x-coordinate. The x-
coordinate deflection plates cause the beam to continually track from left to right, while the y-
coordinate alters the amplitude and frequency to create the shape of the wave.
• The fluorescent screen: the fluorescent screen is where the cathode rays hit, and due to a
phosphorus coating they emit a green light, which can be seen on the display.
MALTESE CROSS
This experiment showed that
cathode rays travel in straight lines
and suggested that cathode rays
are unaffected by gravity (actually
they are, but because of their
small mass it went unnoticed). The
maltese cross was used as the
anode and the cathode rays cast a
shadow of the maltese cross on
the end of the tube. Because the
shadow was accurate, this
suggested that cathode rays do
travel in straight lines.
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
ELECTRIC PLATES
This experiment showed that cathode rays were deflected
by an electric field. Furthermore, it was observed that the
cathode ray was attracted to the positive plate, and so it
was concluded that the particles in cathode rays were
negatively charged. In the diagram to the right, the top
electric plate is the positive plate.
PADDLE WHEEL
This experiment showed that the particles in
cathode rays must have mass as they have the
momentum needed to move the wheel. The glass
paddle wheel was free to move along the runners
and a cathode ray was shot from cathode to
anode so that it would hit the top paddles of the
paddle wheel and cause it to spin, and hence roll.
1.12 Calculations
To calculate the strength of an electric field, the following formula can be used:
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𝐸 = Electric Field Strength (Vm )
𝑉 = Voltage across plates (Volts)
𝑑 = Distance (m)
To calculate the force on a charged particle in that field the following formula can be used (note
that the direction can be determined by knowing that opposites attract):
To calculate the force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field the formula on the next
page can be used. Notes that, to find the direction of the force the right band palm rule can be
used (where the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb point in the direction
of the particle and the palm points in the direction of the force). Note that charged particles in a
uniform magnetic field will follow a circular path.
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
𝐹 = Force (N)
𝑞 = Charge on particle (C)
𝑣 = Velocity of particle (ms^-1)
𝐵 = Magnetic Field Strength (T)
𝜃 = Angle between direction of
velocity and magnetic field lines
2. Photoelectric Effect
• Hertz observed that the spark between the gap in the transmitter loop (left) caused a smaller
spark to be induced between the gap in the detecting loop (right).
• This was due to the photoelectric effect, however Hertz did not know this, and although he had
observed the photoelectric effect and the effect of radio waves on a receiver, he was unable to
investigate these observations further
• Maxwell asserted that light was an electromagnetic radiation which self-propagated—that is, it
consisted of an electric field which induced a magnetic field which then induced an electric field
which then induced another magnetic field and so on while ever it travelled
• Using the same basic apparatus as in the syllabus point above, Hertz was able to use the wave
equation 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 to determine the speed of radio waves
• The frequency was known because of the voltage and current of the circuit used in the
transmitter loop to create the radio waves
• Hertz measured the wavelength of the emitted radio waves by placing the emitter and receiver in
the same position and reflecting the radio wave off a metal sheet so that when the sheet was half
a wavelength away the superposition would cause the signal to cancel out
• Hence, he calculated the velocity of radio waves as 3 x 108 ms-1
• This value was very close to what Maxwell has estimated, and hence, Hertz’s experiment proved
Maxwell’s hypothesis that visible light and radio waves were two different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
Black body: refers to any body that absorbs and then reemits all radiation that falls on it without
reflecting any of that radiation.
It is important to note that black bodies are theoretical concepts and no actual body absorbs 100%
of the radiation falling on it. An example of a black body would be some object that absorbs all the
visible light radiation that falls on it and reemits this energy as other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, such as heat (infrared). Hence, the body appears black.
This problem was solved by Planck, who suggested that the energy in radiation was quantised,
that is, it was broken into small packets of energy known as quanta (later coined photons by
Einstein). This meant that an atom could only absorb or release a certain number of quanta of
energy, not a limitless amount (as suggested by Maxwell’s mathematical model). To explain this
hypothesis mathematically Planck developed the following formula:
• Classical physics was unable to explain the photoelectric effect using the wave model of light,
however Einstein, using Planck’s discoveries, suggested that light could be considered both a
wave and a particle (a stream of photons)
• Einstein proposed that a photon could not transfer part of its energy to an electron, either all of it,
or none of it. He related this to the photoelectric effect by explaining that a minimum amount of
energy was required to free an electron from the surface of a metal, and he called this amount of
energy the work function
• When photons of light hit the surface of a metal, a certain amount of energy will be needed to
detach the electron from the metal (the work function) and the remainder of the photons energy
will be transferred into kinetic energy, moving the newly formed photoelectron
• The graph below plots the frequency of incoming radiation against the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons after the energy transfer
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
• The work function of the metal (−∅) determines
the value of for the threshold frequency, below
which, the photons do not have enough energy
to detach an electron and form a photoelectron
• As frequency increases, each individual photon
has more energy, and hence there is more
energy leftover to be transferred into kinetic
energy after the electron is freed from the metal
• Because kinetic energy is the leftover energy, it
is equal to the total energy of the photon (E = hf)
minus the work function of the metal (which is
the amount of energy needed to free the electron)
• Hence, the following formula for kinetic energy of a photoelectron was developed:
𝐸k =h𝑓−∅
Einstein related this back to black body radiation by exclaiming that intensity of emitted radiation
from a black body relies on number of photons rather than individual photon energy. Therefore,
high frequency of remitted radiation from a black body does not imply more intense radiation.
The particle model of light arises from the fact that light is broken in to a stream of photons, or
discrete bundles of energy. The energy of the photon is directly related to its frequency, and all
photons of radiation of the same frequency have the same energy (given by E = hf)
It is also important to note the following conversion between joules and electron volts, two different
units of measurement for energy. One electron volt is far smaller than one joule:
eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
Photoelectric Effect: refers to the observation that many metals emit electrons when light shines
upon them.
Some uses of photocells include in electric ‘eyes’, burglar alarms, radiation detectors and light
meters
eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
• Planck believed that politicians should decide what happens with science developments, and that
scientific study was justified in its own right.
- WWI: Planck signed a manifesto supporting Germany’s war conduct
- WWII: Planck stayed in Germany as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
• Einstein was a pacifist and believed that science could be harmful to humanity if it were used
incorrectly. Therefore he was against science used for the purpose of war and repression.
- WWI: Einstein signed an anti-war manifesto, which condemned the war
- WWII: Einstein fled Germany as the Nazis rose to power
If electrons are in the conduction band and a potential difference is present then a current will flow.
Because bands are essentially just energy levels, an electron can move from the valence band to
the conduction band if it is given energy in the form of light, heat, another electron hitting it etc.
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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
• Conductors: for conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap, meaning electrons
can be in both the valence band and the conduction band simultaneously. Therefore, electrons in
conductors do not need to increase their energy levels before they can conduct electricity. The
electrons in the overlap area are naturally in that state meaning they can always move freely
throughout the solid and carry a current.
• Semiconductors: for semiconductors there is a small gap between the valence band and
conduction band, meaning that in their natural state, there are no electrons in the conduction
band and the material can not conduct electricity. However, because the gap between the two
bands is small, if the electrons are given enough energy (through heat, light, hitting another
electron etc.) they will be able to jump the gap between the bands and hence the material will be
able to conduct an electric current.
• Insulators: for insulators, the gap between the valence band and conduction band is large, and
the electrons are unable to jump the energy gap. Therefore, the electrons remain in the valence
band and the material is unable to conduct electric current.
The size of the energy gap is indicative of the resistivity and hence resistance of the material.
Hence, metals with large band overlaps have low resistivity and insulators with large energy gaps
have extremely high resistivity.
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3.6 Doping
Doping: a semiconductor refers to adding impurities (other elements) to the semiconductor.
For example if a silicon semiconductor were doped with arsenic then it would be made up of mainly
silicon atoms and a small amount of arsenic atoms. The act of doping a semiconductor changes its
electrical properties by effecting the amount of holes or free electrons in the semiconductor.
Because holes and free electrons allow a material to conduct electricity, doping controls how well a
semiconductor conducts electricity.
• Pure silicon: has four electrons in its valence shell and uses covalent bonds (which involves the
sharing of atoms between electrons) to form a crystal lattice so that there are eight electrons in
each valence shell and hence, the atom is balanced, meaning that in pure silicon there are no
free electrons or holes.
• N-type semiconductor: to create an n-type semiconductor, silicon can be doped with
phosphorus which has five valence electrons (or any element with five valence electrons). The
phosphorus atoms will join the crystal lattice, however for each phosphorus atom there will be an
excess electron that will not fit into the lattice. This negatively charge electron is now free to
mover throughout the material and conduct current (hence why it is n-type doping).
• P-type semiconductor: to create a p-type semiconductor, silicon can be doped with boron,
which has three valence electrons (or any element with four valence electrons). The boron atoms
will join the crystal lattice, however for each boron atom there will a hole, as boron only has three
valence electrons. This positively charged hole can now move around the material and act as a
current carrier (hence why it is p-type doping).
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Advantages of solid state over thermionic:
• Uses less electrical energy
• Runs faster
• Lighter, smaller and cheaper
• Doesn't need to warm up (which takes time)
• More reliable
• Produces less heat
• Less fragile
To overcome these shortcomings, scientists experimented with the properties of materials, such as
germanium and other semiconductors. This experimentation led to the invention of the transistor as
it was found that by doping a semiconductor such as geranium or silicon, the material could be
used to form a transistor amplifier. Because transistors are small, long-lasting, reliable and have no
moving parts they quickly replaced thermionic devices.
Microchip: refers to a tiny flat piece of semiconductor material used to make an integrated circuit.
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• A solar cell is comprised of a layer of doped n-type silicon on top of a layer of doped p-type
silicon with a metal grid top and bottom connected to an external circuit
• When the n-type and p-type silicon first come into contact, the free electrons from the n-type
move across the p-n junction to fill the holes in the p-type and the holes from the p-type move
across the p-n junction to be filled by free electrons in the n-type
• This creates an area of net positive charge near the junction in the n-type and an area of net
negative charge near the junction in the p-type, known as the depletion zone
• Because of this difference in electric charge, an electric field is created within the solar cell, that
is, the cell creates its own potential difference
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• When photons of EMR hit the silicon, given that the frequency of the light is greater than the
threshold frequency for the silicon, electrons will gain energy and move from the valence band
into the conduction band, freeing them to move around the material
• Because of the electric field near the p-n junction, the newly emancipated electrons will move
towards the top of the n-type silicon while the holes that these electrons have left behind will
move towards the bottom of the p-type silicon
• There is now an accumulation of positive charge carriers at the bottom of the solar cell and
negative charge carriers at the top of the cell, and because the cell is attached to an external
circuit via the metal grid, a current will flow, and electricity has been produced
4. Superconductors
• The Braggs fired x-rays at a sample of metal and observed the interference patterns of the
reflected x-rays on photographic film
• X-rays were used because their wavelength was smaller than the gaps between atoms in a
metallic crystal lattice
• The diffraction patterns that appeared on the images indicated the structure and spacing of the
ions in a metal
• The Braggs also deduced the delocalised nature of electrons that allow metals to conduct
electricity—this is known as the ‘free electron model’
• Impurities increase resistance by disrupting the integrity of the lattice structure and thereby
impede the free movement of electrons (note that an alloy refers to a metal made from a mix of
different elements, and thus an alloy has a high level of impurities)
• Vibrations in the lattice increase resistance by deflecting or scattering electrons from their linear
progress through the crystal
• Because heat increases the vibration of the lattice, as heat increases the resistance of the
conductor increases
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4.5 Superconductors
In normal conductors, resistance decreases as
temperature falls, as shown by the curve on the
graph. Superconductors follow this same curve up
until a certain temperature, known as the critical
temperature, below which a superconductor has
zero resistance (represented by the red curve).
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• Motors and generators can be made far smaller and more efficient, eliminating the need for a soft
iron core in the middle of the coil
• Could lead to the miniaturisation and increased speed of computer chips
• A superconductor below its critical temperature will not allow an external magnetic field to
penetrate its interior as shown in the right image
• If an external magnetic field comes near the superconductor when it is below its critical
temperature, eddy currents will be induced in the superconductor
• These currents induce a magnetic field to oppose the external magnetic field and stop the
external field from penetrating the interior of the superconductor
• This forces the magnetic to hover above the superconductor
• Superconductors are used via the Meissner Effect to cause the train to levitate while permanent
and electromagnets are used to propel the train forwards
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• The superconductors are located on the train and cooled below their critical temperature, and the
permanent magnets are located on the track
• Levitation eliminates all friction meaning the train can reach much higher speeds
• There are permanent magnets on the track that interact with electromagnets on the train which
cause the train to be propelled forward
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