JOURNAL OF INNER ASIAN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY  |  4/2009

H
4/2009

978-2-503-53042-0

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 Journal of
Inner Asian Art
and Archaeology

H
4/2009

Edited by Judith A. Lerner (New York)

And Lilla Russell-Smith (Berlin)

Produced under the aegis of

the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World,
New York University
by F H G

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 Karakalpak-Australian Excavations in Ancient Chorasmia.
An Interim Report on the Kazakly-yatkan Wall Paintings:
the “Portrait” Gallery
Vadim N. Yagodin, Alison V. G. Betts, Fiona Kidd, Elizabeth Baker Brite,
Ghairat Khozhaniyazov, Shamil Amirov, V. V. Yagodin, and Geraldine Fray1
Introduction
K azakly-yatkan is a large fortified site located within the
Tash-k’irman Oasis on the right bank of the Amu-darya in the
delta region known in ancient times as Chorasmia. The site
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was first discovered in 1956 by the Chorasmian Expedition
under the leadership of S.P. Tolstov. In the 1980s a team of
Karakalpak archaeologists surveyed the site and made a pre-
liminary plan of the walls visible on the surface.2 Excavations
have been conducted by the Karakalpak-Australian Expedi-
tion at the site since 1995.3 At first work was focused on the
fortifications, establishing the date and chronology of the site.4
In 2004 large scale excavation began in the building complex
(KY10) 5 in the north-west corner of the site (Fig. 1). Fragments
of painted and molded plaster had been discovered in an ear-
lier sondage in 2001 but work had been halted there until suit-
able conservation support could be organized. The complex
consists of a central building roughly 60 by 60 metres square
with rounded (ogee) corner towers (Fig. 2). An entry/exit with
flanking rounded towers is located more or less in the center
of the western wall and there may be others at least on the
southern and eastern sides. The central building has a double
wall, forming a surrounding corridor 1.6 metres wide. Both
walls were built of mud brick on pakhsa foundations. Extensive
sections of the inner wall of the corridor were painted with
figurative, and other as yet undefined images, as were some of
the walls and possibly the ceilings of the interior. Painted and
also gilded plaster has been found in the interior. The central
building has two major stages of construction, the latest of
which is well preserved. Radiocarbon determinations suggest
that the latest building was constructed within the first century
(cal.) BCE. The earlier structure may date from around the late
third to early second century (cal) BCE. 6
This article presents an interim report on the painted frag-
ments from the KY10 complex, with a particular focus on a
unique collection of portraits found in the western corridor
(Area 10 04).7 A total of 45 fragments preserving the remains
of one or more portrait images has been documented to date.
Up to 36 individual images may be identified on these frag-
ments. It is possible that more portraits will be revealed as
conservation work on the excavated fragments continues at
Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 4 (2009)  ·  7-41
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jiaaa_4.indb 7
the conservation laboratory of the Institute of History,
Archaeology and Ethnology in Nukus. Description of the
images in this interim report is necessarily provisional as only
one of the portrait fragments (KY06 1004 P024) has been
fully cleaned at this stage. The gallery provides important
insights into the socio-political context of ancient Choras-
mia during the final centuries BCE. At this time Chorasmian
wall painting was a well established tradition, with the earli-
est mural art possibly dating to the fourth century BCE. 8 The
extent and quality of the fragments exposed at Kazakly-yat-
kan make them a significant addition to the visual art reper-
toire of early Chorasmia during an historical period about
which very little is known. The paintings are remarkably well
preserved, showing various subjects and styles in what was
probably an integrated program of mural art and other archi-
tectural ornamentation.9 Some elements of the Kazakly-yat-
kan paintings may show a link with Parthia to the west,
providing a new platform to reassess the nature of the ties
between these two regions.10
ancient chorasmia
Chorasmia is one of the most northerly of the settled lands of
ancient Central Asia. Through the Bronze and Early Iron Ages
it belonged more properly to the northern steppes with a pop-
ulation engaged in semi-nomadic herding practices with lim-
ited agriculture.11 This changed by the late 7th to early 6th
centuries BCE with the appearance of the complex fortified
site of Kiuzeli-gyr in the west of the Amu-darya delta.12 That
this was related to movements and cultural contacts from the
south was made clear when in the second half of the 6th century
BCE Chorasmia officially became part of the Achaemenid
Persian empire. Following the death of Cyrus the Great, Darius
I consolidated the empire and Chorasmia appears in his taxa-
tion list, forming part of the 16th satrapy together with Parthia,
Sogdia and Aria. 13 It seems though, that by the 5th century
BCE links between Persia and Chorasmia had weakened or
fallen away completely. The delta region began to flourish
independently and many new sites appear. Of these, Kazakly-
yatkan is among the largest and most important.
15/03/11 08:10
 It has generally been assumed until recently that up until
the first century CE Chorasmia remained particularly iso-
lated from the outside world, presumably basing her prosper-
ity on agriculture and contact with the nomadic pastoralist
tribes of the northern steppes. The Ustiurt plateau between
the Aral and the Caspian seas formed the most southerly
extension of nomadic territory and was an important winter
grazing area for the tribes. Sites such as Devkesken and
Bolshoi Aybugir located on the edge of the plateau indicate
the significance of this contact.14 However, new evidence
from the Kazakly-yatkan wall paintings suggests that at this
period Chorasmia may also have had significant ties or cul-
tural contacts with her former satrapal partner, Parthia, to
the south.
The KY10 building complex
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Excavations in and around the “ceremonial complex” have
revealed some details about its structure and provided some
clues as to its function. Trenches laid out to south, west and
north have shown that the central building is surrounded by
at least two partially encircling walls divided in places into
chambers, some of which are also decorated with murals. The
south-west quadrant of the central building comprises a col-
umned hall enclosed to the west and south by the inner wall
of the main building and to the east by a partition wall, but
open to the north. The hall may have had a decorated ceiling.
Towards the south-west of the central building is an altar
complex with many fragments of wall paintings and painted
mud-plaster sculptural elements. North of the hall is an open
courtyard with a number of cultic installations including
shallow fire altars, a clay basin and a large khum (ceramic jar)
set in a pit cut into the floor. The ornate character of the
building complex stands in marked contrast to the austere
nature of the slightly later fire temple of Tash-k’irman-tepe a
few kilometres away to the east,15 but finds better parallels in
the richly decorated palaces of “Kushan” period Toprak-
kala,16 also a few kilometres away to the north-east. Much of
the ornament at Toprak-kala has been interpreted by Rapa-
port as being associated with a “royal cult,” although this has
been disputed by Grenet.17 It is too early to discuss in detail
the full significance of the Kazakly-yatkan “ceremonial com-
plex” but the evidence to date appears clearly to contain com-
bined elements of the sacred and the powerful.18 There is a
long-lived Persian tradition linking the ruler with the divine
as evidenced, for example, by the portrayal of fire altars on
Achaemenid and later royal rock reliefs. Briant describes this
special relationship as “[the Great King’s] virtues, acquired
through the privileged protection of Ahura-Mazda…”. Seen
in this light, the complex may have served, at least in one
capacity, as a venue for “royal” ceremony.19
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PAINTINGS FROM THE KY10 COMPLEX
Over 450 fragments of plaster have been excavated throughout
the complex. These show both figurative and ornamental
designs. Although many of these fragments are very small and
remain impossible to understand at this stage, several pieces
nevertheless provide a snapshot of the richness and diversity
of the imagery. One fragment from the area to the far west of
the central building (area 10 09) appears to show a “fantastic”
animal with two horns or antlers (?). Closer to the central
building a small in situ section of painting was found, which
appears to show a pattern of interlocking diamond shapes,
outlined in black, against a yellow/gold background. 20 A face
in three-quarter profile, with a bunch of grapes and a vine leaf
in the background was found in the same area.21 There is also
much diversity from the interior of the central building (area
10 04). Here a fragment shows a “crowd scene” preserving the
remains of three heads. The faces of these personages are
painted with two shades of facial skin tones in slightly curved
strokes, giving them clear texture and shape, as well as under-
lining the sophisticated understanding of the subject by the
artisans.22 Other fragments preserve floral and more ornamen-
tal elements, including a delicately shaped tulip (?), a repeating
“mushroom” shaped pattern 23 and, possibly, a rosette. 24 The
portrait gallery was uncovered in the northern section of the
western corridor surrounding the central building of the com-
plex (see Figs. 2 and 3). This northern section has been com-
pletely excavated. The corridor provides a circulation space 1.6
metres wide, presumably around the entire central building
(see reconstruction of the building in Fig. 2). It is cut in the
center by a doorway which leads from the external complex of
spaces into the interior building. A procession scene compris-
ing alternate animals and humans was found in situ on the
eastern face of the southern section of the corridor.25 The total-
ity of imagery, colors and materials found throughout the
KY10 building complex points to the distinct possibility of a
decorative program throughout the structure, which further
underlines the ceremonial and formal aspect of the building.26
Mural art appears to have been one of the primary elements
of this lavish program. Fragments of molded plaster covered
with gold leaf, molded copper alloy, and many copper alloy
nails, presumably to attach the molded copper alloy,27 painted
columns standing on double stone column bases and
impressed and painted ceilings all hint at this rich ornamen­
tation.28
PIGMENT ANALYSES
Technical analyses of pigment and plaster samples were under-
taken in 2006 and 2007 to examine the preparation, structure
and material composition of the Kazakly-yatkan paintings.29
Fragments of paint and plaster with clearly preserved ground
stratigraphy and pigment material, and having no clearly dis-
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 cernable imagery, were selected for analysis from among the
collection of Kazakly-yatkan fragments. Several techniques
were used to identify the pigments, plaster ground and con-
struction sequence of the Kazakly-yatkan paintings. Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray fluores-
cence (XRF) were performed on all samples as an initial step
in the identification of composite materials. Slide and cross
section preparations of samples were examined via binocular
and polarized light microscopy (PLM) to determine the layer-
ing structure of the fragments and to identify pigment miner-
als. Finally, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) were used in two cases to provide more
detailed data about the types of minerals present.30 The results
of the technical analysis indicate that the Kazakly-yatkan
paintings were constructed using an uncomplicated ground
preparation procedure and with primarily locally available
materials. The painting ground was prepared with a 1 to 5
millimetre-thick layer of gypsum plaster placed directly onto
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the mud plastered wall. Charcoal and a variety of iron oxides
were used to create a subtle palette of red, yellow, pink, black,
gray, and gray-blue shades.31 The microscopy revealed the inge-
nuity in the use of local materials to create subtle differences
in color (for example, charcoal was finely crushed and mixed
with gypsum to create a grayish blue color).32 An unusually
bright red sample found in association with fragment KY07
1009 P007 was identified as cinnabar. Cinnabar has only been
documented in area 09 of the KY10 complex.33 With the
exception of this sample, all laboratory testing was performed
in 2006 on fragments without imagery collected from the fill
levels of the western corridor, central entrance/exit, and inte-
rior of the monumental building. While the palette of these
fragments and that of the Kazakly-yatkan portraits appears to
be one and the same, it should be reiterated that the results of
the 2006 laboratory testing pertain broadly to the paintings
throughout the monumental building, not necessarily directly
to the portraits themselves. While assessments of pigment
mineral composition and ground structure may be assumed to
also apply to the portraits, evidence for re-plastering and re-
painting events detected in the laboratory analysis do not nec-
essarily indicate that earlier compositions lie beneath them.34
The palette of the portrait gallery fragments is relatively lim-
ited, and includes white, red/brown, orange, yellow/gold and
black. Pigments documented in other areas of the complex
(such as cinnabar from area 10 09) have not been documented
in the gallery.
An area that may have been used for pigment preparation
was exposed in the southern central tower of the western cor-
ridor (see Figs. 2 and 3). Numerous chunks of red and yellow
ochre, together with other materials, were found scattered on
the floor or main surface of this tower (see Fig. 3). Red ochre
was clearly dominant in this preparation area. Several of the
red ochre chunks were relatively large, measuring up to 3 cen-
timeters in length. The yellow chunks appear to be generally
smaller than the red. White flecks also indicate gypsum (or
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jiaaa_4.indb 9
lime), although it is unclear if this was used in the plastering
process, or for pigment preparation. Neither suggestion is
exclusive. Two amorphous fragments of heavily corroded cop-
per alloy were found. Two large chunks of charcoal, preserved
as rectangular stubs, are positioned on the surface of the area,
and appear to be in situ. These pieces were located directly in
front of a pakhsa ledge which lines the interior of the tower,
but it is difficult to interpret them further. Other smaller frag-
ments of charcoal were dispersed amongst the ochre and lime/
gypsum. It is unclear if these fragments were used in pigment
preparation, or if they were associated with the in situ pieces.
This area is especially important because it provides rare evi-
dence for production or preparation of pigments in close prox-
imity to the area where they were actually used.
The portrait gallery
The fragment location plan for the portrait gallery is shown in
Fig. 4. Over 100 fragments were excavated in this northern
section of the corridor in levels on or above the floor during
the 2006 and 2007 field seasons. Of these, 45 can clearly be
identified as belonging to a portrait on the basis of the sche-
matic style of representing the personages (see below). Thirty-
six head fragments have been identified within this group,
suggesting that approximately 36 personages were represented
in the corridor (see Table 1).35 Many of the fragments fell along
the eastern half of the corridor, raising the possibility that only
the eastern face of the gallery was painted.36 The plan shows
that, on the basis of the findspot of the fragments, it is possible
to define three clusters of wall painting fragments within the
northern half of the corridor – a south cluster, a central cluster
and a northern one – in addition to a fourth cluster found in
the central doorway leading from the outer complex into the
internal building (see Fig. 2). Whether these clusters are appar-
ent or real will become clearer only after a full analysis of the
fragments found within each section, when treatment is com-
plete. It is difficult to understand the presence of portrait frag-
ments in the doorway because it is relatively far from the wall
where the images are understood to have been painted. There
may be several explanations for this. Among these are the pos-
sibilities that the area around this doorway was also painted
with portraits, and that portraits were associated with the pro-
cession in the southern part of the gallery.
Fragments showing portrait images are shaded grey in the
location plan and are labeled according to a key, which is based
on the clusters. The doorway cluster is A, and fragments in this
cluster are labeled A1, A2 etc. The south cluster is B, the central
cluster is C and the north cluster is D. Fragments which cannot
be clearly identified as belonging to part of a portrait are stip-
pled on the plan. Fragments are referred to in the text by their
excavated number.37 The fragments show portraits of various
sizes, together with other figurative pieces, which are more dif-
ficult to identify. A long, narrow section of wall painting in this
15/03/11 08:10
 section of the corridor was found in situ, but this is very poorly
preserved. The portraits comprise individually framed busts
(see Figs 5-9) – although it is possible that at least one (KY07
P034c [Fig. 11 C05]) shows the body to the waist. The largest
of the variously sized portraits (on fragment KY06 P024 [Fig.
6 B03]) is slightly smaller than life size. The frames are rectan-
gular, drawn in a narrow (approximately 1 centimetre wide)
black line. The lower line of the bust sits a couple of centimetres
above the lower line of the frame. Two larger fragments (KY06
P024 [Fig. 6 B03] and KY06 P007 [Fig. 6 B04]) demonstrate
that the framed portraits comprised at least three rows and two
columns, forming a “grid” pattern. The portraits are relatively
easily recognizable because of their apparently schematic form.
In almost all cases black is used to draw the main outline of
the portrait, including the facial features and the costume
(KY07 P034 [Fig. 11 C05] appears to be the only clear excep-
tion; here the bust does not appear to be outlined). The bust
is shown frontally, while the head is in profile, facing either left
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or right. Each head is characterized by red ears with the carti-
lage clearly detailed, full red lips, and a long and straight nose.
The nostril is depicted with a separate semi-circular line, form-
ing almost a horseshoe shape. The eyes are distinctive. The
circular pupil sits in the open end of a sideways placed “U”
shape. The base of this “U” shape is extended into a single line,
which very slightly curves onto the temple. The two ends of
the U are also flicked very slightly outwards. Above the upper
line of the eye, the eyelashes are schematically rendered with a
single, thin and rather delicate backwards curving line. The
eyebrow is a thick and definite curve above the eye; it also
curves very slightly onto the temple. The thick, black shoulder-
length hair frames the face, and bulges at the neck. Although
the physiognomy seems largely schematic, some small details,
such as the apparent depiction of a fuller jaw (compare for
example the full jaw of KY06 P024a [Fig. 6 B03] with KY06
P031a [Fig. 10 B07) may indicate that viewers could differenti-
ate personages represented in the gallery.
Each personage wears a variously decorated V-necked upper
body garment, and a spiral torque with zoomorphic terminals.
Sometimes a headdress is worn, but not in all cases. Earlier
publications have cautiously identified a “crouching feline”
headdress and a “bird” protome headdress.38 Continued con-
servation/restoration of some of the fragments has allowed the
identification of the “crouching feline” headdress to be refined.
It now appears that this headdress is in fact a crouching griffin,
or some other fantastic creature with a crouching animal body
and a bird-like head (KY06 P001b [B02] is the only example
which shows the complete headdress). The bird protome head-
dress appears to be differentiated from the griffin headdress by
differences in the band of the headdress (the best preserved
example is shown on KY06 P001c [B02]) and also by the
details of the facial features of the bird itself, although further
conservation/restoration may provide more details of the bird
facial features (for now see Fig. 10 (B02) for a detailed com-
parison of both creatures).
10
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Several general observations can be made on techniques
used by the artisans in the painting of the portrait images.
Often traces of very narrow red/brown lines are observed
either underneath the black contour line or apparently outlin-
ing black lines. It appears that red/brown is used in many cases
to “sketch” the images before they are finalized with the black
contour line.39 Some fragments also provide evidence to sug-
gest that the black contour line was drawn after other colors
had been added. KY06 P024a (Fig. 13 B03) is a good example
of this, as it shows the red/brown pigment visible outside the
black line of the left shoulder. Microscopy analyses of fragment
samples in fact demonstrate that, where black and red occurred
together (seven out of sixteen samples), black paint was applied
over red paint. In two of these cases, black paint appears as a
stripe over a red background. In one case, the order of applica-
tion could not be determined, where it appeared at the micro-
scopic level that the two colors may have been mixed. Based
on the evidence from the microscopy of these small samples,
it can be concluded that black may have been used as an outline
color, for detailing, and/or for contour lines.40 This finding is
consistent with observations made regarding the Kazakly-
yatkan portraits, but the samples used in the technical analysis
came from the fill of various parts of the building, primarily
the central doorway as regards these black-on-red samples, and
not directly from the portraits themselves.
Figs 5 -9 show preliminary digitized tracings, where availa-
ble, for most of the fragments discussed below.41 These images
are black and white because it is problematic at this stage to
reproduce digital color illustrations due to the varying quality
of the preserved pigment, and the difficulty of identifying the
original color correctly. Figs. 10 and 11 provide color photos of
other fragments. Fragments are traced at 1:1, either directly in
the field or in the laboratory, depending on whether they were
found face up or face down in the fill. The tracings are then
digitized using a drawing tablet and Adobe Illustrator. In gen-
eral, in cases where the fragment is fully, or almost fully treated
(i.e., KY06 P024 [B03]), each piece of plaster is shown. How-
ever, where treatment of a fragment is not yet complete only
the broad outline of the shape of the plaster is indicated. The
shape of the fragment on the (hand drawn) plan may not
always reflect the shape of the fragment as it is digitized. Espe-
cially for those fragments that are found face down in the fill,
in-field documentation only shows a tracing of the outline of
the general shape of the plaster pieces. While several smaller
fragments may comprise a single fragment number, not all of
these fragments will necessarily show a portrait fragment. For
these sorts of reasons, there will necessarily be discrepancies
between the fragment location plan and the description of the
portrait fragments in the preliminary catalogue. Digitized trac-
ings are presented at the same scale. Each digitization is con-
textualized with a portrait template, which shows the proposed
location of each fragment on the template. It is clear from the
template that individual portraits are differently sized and that
there are differences in the shape and size of the bust. In numer-
15/03/11 08:10
 ous cases the template has been either enlarged or decreased
to “fit” the portrait fragment. For those fragments that have
not been fully treated, it has been necessary on occasion to
distort the body and the head, and also the frame outlines of
the template. KY06 P007 (B04) is a good example of this.
Despite the general absence of in situ remains in the gallery,
it is possible to gain some idea of the original placement of the
fragments by a contextual presentation of the portrait frag-
ments. The descriptive catalogue presents the fragments by
cluster in the order in which they were found as one proceeds
northwards along the corridor, irrespective of their level within
the fill. This direction of movement has been chosen on the
basis of the direction of movement of the in situ procession in
the southern half of the corridor. This contextual approach
facilitates a more comprehensive understanding of the display
of the portraits. Table 1 provides an overview of each fragment
discussed in the descriptive catalogue.
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catalogue
A. Doorway cluster (Figs 4 and 5)
As noted above, it is difficult to determine the original location
of the portrait fragments found in the doorway. It is possible
of course that they have fallen from the southern-most end of
the northern section of the corridor. Did the portraits found
in the doorway line the central entrance between the corridor
and the core building as well as the corridor itself ? If this is the
case, the attribute of left/south and right/north facing por-
traits becomes tenuous in this doorway cluster.
A01 KY06 P021 – left or south facing portrait preserving the
bunched hair at the neck, the right shoulder and part of the
left frame line. The upper body garment appears to be white,
with no ornamentation. Small traces of red/brown pigment at
the right side of the neck probably belong to the torque. Dig-
itization of partially treated fragment.
A02 KY06 P004 – left or south facing face with poorly pre-
served eye and eyebrow, part of the red ear and part of the hair
at the top of the head. Enough of the hair is preserved to show
that there was no headdress. Traces of red/brown pigment are
visible underneath the black pigment on the hair. Red/brown
traces around the neck indicate the torque. Traces or red/
brown outline are visible along the hair line on the forehead
and also the extended line of the eye onto the temple, and
around the jaw line. Digitization of partially treated fragment.
A03 KY06 P020 1 – comprises two fragments, including a por-
trait head facing right or north (not illustrated), and an ear
and hair fragment, which is illustrated here. It is possible that
both pieces belong to the one portrait, as both belong to a
north facing “portrait,” while the head fragment is missing the
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ear. The ear fragment shows part of an ear and the hair behind
it. The cartilage of the red/brown ear is detailed in a darker
brown color. There are also some patches of black on the pre-
served section of the cheek, in front of the ear. It is possible to
consider these as facial markings, despite the very scant evi-
dence of these among the Kazakly-yatkan portraits.42 The head
fragment (not shown) preserves part of the hair, the eye and
eye brow and part of the neck and chest. It is possible that this
figure wore a headdress – the preserved upper line of the hair
is very straight across the top, as though cut off by the base of
a headdress – although no details of this piece are preserved.
Significantly, this fragment preserves clear traces of an earring
in the left ear. The earring appears to comprise a central oval
shaped ring, with a smaller circular ring attached to it at the
bottom. The oval shaped ring appears to have been attached
to the ear with another ring (or rings?) but these are too poorly
preserved to define any details. Traces of curving red/brown
lines around the neck evidently are the preserved section of the
torque. Of the costume, only the right hand side of the V-neck
is preserved. Digitization of partially treated fragment show-
ing the ear and part of the face.
A04 KY06 P008 – right or north facing portrait preserving the
upper line of the head/hair at the front of the head and parts of
the eye and eyebrow. The upper left corner of the frame is pre-
served, as is a small section of the frame to the left and the frame
above. The defined line of the head/hair indicates that no head-
dress was worn. Digitization of partially treated fragment.
A05 KY06 P016 – right or north facing portrait preserving
part of the hair, the ear, the upper portrait frame, and a very
small section of the frame to the right. Traces of red/brown
pigment are found in the hair below the ear. A small circle at
the back of the head appears to be the remains of a tie from a
headdress (compare with the knot on KY06 P046d [C06]).
Another black outline emanating from the top of the head also
probably belongs to the headdress. However, other preserved
examples of headdresses (see for example KY06 P003 [A07]
and especially KY06 P028 [C03]) show that these lines are
typically outlined in red/brown rather than black. Digitization
of partially treated fragment.
A06 KY06 P003 – right or north facing portrait preserving
the head and face and most of a crouching griffin headdress.
This fragment is one of the best preserved fragments in the
corpus and is critical for establishing details of the crouching
griffin headdress. The details of the face are very well preserved,
including the schematic rendering of the eyelash, which on this
example is shown in red/brown pigment. The cartilage of the
ear is shown in a slightly darker shade of brown than the typi-
cal red/brown of the ear. The headdress sits just above the hair-
line and comprises a decorated band tied at the back of the
head in a small bow, and a sub-triangular frontispiece. This
frontispiece is hollow, and apparently wraps around three
11
15/03/11 08:10
 quarters of the head of the wearer, leaving the back of the head
and hair visible in profile. The body of a crouching animal is
shown in profile on the frontispiece. Judging by the long, thin
tail and the long forepart of the back legs, this animal is a feline.
The animal is white against a red/brown background. The tail
forms the outline of the back edge of the frontispiece. The rear
legs crouch along the base of the plate. The belly of the feline
is slightly swollen. The front legs are short. The band of the
headdress is ornamented with red/brown circles, apparently
alternately solid and plain. A thin red/brown line appears to
edge the band – it is possible that this is a fabric lining which
both made the headdress more comfortable to wear, and also
served to tie the headdress at the back of the head – the bow
here is red/brown and outlined in black. As the face is in pro-
file, so is the headdress; it is possible that the crouching feline
motif is mirrored on the right side of the head. Numerous
small flecks of red/brown pigment are found across the frag-
ment. Digitization of partially treated fragment.
H
Summary
Six fragments preserving identifiable portrait images were
found in the doorway cluster. Seven head fragments were iden-
tified. Two portraits face left or south, and five face right or
north. A crouching griffin headdress (KY06 P003 [A06]) and
another unclear headdress type (KY06 P016 [A05]) have been
documented; it is clear that two personages (KY06 P004
[A02], and KY06 P008 [A04]) did not wear a headdress.
B. Southern cluster (Figs 4, 6 and 10)
B01 KY06 P002 – fragment preserving the left half of a bust,
and part of the right frame. Traces of the black outline of the
side of the bust and the left side of the outline of the V-neck of
the upper body garment are preserved. The upper body gar-
ment appears to have been solid red/brown. It is also possible
to see the remains of three spirals of the torque. Digitization
of untreated fragment.
B02 KY06 P001 – large fragment preserving the remains of
four portrait frames, two of which retain the portrait images.
KY06 P001a is the upper left portrait frame, P001b is the
upper right frame, which preserves a portrait, as does the lower
right frame, P001c. The portrait in frame P001d preserves the
lower left frame, and a small section of the left shoulder and
torso is preserved, to the V of the upper body garment, and
showing some of the red/brown lines of the torque. It appears
that the upper body garment is white or undecorated. Color
photograph of the headdress ornamentation only of a partially
treated fragment.
KY06 P001b – the portrait is quite poorly preserved, but nev-
ertheless what appears to be a type of griffin headdress, (or at
least a fantastic creature) showing the body of an animal and
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the head of a bird (?) facing right or north is clearly preserved.
The body of the animal is only partially preserved, but com-
parison with the crouching griffin headdress of KY06 P003
(A06) shows clear parallels. The entire headdress is outlined
in red/brown. The base of the headdress sits approximately 1
cm above the hairline of the figure. The base of the headdress
is characterized by apparently alternate solid red/brown and
outlined in red/brown circles on a white background. Above
this band the headdress is poorly preserved except for a red/
brown background and traces of white. Clearly preserved,
however, is the head, apparently of a bird with a rather long
beak, at the apex of the frontispiece of the headdress (Fig. 10
B02 lower). The face of the “bird” is shown in profile, the eye
and eyebrow of a very similar style to that on the portrait faces.
Below the eye are three slightly upwards curving lines, as
though across the cheek of the creature. There is some evidence
preserved of the feathers of the bird on the neck. The base of
the headdress is clearly comparable to that of KY06 P003
(A06), which also has a decorated band.
The upper body garment appears to be white and undeco-
rated. The torque shown in this fragment differs slightly from
others because the rings appear to be shown in a solid red/
brown color. It is difficult to be definite about the number of
rings, although it is possible that the torque comprises at least
six spirals.
KY06 P001c –well preserved portrait facing north and show-
ing a bird headdress, which is clearly distinguished from the
griffin headdress portrayed on KY06 P001b. The bird faces
right or north. The differences include the facial details, the
shape of the body and the position of the creature in relation
to the head of the wearer. On this particular example, no
details yet of the rest of the headdress have been identified
(further cleaning is required), although it is clear that the
headdress sits approximately 1 centimetre above the hairline at
the front of the head of the wearer. The face of the bird is
shown in profile (Fig. 10 B02 upper). The facial details of this
creature show an almond shaped eye with the eyebrow, in the
form of an S with a barely distinguishable curve, above the eye.
The beginning of the beak is shown with two parallels lines
running across it. The tip of the beak is poorly preserved, but
it does not appear to be very curved. The round head of the
bird is delimited from the rest of the body, which is covered
with feathers. The feathers are rendered by sub-oval shapes
with a short line running from the top of the shape to halfway
down the center of the oval. The body of the bird is character-
ized by a reflected S shape at the front. The base of the protome
is defined by a curved line, which, on this example, appears to
simply float above the head of the wearer. The back of the bird
is less curved that the front. Part of the back of the hair is
shown, and, on the basis of comparison with the griffin frag-
ments, it would appear that the structure of the headdress was
the same. However, no traces of the ties at the back of the head
are visible, nor is there any visible trace of the band of the head-
15/03/11 08:10
 dress. Fragment KY06 P046 (C06), although preserving only
the back of the head, may preserve the back of this headdress
type, in which case there is evidence to show that it was tied
with a band.
The torque is relatively well preserved, and shows both of the
terminals, although it is difficult to count the number of spirals.
Possibly six, including the terminals, are shown. The upper ter-
minal faces south (i.e., in opposition to the head of the person-
age), while the lower terminal faces north. The identity of the
animal is unclear, despite the well preserved long nose and the
circle indicating the eye and the ear. The animal appears to be
the same on each terminal. Only the outlines of the torque are
shown in red/brown, but the piece is not colored.
The V-necked upper body garment appears to be white, or
without ornamentation, except for the V-neck of the upper
body garment. The apex of the V is filled with at least five
roughly parallel vertical lines in orange. This detail may be
compared with fragment KY06 P007c (B04), which shows
H
only two vertical lines.
B03 KY06 024 – is one of the largest fragments, preserving
the remains of four left facing portraits. KY06 P024a is the
upper left portrait, P024b is the upper right portrait, P024c is
the lower right portrait and P024d is the lower left portrait.
The lower frame and bust line of a portrait above P024a is also
preserved. Digitization of fully cleaned fragment.
KY06 P024a – shows a left or south facing portrait. It is one
of the largest and best preserved personages and is especially
important for the detail of costume. The physiognomy is, in
general, standard, although in this case the jaw line appears
rather fuller than on other portraits. There is no evidence of a
headdress. The torque is also the standard spiral piece with
zoomorphic terminals, but here the details are very well pre-
served. Each spiral is shown in red/brown outline only; there
appear to be approximately eight spirals, including the terminal
spirals. The upper zoomorph faces left or north, while the lower
one faces right or south. The spirals turn in an anticlockwise
direction from neck to chest. The nose of the zoomorph is quite
long; the eye is indicated with a small solid circle. Around the
neck of the creature, it is possible to make out six rings, which
are shown as parallel vertical lines along the ring of the torque.
The costume of this personage is also so far unique. The apex of
the V-neck is white. The black outline of the bust is traced with
another red/brown line of a similar width around the shoulders
and upper arms and the V-neck. The garment is ornamented
with alternate diagonal straight and tight wavy lines over each
breast, showing two tight wavy lines and three straight lines. The
“stripes” around the upper arms are curved, possibly designed
to emphasize the biceps and show the folds of the fabric.43
KY06 P024b – part of the V-neck, the torque and the lower
part of the hair at the back of the head are preserved on a left
or south facing portrait. The spirals of the V-neck are solid.
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KY06 P024c – poorly preserved left or south facing portrait.
Part of the right shoulder is preserved; there is no evidence of
color on the upper body garment. Part of the torque is
preserved, but it is not possible to identify the number of
spirals. This personage is clearly wearing a red/brown colored
headdress, although the nature of the (poorly) preserved traces
of this piece do not appear to immediately fit into either of the
defined headdress types. The dimensions of the frame have
been reconstructed on the basis of portraits P024a and P024d.
However, assuming that the headdress has either a crouching
griffin or bird protome at the front, it would seem that the
height of the reconstructed frame is too small to accommodate
this creature.
KY06 P024d – left or south facing portrait wearing a solid
red-brown upper body garment outlined in the usual black and
no headdress. The apex of the V-neck is white. As with P024a,
the details of the torque are very well preserved. The piece is
shown in red/brown outline only and appears to comprise
approximately seven spirals, including the terminal spirals. The
head of each creature is separated from the trailing spiral by
three slightly curving vertical lines. There is no ear shown on
the creature and the eye is a small red/brown ring.
Several comparative points of note concerning the portraits
preserved on fragment KY06 P024 and other portrait images
are of interest. The size of portraits P024a and P024d are com-
paratively large, measuring approximately 60 centimetres in
height and 45 centimetres wide. The base of the bust P024a
measures 43 centimetres. The absence of a headdress on both
of these personages challenges the potential parallel signifi-
cance of power with size and headdress. While the costume
ornamentation on fragment P024a is unique at this stage it is
possible that further parallels in this ornamentation will be
revealed after all fragments are fully restored/conserved.
B04 KY06 P007 is significant as it shows further evidence of
the structure of the gallery. On this fragment, three portraits
are clearly shown forming a single column. P007a refers to the
uppermost portrait, P007b to the middle portrait and P007c
to the lower portrait. Digitization of untreated fragment.
KY06 P007a – the lower left corner, and very small sections
of the right side of the frame of this portrait are preserved, along
with parts of the head, the V-neck and the black outline of the
lower bust and the right shoulder. Personage faces right or
north. No evidence of pigment is documented on the chest of
the upper body garment, although the apex of the V-neck is
red/brown. Traces of the torque are preserved. The small areas
of red/brown pigment on the hair are difficult to identify. It is
possible that it is the remains of a headdress, but arguing against
this is the absence of evidence of ties at the back of the head.
KY06 P007b – disjointed remains of a right or north facing
personage. The hair and the ear are preserved, as are parts of
13
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 the eye and eyebrow. Only a small section of the right shoulder
outline and the lower line of the bust are preserved. Of the
frame, it is possible to make out the upper line, and small sec-
tions of the left side and the base. Parts of the right side of the
frame to the left are also preserved, as are traces of red/brown
pigment inside this neighboring frame.
KY06 P007c – right or north facing portrait preserving the
face and right side of the bust. Of the frame, the upper left
corner, and part of the left side are preserved. The curving jaw
line gives the impression of quite a full face. No pigment is
preserved on the chest, giving the impression that the figure
wears a white upper body garment. The apex of the V-neck
appears to be decorated with two orange vertical lines, and can
be compared with portrait KY06 P001c (B02), which shows
at least five parallels lines in the apex of the V. The torque is
partially preserved. The piece is outlined in red/brown and
preserves apparently five rings, including the terminal ring.
H
The face of the lower zoomorph only is preserved and it shows
a creature, facing right or north, with a long nose and a red/
brown ring for an eye.
B05 KY06 P027 – poorly preserved fragment showing the
head of a left or south facing personage. Only the ear – with
details of the cartilage – part of the hair behind the ear and a
small section of the neck and chest, preserving details of the
torque and apparently earring pendants, remain. Three small
sub-circular red/brown rings can be identified, hanging at the
base of the neck, below the hair line. The earrings may be sim-
ilar to those shown on fragment KY07 P023 (C07). Below the
earrings several curving lines probably show the torque, which
in this instance is in outline only. Not shown.
B06 KY06 P032 – small fragment showing the eye, eyebrow
and top of the head of a left or south facing portrait. No head-
dress is worn. Not shown.
B07 KY06 P031 – fragment preserves evidence of two por-
trait frames and one personage. KY06 P031a refers to the
upper frame and KY06 P031b refers to the lower frame. Only
the upper right corner of this frame is preserved, with no traces
of the portrait inside. Color photo of partially treated frag-
ment.
KY06 P031a – left or south facing portrait, preserving the
head and bust to the lower line of the frame. The torque is
reasonably well preserved, showing the upper and lower
zoomorphic terminals. The bands of the torque do not appear
to be colored, and instead only the outline of each red/brown
ring is shown. The zoomorph ornamenting the upper terminal
faces to the left – in opposition to the direction of the face –
while the lower one faces to the right. It is difficult to trace the
exact number of spirals on the torque because the rings are not
clearly defined. There appear to be approximately four rings,
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which are wrapped in an anti-clockwise motion, with the
lower terminal ending the fifth ring. Details of the face of the
zoomorph are unclear on both terminals. The head is clearly
identified by a swelling, and the two vertical parallel lines are
visible behind the head of the upper terminal creature, as
though encircling the neck. There is no evidence of a headdress
worn by the personage. The V of the neck of the upper body
garment is truncated by a horizontal black line. The apex of the
V is white. The garment is ornamented with orange diagonal
stripes on a white background. The stripes appear to comprise
a pattern showing a thicker (or just darker?) stripe, seen lining
the V followed by a thinner, or at least lighter colored stripe.
Final conservation/restoration of this fragment should con-
firm these exact details (it is possible that the ornamentation
of the garment is similar to that found on KY06 P024a [B03],
described above).
Summary
Seven fragments preserving identifiable portrait images were
found in the southern cluster. Twelve head fragments were
identified, indicating that there were at least twelve personages
depicted in this area. Seven personages face left or south, and
five face right or north. The bird protome and crouching grif-
fin headdress are present in this cluster. Six personages do not
wear a headdress.
C. Central cluster (Figs 4, 7 and 11)
C01 KY06 P023 – fragment comprises four main pieces, and
two smaller fragments which are unclear. Most significantly,
piece 2 shows the fore part of a very well preserved red/brown
bird protome fragment just below the black upper line of the
frame of the portrait. The bird is facing right or north. The eye
of the creature is shown with a large ring and a solid point in
the center. Two horizontal lines emanating from the rear of the
eye are visible, but it is unclear exactly what these lines are. The
eyebrow is also visible above the eye. The beak is not fully pre-
served, but the two slightly curved vertical parallel lines clearly
mark the join of the beak and the face. The preserved sections
of the neck and body show sub-oval shapes, which are meant
to indicate feathers. On this fragment, the absence of the short
vertical line within each shape further detailing the feathers
distinguishes this creature from the one shown on fragment
KY06 P001c (B02). Piece 1 shows part of the torque, outlined
in red/brown against the black line of the V-neck. Piece 3 pre-
serves more of a torque and also shows a small shoulder section
of the upper body garment, which appears to be decorated
with orange stripes. Piece 4 is much larger and preserves part
of the ear, the V-neck – with traces of the torque – and lower
right corner of the bust and the lower right corner of the frame.
Traces of red/brown are preserved in the V-neck. It is unclear
how or if the different pieces fitted together. In any case, judg-
ing by the shape of the fragments, it is clear that pieces 3 and 4
15/03/11 08:10
 belong to two different personages. Digitization of untreated
fragments 1-4.
C02 KY06 P030 – fragment preserves the lower part of a
torso, which is solid red/brown, and a small section of the
V-neck, at the apex. The apex appears to be white. A small sec-
tion of the left side of the frame is also preserved. Not shown.
C03 KY06 P028 – fragment preserves the head of a right or
north facing personage, wearing the crouching griffin head-
dress. Part of the torque and earrings are also preserved. The
facial features of the personage appear standard, although the
jaw line is relatively straight, giving the impression of rather a
thin face, in contrast, for example, with the face of the person-
age shown on portrait KY06 P024a (B03). The headdress is
red/brown and white. The band of the headdress sits approxi-
mately 1 centimetre above the line of the hair. The band is orna-
mented with solid red/brown circles, and red/brown rings.
H
Behind the first solid circle there is a form in the shape of an
open triangle, missing its base and with the apex cut off by a
very short, straight line. In total, the ornamentation of the
band of the headdress of this personage comprises a solid circle
followed by an open mouthed triangle, followed by a thin out-
lined circle and then a thicker outlined circle. This appears to
be the pattern as behind the second outlined circle there is a
solid circle with the open mouthed triangle behind it. The
haunches of the griffin (?) and the long rear feet, and a long
thin tail, all in white, are set against a red/brown background.
The red/brown earrings possibly comprise sub-circular shaped
beads, but their preservation is too poor to give any further
details. The torque itself is outlined with red/brown lines. The
remains of three spirals can be defined. While the upper
zoomorphic terminal can be identified, its details are poorly
preserved. It is possible to see two vertical parallel lines encir-
cling the neck of the creature. Digitization of partially treated
fragment.
C04 KY06 P035 – fragment preserves part of the bust, includ-
ing traces of the torque, and the frame, and also part of the
upper line of the frame below and a very small section of the
frame to the left. No color is documented on the chest of the
personage, except for in the apex of the V-neck, which is red/
brown. It is clear from the template that the fragment is dis-
torted. Digitization of partially treated fragment.
C05 KY06 P034 – fragment preserves the remains of four
portrait frames and four personages. KY06 P034a refers to the
upper left frame, P034b refers to the upper right frame, P034c
refers to the lower right frame and P034d refers to the lower
left frame. Color photograph of the partially treated frag-
ment.
KY06 P034a – the lower right corner of the frame is pre-
served, as is the left side of the torso. Traces of orange (?)
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stripes, possibly curving, are visible on the shoulder, possibly
similar to those on KY06 P024a (B03). The left shoulder
appears to be very close to the right side of the frame, another
similarity with KY06 P024a (B03).
KY06 P034b – the black outlines of the V-neck, the right
shoulder, the lower line of the bust and the frame, and also the
left side of the frame are visible. Traces of red/brown are visible
in the apex of the V. As in P034a, the right shoulder appears
to be very close to the left line of the frame.
KY06 P034c – preserves the head and body of a portrait. The
lower bust line is not visible, and, given the appearance of gold
pigment continuing down the preserved length of the frag-
ment, it is possible that this personage is not represented with
a bust portrait. The head faces right or north and has a rather
full face. The personage wears a bird protome headdress, which
is clearly differentiated from the griffin headdress by the
absence of an ornamented headband, and the lower line of the
protome, which is well defined and clearly matches the pro-
tome from KY06 P001b (B02) (see Fig. 10). The headdress sits
approximately one centimetre above the line of the hair. There
is a space of approximately two centimetres between the top
of the head of the bird protome and the upper frame line. All
of the details of the bird protome are shown in red/brown. The
head of the creature faces right or north. The eye is defined by
a large circle with a smaller solid dot indicating the pupil. Two
lines, a short upper line and a longer lower line, emanate from
the back of the eye. The eyebrow is clearly marked above the
eye. The feathers of the bird are shown by sub-oval shapes with
a short vertical line in each one, similar to the features on por-
trait KY06 P001 (B02). The body of the creature protrudes at
the front and is more softly curving at the back. No other line
provides any clear details of the headdress, although the black
hair is clear behind the white band of the headdress, which
narrows at the rear of the head, presumably to a tie, although
there is no evidence preserved of this (compare for example
the headdress on KY06 P046c [C06]). Traces of a red/brown
earring are preserved in the left ear, although it is difficult to
define it exactly. There appears to be a hollow ring through the
earlobe, outlined in red/brown, with the black hair visible
behind. The plaster immediately below this is missing, but the
remains of perhaps two small sub-circular pendants are visible.
Their form recalls the earrings on portrait KY07 P023 (C07).
The torque is also distinctive as it is outlined in red/brown, as
are all of the torques, but in this case it is colored yellow/gold.
Approximately four spirals are visible. The upper zoomorphic
terminal faces right and the spirals are wrapped anti-clockwise.
The personage wears a yellow/gold upper body garment that
does not appear to be outlined in black. The V-neck of the
garment is not outlined in black, but in red/brown; the apex
appears to be white. Red/brown also appears to have been used
to outline the bust. The garment is ornamented with red/
brown diagonal stripes mirroring the V-neck and covering the
15
15/03/11 08:10
 chest. The shoulders are not clearly preserved, but the remain-
ing form of the red/brown stripes indicates a similar pattern
to that found on KY06 P024a (B03). It is difficult to tell
exactly how much of the body was originally represented on
the preserved fragment; the yellow upper body garment
appears to extend further below the V-neck of the upper body
garment that is typical for the other portraits.
The personage represented in P034c is differentiated from
other personages by the combination of a number of elements:
the gold torque, the earrings, the gold upper body garment not
outlined in black, the bird protome headdress and, possibly,
the additional length of the body. Between the frame of P034c
and P034d there are traces of yellow/gold pigment, similar to
that found on fragment KY06 P046 (C06).
KY06 P034d – almost nothing is preserved of this personage,
except perhaps evidence of the ties of a headdress at the back
of the head, indicated by traces of red/brown pigment and a
H
very small area of black – presumably the hair, or perhaps the
outline of the ties (see for example KY06 P046 [C06]).
C06 KY06 P046 – large fragment preserves the frames of
four portraits. The upper left portrait is fragment KY06
P046a, the upper right is P046b (of which no details of the
portrait are preserved), the lower right is P046c and the lower
left frame is P046d. The vertical space between the four frames
seems to be gold. Field photo of untreated fragment.
KY06 P046a – preserves only the lower right section of the
bust, which appears to be colored yellow/gold, and the lower
right corner of the frame.
KY06 P046c – only the right shoulder line of this personage
is preserved, and part of the left side of the frame. The back-
ground of the frame is yellow/gold.
KY06 P046d –the back of the head, including the ear, show
a right or north facing portrait. Like KY06 P046c, the back-
ground on the portrait appears to be yellow/gold. The head-
dress is white, with no outline color, and recalls the headdresses
of the bird protome on personage KY06 P034c (C05). The
back of the headdress on KY06 P046d is clearly tied with a
red/brown band outlined in black (compare the circular shape
of the knot with KY06 P016 [A05]). The small section of the
upper body garment that is preserved on the left side of the
body is yellow/gold. Faint traces of red/brown at the neck
indicate the torque. The black line of the left half of the V-neck
is also preserved.
C07 KY07 023 – fragment preserves the remains of two por-
traits side by side. The personage on the left is KY07 P023a and
that on the right is KY07 P023b. Digitization of partially
treated fragment.
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KY07 P023a – only the head and upper part of the face of this
left or south facing portrait are preserved. There is no headdress.
The facial features are standard; perhaps most distinctive are the
red/brown earrings. They hang quite low from the ear and two
individual rings can be made out, which are attached to trian-
gular shaped pendants. It is unclear how these pendants were
attached to the ears.44 It is unclear if very small areas of red/
brown paint on the cheek are actual facial markings (and if so,
compare with KY06 P020 [A03]), or if they are simply flecks of
paint.45 Part of the right side of the frame is also preserved.
KY07 P023b – only a fraction of the right shoulder of this
personage is preserved, together with small sections of the left
side of the frame. The curving black contour of the shoulder
outlines of an upper body garment with a yellow/gold back-
ground with red/brown over the shoulder stripes.
C08 KY07 P024 – fragment preserves a section of hair and
the ear of a left or south facing personage. Digitization of
untreated fragment.
C09 KY07 P001 – very small fragment shows a black contour
line, possible belonging to the V-neck, and red/brown lines
meeting it, possibly a torque. Tracing of partially treated frag-
ment.
C10 KY07 P011 – fragment showing part of the chest with
the V-neck outlined in black, a red/brown colored upper body
garment and numerous slightly curved lines of the spiral
torque. The lines indicating the torque are placed very close
together, making it difficult to count the individual spirals.
Not shown.
C11 KY07 P002 – fragment preserves the corners of two por-
trait frames. The space between the frames is four centimetres.
Although the frames are shown here in a column, it is possible
that they were originally placed side by side. Digitization of
untreated fragment.
C12 KY07 P021 – outline of the V-neck and the remains of
the spirals of the torque and, possibly, red/brown pigment in
the apex of the V-neck. Small patches of a grey color on the left
of the chest, and just above the right shoulder are unclear.
Digitization of untreated fragment.
C13 KY07 P014 – lower left section of a bust fragment appears
to show red/brown stripes against a white background. Sec-
tions of the lower right corner of the frame are also preserved.
Digitization of untreated fragment.
C14 KY07 P033 – fragment shows the rear of the head of a
left or south facing personage. Traces of red/brown indicate
the ties and/or band of a headdress, but it is unclear which
type. Digitization of untreated fragment.
15/03/11 08:10
 C15 KY07 P007 – fragment preserves part of the ear and the
hair of a left or south facing personage. Digitization of
untreated fragment.
Summary
Fifteen fragments preserving identifiable portrait images were
found in the central cluster, preserving at least nine personages.
Four personages face left or south, and four face right or north.
The crouching griffin headdress is documented once (KY06
P028 [C03]), and the bird protome occurs at least once (KY06
P023 2 [C01]), and maybe twice (KY06 P046d [C06]). One
personage does not wear a headdress.
D. Northern cluster (Figs 4, 8, 9 and 10)
D01 KY07 P062 – fragment shows the bust and parts of the
head and face of a right or north facing personage. The base
H
line of the bust, and two small sections of the lower frame line,
are preserved. No headdress is worn. The personage wears an
upper body garment decorated with red/brown stripes and a
single black stripe in the middle of each side of the chest. A
red/brown stripe borders each side of the black stripe. The
apex of the V is red/brown. Traces showing the outline of the
torque spirals are preserved. It is very difficult to count the
number of spirals comprising the torque because of the poor
state of preservation. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D02 KY07 P040 – this fragment is unusual as the plaster on
which the pigment is painted was not preserved; instead, the
pigments had been imprinted onto the earth, making the exca-
vated piece a reflection of the original. The illustration in Fig. 8
shows the original orientation of the fragment. The fragment
preserves the back of the head and part of the red/brown ear of
a right or north facing personage. The main color of the head-
dress is red/brown and it is tied at the back of the head with a
red band, outlined in black. The head appears smaller than most
of the other fragments. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D03 KY07 P026 – preserves the remains of two portraits, side
by side. KY07 P026a refers to the left portrait, KY07 P026b
refers to the right portrait. Some of the more specific details
of the costume are obscured by the remains of black pigment,
evidently from another fragment which fell face down directly
on top of fragment KY07 P026 and left imprints. The pigment
impressions are not shown on the tracing. Digitization of par-
tially treated fragment.
KY07 P026a – preserves the upper left section of the bust and
part of the right side of the frame. Remains of four red/brown
diagonal stripes, relatively parallel to each other, are visible on
the chest, together with a black stripe next to the outermost
stripe. A red/brown line also traces the inside black contour
line.
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KY07 P026b – fragment preserves the bust. A small section
of a diagonal black line is preserved on the right half of the
torso. The torque is not fully preserved, but is remarkable
because, with the exception of the uppermost line, it is not
outlined as on other examples, but is shown in a solid red/
brown color.
This piece is significant as it seems to preserve evidence, best
preserved on the right shoulder, of a very narrow, red/brown
line underneath the black contour. It is possible that this line
is a “sketch” of the main lines of the image, and was used as a
guide to paint in the standard black contour line. A similar
red/brown line is visible on the V-neck of the garment, where
there does not appear to be any black outline, raising the ques-
tion of whether it was a deliberate act to leave off the black
outline on the V-neck.
D04 KY07 P039 – this fragment appears to preserve the cen-
tral section of a head of a right or north facing portrait. Part
of the headdress at the top of the head, outlined in red/brown,
is preserved, as is a very small section of the band around the
head. The headdress type is unclear. Digitization of untreated
fragment.
D05 KY07 P044 – fragment shows the right eye and part of
the crouching feline/griffin headdress of a portrait facing right
or north. The upper line of the portrait frame, plus the lower
line of the frame above, are also preserved. The fragment is
clearly distorted as the frame lines do not allow room for the
head of the creature on the headdress. The band of the head-
dress is poorly preserved. However, part of a rectangular shape
can be defined, indicating that the band of this headdress dif-
fers from the band of other crouching feline/griffin head-
dresses. Not shown.
D06 KY07 P020- fragment preserves three partial frames and
one portrait. The upper left frame is KY07 P020a, the upper
right frame is P020b and immediately below P020b is P020c.
No portrait details are preserved in P020a. Color photo of
fragment in the field.
KY07 P020b – the central section of the bust of this portrait
is preserved. The garment is ornamented with orange diagonal
stripes. Three solid red/brown rings of the torque are pre-
served.
KY07 P020c – only the upper frame and the very top of the
head of this personage is preserved. No evidence of a headdress
is preserved. It is not possible to identify which direction this
personage faced.
D07 KY07 P041 – fragment preserves a small section of the
left shoulder, the left portrait frame, and another very small
section of the frame to the right. It is possible that the upper
body garment ornamentation included a diagonal black stripe,
17
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 a small trace of which is preserved on the chest. An unclear
blue/grey color is preserved between the portrait frames.
­Digitization of partially treated fragment.
D08 KY07 P043 – fragment shows the top of the head and
the very tip of the ear of a right or north facing personage. No
headdress is worn. Digitization of partially treated fragment.
D09 KY07 P006 – traces of the bust of this personage are
preserved. The upper body garment appears to be white with
a single black diagonal stripe partially preserved on the left
side. Traces of red/brown in the apex of the V indicate that this
part may have been ornamented. Traces of the torque are also
visible. A very small section of the upper frame line of the por-
trait below is preserved. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D10 KY07 P005 – fragment shows a left or south facing por-
trait. Only the top part of the head, part of the red/brown ear
H
and parts of the eyebrow, eye and lips of this personage are
preserved. No headdress is worn. Traces of other lines, possibly
the frame, to the right, are also preserved. Digitization of par-
tially treated fragment.
D11 KY07 P048 – this fragment shows the interstices of four
portrait frames. No details of the personages within the frames
are preserved. However, the lower right frame clearly shows a
red/brown background. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D12 KY07 P047 – although this fragment comprises two
larger, separate pieces, they appear to be quite skewed, espe-
cially the fragment on the right. Two portraits are preserved
side by side. The portrait on the left is KY07 P047a and that
on the right is P047b. Digitization of untreated fragment.
KY07 P047a – part of the torso of a personage wearing a red/
brown upper body garment, possibly decorated with a black
diagonal stripe running down the center of each side of the
chest.
KY07 P047b – the upper right side of the torso of a personage
wearing a red/brown upper body garment decorated with a
black diagonal stripe running down the center of each side of
the chest.
D13 KY07 P071 – small fragment preserving the head and
traces of the eye of a right or north facing personage. No head-
dress is worn. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D14 KY07 P068 – small fragment preserving the left arm of
a personage wearing a red/brown upper body garment orna-
mented with a black stripe. A small section of the right side of
the frame is also preserved. Traces of an orange background
outside the right side frame remain. Digitization of untreated
fragment.
18
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D15 KY07 P069 – large fragment preserves the corners of
four portrait frames, including one relatively well preserved
personage. KY07 P069a is the upper left frame, P069b is the
upper right frame, P069c is the lower right frame and P069d
is the lower left frame. No traces of the portraits are preserved
in frames a-c. However, frame b has traces of an orange back-
ground inside and outside the preserved frame lines. Digitiza-
tion of partially treated fragment.
KY07 P069d – shows the left side of the bust and head of a
right or north facing portrait, the upper right corner of the
frame, a small section of the lower bust line and the lower
frame line. Orange ties outlined in black at the back of the
head preserve evidence of a headdress, although it is unclear
which type. Traces of the torque are also visible at the neck.
The upper body garment is white with a central black stripe,
which is almost fully preserved. Part of the shoulder line is also
preserved.
D16 KY07 P066 – very poorly preserved fragment showing
the remains of the V-neck of a portrait, the bust base line and
traces of the lower frame line. Another line below this is the
upper frame line from the portrait below. All of these lines are
in black. Traces of red/brown pigment are preserved on the
chest of the personage. Digitization of untreated fragment.
D17 KY07 P052 – remains of the black outline of the V-neck
and the base line of the bust of a portrait, and a small section
of the lower frame line. Traces of red/brown inside the apex of
the V may indicate that this area was red/brown. Red/brown
traces of the torque are also preserved. Digitization of
untreated fragment.
Summary
Seventeen fragments preserving identifiable portrait images
were found in the north cluster. Eight head fragments were
found; one head faces left or south, and seven face right or
north. A crouching griffin headdress was recorded (KY07
P044 [D05]), as was another, unclear headdress type (KY07
P040 [D02]). Four personages did not wear a headdress. Two
fragments of black painted text on a white background were
also found at the northern end of this cluster. Similar painted
text was also found in association with the in situ procession
scene in the southern section of the western corridor.46
Discussion
The approximate total area of all recorded plaster fragments
recovered from the portrait gallery is 10.3 m2. Although it is
impossible to know the original height of the wall paintings in
the corridor, it is certain that, at least in some sections, it must
have reached approximately 1.9 metres (the reconstructed
15/03/11 08:10
 height of the three tiers of portraits based on KY06 P024
[B03], and assuming that the paintings started at floor level).47
Given that the length of the northern section of the corridor
is approximately 24 metres, there is a potential area of 48 m2
of plaster along the eastern face of the corridor. The recovered
plaster is approximately 21.5 percent of the total. This figure
should be borne in mind when exploring interpretations of the
imagery. The discussion below is a preliminary overview of
some of the main questions raised by the portraits.
The Question of Identity
Despite the contextualized presentation of the fragments, it is
difficult to comment on any sense of “progression” as one
moves from south to north through the corridor. Either or
both the crouching griffin and the bird protome headdress are
found in each cluster, while personages without a headdress
are also present in each cluster. Only the central cluster seems
H
to be differentiated by the presence of yellow/gold, used in
costume, as a background color, and, in one example (KY06
P034c [C05]), to color a torque. Additionally, possibly three
bird protome headdresses are found in this central area.
From a purely visual perspective the identity of those por-
trayed is problematic. While this complex question is the focus
of on-going study,48 several points may be considered. Obvious
sexual characteristics such as breasts are absent on the bust
portraits. Identification of gender is also difficult to define
because of a lack of knowledge regarding gender indicators in
ancient Chorasmia, particularly in visual art.49 The presence or
absence of facial hair cannot be used as a reliable indicator of
sex as males are not necessarily shown with facial hair.50 The
presence or absence of “breasts” is similarly unreliable. Some
examples of male terracotta figurines emphasize the pecto-
rals.51 Other Chorasmian figurines, interpreted as female, do
not show the breasts,52 although it is possible that these figu-
rines represent young girls. Stereotypical indicators of sex
might also be seen, for example, in the size of the shoulders of
each personage – compare the broad shoulders on portraits
KY06 P024a and P024d (B03) with the apparently much nar-
rower shoulders on KY06 P007c (B04). However, these pre-
liminary observations should be regarded with caution until
further indicators of sex and gender in a Chorasmian context
can be identified.
Other aspects of the images offer different perspectives. The
frontal position of the bust with the face represented in profile
has strong parallels in Chorasmian coinage. It is perhaps not
insignificant that the earliest Chorasmian coins, dated to the
second or early first century BCE, show the ruler with bust
and face in profile,53 while coins dated to the first century BCE
show the ruler in the same posture as the personages in the
gallery – the frontal bust and the face in profile. The first cen-
tury BCE coin also shows a bird on the headdress. However,
in this case the bird is shown with outspread wings, and is
clearly different from the bird protome headdress shown on
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fragments KY06 P001 (fig. 10).54 Finally, preliminary readings
of the fragments of painted texts found in the corridor suggest
direct references to more than one ruler. 55 While these texts
are not irrefutably linked to any of the portraits, it must be
considered a possibility that they were originally clearly associ-
ated with one or more of the images.
Dress
Costume is a valuable source for accessing the identity and
status of those represented in the gallery.56 Dress ornamenta-
tion and color is quite diversified, with numerous potential
costume variations based on background color and the color,
number and type of stripes, in addition to the ornamentation
of the apex of the V-neck.57 At this stage it appears that white
is the most common background color of the upper body gar-
ments. Red/brown and yellow/gold also feature as background
colors, but these are less common. Yellow/gold upper body
garments are only found in the central cluster (KY06 P034
[C05], KY07 P046 [C06] and KY07 P023 [C07]), possibly
pointing to the distinguished status of the wearers of this color.
In this respect, it is perhaps significant that while all other frag-
ments show the torque was painted red/brown, only KY06
P034c (C05) shows that the torque could be gold in color,
albeit with a red/brown outline. Ornamentation of the gar-
ments typically comprises various patterns of diagonal stripes,
following the line of the V-neck, in different colors – red/
brown (KY07 P014 [C13]), black (KY07 P069 [D15]) or
orange (KY06 P031a [B07]).58 The decoration of the apex of
the V is also of significance. Some examples show it plain white
(KY06 P024a [B03]), others are red/brown (KY07 P062
[D01]) and two fragments show the V decorated with either
two (KY06 P007c [B04]) or five (KY06 P001c [B04]) verti-
cal orange “stripes”. It is possible that this “V” could belong to
an under-garment. The most distinctive costume ornamenta-
tion is found on KY06 P024a (B03). This garment shows alter-
nate wavy and straight lines over the chest, with curved lines
over the shoulders and arms, which could alternatively indicate
the folds of the fabric.59
Headdresses
In addition to the diversity in dress ornamentation, at least two
different types of headdresses have been identified in the gal-
lery. The “crouching griffin headdress” (best preserved on
KY06 P003 [A06]), but see also KY06 P028 [C03]) com-
prises a band around the head and tied at the back, and a tri-
angular shaped frontispiece around the front half of the head
decorated with the crouching body of an animal and the neck
and head of a bird. The bird protome headdress is differenti-
ated from the griffin headdress by the band. In fact, the band
of the bird protome headdress is not clearly shown on any of
the preserved examples, nor do any of the examples show
exactly how this headdress was fastened. It is possible that on
19
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 personage KY06 P046d (C06) the remains of this headdress
are shown at the back of the head. The protome itself does not
show the wings of the creature, but attention is paid to the
facial features and the feathers. The feathers are represented
with various tear-drop, sub-oval and sub-square and circular
shapes in a style that is very reminiscent of bird representations
found in the wider Iranian world.60 Fragment KY06 P001
(B02) shows both of these headdresses on the one fragment,
with the personage wearing the crouching griffin headdress
above the personage wearing the bird protome headdress. A
detail of the head and neck of the griffin and the bird protome
is shown on Fig. 10. Absence of headdress should also be con-
sidered here. The absence of headdress on personages shown
in the largest portrait frames analysed to date and wearing an
upper body garment with the most complex decoration (KY06
P024a [B03]), raises questions about how status is visually
portrayed in ancient Chorasmia.
Headdresses with birds are well known in Chorasmia61 and
H
are also found in the Parthian and steppe worlds.62 As noted
above, a bird with outstretched wings is shown on the head-
dress of a ruler on a coin from Chorasmia dated to the first
century BCE.63 However, similar birds, especially in Choras-
mia and Parthia, are defined as predator birds, both on the
basis of the shape of the beak and in the wide-spread wings.
Vaynberg suggests that the eagle crown is typical of Choras-
mian kings64 although there has not been any specific study of
the identity of the birds depicted on Chorasmian coinage.65
Nevertheless, distinctive predator characteristics appear to be
missing on the Kazakly-yatkan creatures. The wings are not
depicted at all, and the beaks show features more closely resem-
bling a seed eater than a raptor.
Jewelry
Spiral torques with zoomorphic terminals and earrings are the
only jewelry shown on the portraits. On every portrait where
the evidence is preserved, a spiral torque is worn. The spiral
torque with zoomorphic terminals is important because it
points to the elite identity of each personage in the gallery.66
The spirals of the torque move in opposition to the profile
direction. It is hard to count the number of spirals on the pre-
served torques, although in general there appear to be approx-
imately seven to eight spirals (best shown on KY06 P024a
[B03]). In all cases except one (KY06 P034c [C05]) the torque
is red/brown. In some cases the spirals of the torque appear to
be shown in outline only (for example KY06 P024a [B03]),
while in others the spirals are solid (for example KY07 P020b
[D06]). The identity of the zoomorph is unclear, although
there appears to be little differentiation in the shape of the face.
In cases where the zoomorph is preserved on the upper and
lower terminal (KY06 P024a and P024d [B03]); KY06 P001c
[B02]) and KY06 P031a [B07]), the animal appears to be the
same. The “neck” of the animal in many cases appears to be
ringed with several circles. The upper terminal on KY06
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P024a (B03) shows seven rings, while the lower terminal
shows only one.67 From an historical perspective the torque is
critical in providing significant links between Chorasmia and
Parthia,68 and equally between Chorasmia and the steppe.69
Good comparisons for the Kazakly-yatkan torques are found
on Parthian coins, from approximately 127 BCE to 2 CE.70
This period corroborates very closely the mid first century
BCE dating of the paintings in the KY10 complex.
Evidence for earrings is clearly preserved on five personages
(KY06 P020 [A03], KY06 P027 [B05], KY06 P028 [C03],
KY06 P034c [C05] and KY07 P023a [C07]). However, it is
equally clear that earrings were not worn by every personage.
Earrings are worn by personages facing north and south, indi-
cating that they could be worn in both the left and the right
ear. Only one example is well enough preserved to provide a
description (KY07 P023a [C07]); here the earrings worn
appear to comprise two elongated triangular shaped pendants
with a circular shape attached to the point. The flat base of
the triangle sits below the level of the lobe, suggesting perhaps
that there was another piece connecting the triangular pen-
dant to the ear. It is significant that personages who are dis-
tinguished by other elements such as size – for example KY06
P024a (B03) – or headdress – for example KY06 P003 (A06)
– clearly do not wear earrings. Similarly, earrings are worn by
personages wearing the crouching griffin headdress (KY06
P028 [C03]), as well as personages with no headdress (KY06
P024c [B03]). All of these factors almost certainly have a
bearing on the specific rank of the personage.71 The absence
of evidence of earrings on the ruler portraits on Chorasmian
coins72 should be mentioned as it highlights the fact that a
choice was made to show the earrings on the Kazakly-yatkan
portraits.
Aspects of the identity of the personages depicted in the
gallery may also be hinted at in the direction faced. The por-
traits face either left or right. Twenty-one personages face
north, while fourteen face south. While north facing heads
predominate (58 %), the southern facing portraits (39 %)
appear relatively evenly interspersed among the north facing
portraits. The exception to this pattern is in the north cluster
where there is only one south facing example among seven
north facing portraits. Although the significance of direction
remains unclear, it is doubtful that such a choice would have
been arbitrary.73 The large fragment KY06 P024 (B03), pre-
serving remains of four portrait heads, shows that within this
cluster, all four heads faced in the same direction – to the left;
on the other large fragment, KY06 P007 (B04), the three
heads face right. Clearly, heads in alternate rows did not neces-
sarily face in opposite directions, indicating that among the
portraits themselves there was apparently no sense of move-
ment. Another curious aspect of the portraits which may hint
at their identity is the red ears. Where the evidence is pre-
served, all of the portraits have red ears. Presumably, this fea-
ture carried some significance, although no clear parallels have
been found.74
15/03/11 08:10
 Questions regarding the visual representation of identity,
including status and hierarchies, are clearly complex in relation
to the Kazakly-yatkan gallery. Nevertheless, given the signifi-
cance of costume (including dress, headdress and jewelry) in
non-verbal communication, it is possible to suggest that per-
sonages of various rank are depicted in the gallery, possibly
representing hierarchy in an elite context.75 More specifically,
a royal identity must be considered for at least some of the
personages represented.
Visualizing the Gallery: the display of the portraits
Attempts to reconstruct the imagery in the portrait gallery are
complicated by several issues: the fragmentary nature of so
many of the pieces, the numerous fragments with unidentified
imagery, and the almost complete absence of in situ finds in
this section of the corridor. Despite the fact that a satisfactory
reconstruction of the gallery is almost certainly impossible,
H
several facts regarding the original display of images in the por-
trait gallery can be discussed in more detail.
First, various fragments, including the two largest fragments,
KY06 P007 (B04) and KY06 P024 (B03), show that the por-
traits were clustered together in a “grid” pattern. This “grid”
pattern comprised at least three rows of framed portraits, and
at least two columns of portraits. The frames preserved in frag-
ment KY06 P024 (B03) measure 60 centimetres in height,
while there is a space of 5 centimetres between each frame (with
the possible exception of the personage represented on KY06
P034c [C05]). Thus the total height of the three portrait frames
preserved in fragment KY06 P024 (B03) is approximately 1.90
metres. Other frames, however, are smaller; for example, KY07
P0069 (D15) measures only 57 centimetres high. The width of
the frame of KY06 P024a (B03) is 45 centimetres, while that
of KY06 P007a (B04) is reconstructed to be 41 centimetres.
Size differences also occur in the bust of the portraits. For exam-
ple, the base of the bust of KY06 P024a and P024d (B03)
measures 43 centimetres while that for KY07 P062 (D01)
(based on the reconstructed size) is much narrower, measuring
36.7 centimetres. There is no preserved evidence to show exactly
where on the wall the portraits were positioned and how (or if )
these size discrepancies were accounted for visually.
The combined height of the portrait frames on the wall
(1.90 metres) has several implications for how the gallery was
viewed by an audience. The long and relatively narrow space
of the corridor also indicates that, irrespective of where the
portraits were positioned on the wall, the viewer would have
been compelled to look either up or down to take in each per-
sonage. It is impossible to tell where each portrait, or tier, was
originally situated on the wall. The width of the corridor is
significant also because it demonstrates that the audience of
the images at any one time must have been relatively small, as
no more than two people could walk abreast down the corri-
dor. It would have been most comfortable for an audience to
be walking in single file.
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A second point regarding the original display of the images
is that this apparent “grid” pattern of framed portraits almost
certainly did not cover the entire corridor wall. Many frag-
ments found in the corridor fill show imagery that does not
belong to the easily recognizable portrait template, while oth-
ers cannot be understood at all (see the fragment location plan,
Fig. 3, which distinguishes the portrait fragments from other
unclear and unidentified fragments). One fragment in par-
ticular, KY07 P010 (Fig. 12), from the central cluster, appears
to show a torso wearing a red/brown garment fastened around
the waist with a belt with a circular buckle. It is unlikely that
this fragment belongs to any of the bust portrait fragments
because the body is noticeably smaller than the portrait frag-
ments and clearly does not fit the typical bust style (but see the
comments in the catalogue above for KY06 P034 [C05]). The
relationship between the personage wearing the belt and those
represented in the framed portraits is unclear.
Audience and the Question of Access
The built space in which the portrait gallery is situated,
together with the specific aspects of its display discussed above,
hint at how the paintings were designed to be viewed. The
physicality of the built space indicates that the message of the
imagery in the portrait gallery was not aimed at the general
public, but instead was aimed at a more specific – and probably
elite – audience. One means of understanding the status the
audience is to assess who had access to the western corridor.
Although the question of access is complicated by the incom-
plete knowledge of the plan of the KY10 building complex,
several issues may be raised.
It is entirely possible that access to the western corridor,
which lies at the heart of the KY10 building complex, may
have been restricted.76 The significance of the central building
of the KY10 complex is highlighted by the structure of the
perimeter corridor with double central towers, and corner
towers, which clearly isolates it from the surrounding com-
plex. Typically, corridors act as areas of transition, leading
from one place to another and controlling movement. The
presence of the entrance in the center of the corridor, leading
from the interior to the exterior underlines the transitional
nature of this area. A large piece of carved stone found almost
in the center of the doorway, just inside the central building,
suggests that doors controlled the entry to/exit from this cen-
tral area. Presumably the function of the corridor itself is also
of significance in understanding the intended audience and
questions of access.
The presence of fragments from the western corridor show-
ing black painted text provides further evidence regarding the
audience of the portraits. The combination of diverse non-
verbal indicators of identity discussed above and painted text
fragments points to the notion of a sophisticated “visual lit-
eracy”, which presumably allowed viewers to “read” both the
images and the text.77 While the text suggests that at least some
21
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 members of the intended audience of these images were liter-
ate, the extent to which the imagery was able to be understood
without the text should also be considered.
The Portraits in the Context of Contemporary
Chorasmian Portraiture
The schematized portrait images at Kazakly-yatkan appear to
present an idealized type, which is not unusual in early por-
traiture of the Iranian world.78 The main sources of portraiture
in Chorasmia during this period include anthropomorphic
statue-ossuaries and ruler portraits on coins. The anthropo-
morphic ossuaries predominantly show a seated female, pos-
sibly representing a deity, but according to Rapoport et al. the
image is not a “true” portrait.79 Portraits of Chorasmian rulers
are shown on the obverse of coins. In all cases these figures have
either a beard or a moustache,80 but the earliest coinage shows
a shift from the side profile head copied from Greek coinage
H
to one where the shoulders are presented in frontal view with
the head turned sideways, the standard pose of the Kazakly-
yatkan portraits.81 A contemporary fragment of monumental
sculpture from Gyuar-kala is interpreted as a true portrait.82
Schematized portraiture in Chorasmia during this period
appears to be less common. A disk from Koy-krylgan-kala
dated to the 4th to 3rd century BCE has been reconstructed to
show a series of identical profile heads in the center, which
appear to be schematized.83 Although there are good parallels
for this schematized style of head in Chorasmian visual art,84
there is no resemblance to the Kazakly-yatkan portraits. It is
difficult to know whether more random images of humans,
such as the head of a figure on a mural fragment from Koy-
krylgan-kala, interpreted as an archer, and other faces found
on the Kazakly-yatkan paintings represent true portraiture or
not.85 The comparative evidence of portraiture in Chorasmia
demonstrates the contemporary use of both schematic and
true portraiture, and indicates that the use of a schematized
portrait style at Kazakly-yatkan was a clear choice.
Contemporary Portrait Galleries in Central Asia and Iran
The location of the Kazakly-yatkan portraits in a corridor dif-
ferentiates them from other portrait galleries in Central Asia
22
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and eastern Iran, which are typically located in open spaces
such as halls and terraces.86 While there are no comparable
contemporary portrait galleries preserved in mural art in the
broader Iranian world,87 galleries in monumental statuary and
other genres of visual art include Nisa, Surkh Kotal, Mathura,
Khalchayan and Bayte on the Ustyurt Plateau.88 Images in clay
and plaster and stone statuary, as well as relief friezes, are
linked to the dynastic rulers of most of these sites.89 The Kaza-
kly-yatkan portraits discussed here clearly differ from such
images – in their medium, their location, the specific use of the
framed bust, and the relatively large number of personages
depicted.90
Summary
Kazakly-yatkan is an unusual site. One characteristic of
Chorasmian sites of the early Antique period in general is
their diversity of form and possible functions.91 The frontier
fortresses are marked by an overall absence of conformity,
while the role of the enigmatic “cultic center” of Koy-Kryl-
gan-kala has not yet been satisfactorily determined.92 Kaza-
kly-yatkan is yet another site, the exact function of which was
clearly complex. Chorasmia sits between the Iranian world
and the steppe, between a tribal and a post-imperial heritage.
Elements of both can be seen in the paintings, as well as in
other internal fittings. Kazakly-yatkan was built at a time
when Chorasmia was only just emerging into written history,
93
and little is known about the place of this isolated river
delta in the wider sphere of contemporary Central Asian
political and economic systems. Fortunately, however, the
extensive sand dunes that cover the site have preserved a
remarkable wealth of images that offer an illustrated histori-
cal record that is as significant as written texts. The individu-
ally framed bust portraits from Kazakly-yatkan are unique in
mural art not only in Chorasmia, but in Central Asia and the
wider Iranian world. They provide a snapshot of the rich
decorative program of a monumental elite building during
the pre-Islamic period in this region and simultaneously gen-
erate a wealth of new material from which to better under-
stand the politico-religious and social history of Chorasmia
during a relatively “dark” period.
15/03/11 08:10
 Notes
1  V. N. Yagodin, Khozhaniyazov, Amirov and V. V. Yagodin, Institute of
History, Archaeology and Ethnology, Nukus, Karakalpakstan; Betts and
Kidd, Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney; Brite, Department
of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles; G. Fray,
Independent Consultant. The Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to
Chorasmia is directed by V.N.Yagodin and A. Betts. The primary research
and analysis of the Kazakly-yatkan wall paintings presented in this paper has
been undertaken by F. Kidd as part of an Australian Research Council
Postdoctoral Fellowship. E. Brite is responsible for pigment analysis. V.V.
Yagodin and G. Fray are project wall paintings conservators. G
Khozhaniyazov and S. Amirov are Field Directors.
2  V. N. Yagodin and S. M. Madiyarov eds, Materialy k svody pamyatnikov
istorii i kultury Karakalpakskoi ASSR. Vol. 2, ( Nukus, “Karakalpakstan”,
1986), 7.
3  The project has received substantial support from the Australian
Research Council (A10009046, DP0556232, DP0877805) as well as
National Geographic and the generosity of many volunteers. C14 analyses
H
were largely funded by support from ANSTO (AINSE Grant 00/008).
4  S.W. Helms and V.N.Yagodin, “Excavations at Kazakl’i-yatkan in the
Tash-k’irman oasis of ancient Chorasmia: a preliminary report,” Iran 35
(1996): 43-65; S.W. Helms, V. N. Yagodin, A. V. G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov
and F. Kidd, “Five seasons of excavations in the Tash-k’irman oasis of ancient
Chorasmia, 1996-2000. An interim report,” Iran 39 (2001): 119-144; S.W.
Helms, V.N. Yagodin, A.V.G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and M. Negus, “The
Karakalpak-Australian excavations in ancient Chorasmia: the northern
frontier of the “civilised” ancient world,” Ancient Near Eastern Studies 39
(2002): 3-44; A.V.G. Betts, V.N. Yagodin, S.W. Helms, G. Khozhaniyazov,
S. Amirov and M. Negus-Cleary, “Karakalpak-Australian excavations in
Ancient Chorasmia, 2001-2005: Interim Report on the Fortifications of
Kazakly-yatkan and Regional Survey,” Iran 47 (2009): 33-55.
5  S.W. Helms, V.N. Yagodin, A.V.G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and M.
Negus, “The Karakalpak-Australian excavations in ancient Chorasmia: the
northern frontier of the “civilised” ancient world,” Ancient Near Eastern
Studies 39 (2002): 17, fig. 9.
6  A.V.G. Betts, V.N. Yagodin, S.W. Helms, G. Khozhaniyazov, S. Amirov
and M. Negus-Cleary, “Karakalpak-Australian excavations in Ancient
Chorasmia, 2001-2005: Interim Report on the Fortifications of Kazakly-
yatkan and Regional Survey,” Iran 47 (2009): 33-55. Calibrated C14 analyses
indicate a late first century BCE date for the wall paintings in the western
corridor.
7  The word portrait is used loosely in this article, as the extent to which
the images represent a true likeness of an individual is questionable. See
generally R. Brilliant, Portraiture (Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University
Press, 1991), 7-21. See also I. Winter, “Art in empire: the royal image and the
visual dimensions of Assyrian ideology,” in Assyria 1995. Proceedings of the
10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project Helsinki,
September 7-11, 1995, eds S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting (Helsinki: The Neo-
Assyrian text Corpus Project, 1997), 369 regarding the use of the term in
relation to Assyrian sculpture.
8  F. Kidd, M. Negus Cleary, V. Yagodin, A. Betts and E. Baker Brite,
“Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 18 (2004
[2008]): 69-95. Regarding Chorasmian chronology see S. Helms, “Ancient
Chorasmia: The Northern Edge of Central Asia from the 6th Century B.C.
to the mid-4th century A.D,” in Worlds of the Silk Roads: Ancient and Mod-
ern: Proceedings from the Second Conference of the Australasian Society for
Inner Asian Studies (A.S.I.A.S), Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia,
September 21-22, 1996, eds. D. Christian and C. Benjamin (Turnhout and
Sydney: Brepols; Ancient History Documentary Research Centre, Macqua-
rie University, 1998), 77-96; S. Helms, “Preface,” in The Military Architecture
of Ancient Chorasmia (6th century BC – 4th century AD), by G. Khozhani-
yazov (Paris: de Boccard, 2006), 14-15; G. Khozhaniyazov. The Military
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jiaaa_4.indb 23
Architecture of Ancient Chorasmia (6th century B.C. – 4th century A.D.).
Persika 7. Translated by S. W. Helms (Paris: de Boccard, 2006), 27-28.
9  F. Kidd, M. Negus Cleary and E. Baker Brite, “Public vs. Private.
Perspectives on the Communication of Power in Ancient Chorasmia,” in
Regimes and Revolutions: Power, Violence, and Labor in Eurasia Between the
Ancient and the Modern, eds. C. Hartley, G. Bike Yazıcıoğlu, and A. T.
Smith, forthcoming. For discussion of other programs of visual art see J. M.
Russell, “The Program of the Palace of Assurnasirpal II at Nimrud: Issues in
the Research and Presentation of Assyrian Art,” American Journal of
Archaeology 102, 4 (1998), 655-665; M. C. Root, The King and Kingship in
Achaemenid Art, Acta Iranica 9 (Leiden: Brill, 1979), 16-23 and M. C. Root,
“Circles of Artistic Programming: Strategies for Studying Creative Process
at Persepolis,” in Investigating Artistic Environments in the Ancient Near East,
ed. A .C. Gunter (Washington, D. C. Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian
Institution, 1990), 115-139.
10  Parthian-Chorasmian relations are rarely discussed due to a lack of
specific evidence. See, however, J. Olbrycht, “Die Kultur der Steppengebiete
und die Beziehungen zwischen Nomaden und der sesshaften Bevölkerung,”
in Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse, ed. J. Wiesehöfer (Stuttgart: Franz
Steiner Verlag, 1998), 11 – 431; J. Olbrycht, Parthia et Ulteriores Gentes: die
Politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem Arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden
der Eurasischen Steppen (Munich: Tuduv-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998) and J.
Olbrycht, “Central Asia and the Arsacid Kingdom,” in The Interactions of
Cultures and Civilizations in Honour of V. M. Masson, eds. Yu. E. Bereshkin
and V. M. Masson (St Petersburg: Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of
Material Culture History, Foundation for the Promotion of Russian-Turk-
menian Links [Saint Petersburg], Saint Petersburg Society of Cultural Con-
nections with Turkmenistan, 2000), 177-193; A. B. Nikitin, “Monetnye
nakhodki iz rayona gorodishcha Shakh-Senem,” in Skotovody i Zemledel’tzy
Levoberezhnogo Khorezma I (Moscow: Institut Etnologii i Antropologii,
1991), 122; B. I. Vaynberg, Monety Drevnego Khorezma (Moscow: Nauka,
1977), 85-87; A. N. Bader and Kh. Usupov, “Gold Earrings from North-West
Turkmenistan,” in In the Land of the Gryphons. Papers on Central Asian
Archaeology in Antiquity, ed. A. Invernizzi (Firenze: Casa Editrice Le Lettre,
1995); V. A. Livshitz and M. M. Mambetullaev, “Ostrak iz Khumbuz-tepe,”
in Pamyatniki Istorii i Literatury Vostoka (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), 34 – 45;
W. Vogelsang, The Rise and Organisation of the Achaemenid Empire (Leiden:
Brill, 1992), 25 and 289 ff; F. Kidd, “A Bone Pin from Kazakly-yatkan/Akcha-
khan-kala, Chorasmia,” Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 2 (2007):
23-29.
11  M. A. Itina, “Istoriya stepnykh plemen yozhnogo Priaralya (2nd – nachalo
1st tysyachiletiya do n.e.), Trudy Khorezmskoy Arkheologo-Ethnograficheskoy
Ekspeditzii 10 (Moscow, 1977); V. N. Yagodin, “Drevneyshaya gosydarstvennost
i problema ‘Bolshogo Khorezma’,” Vestnik Karakalpakskogo Otdeleniya
Akademii Nauk Respubliki Uzbekistan, 1-2 (2007).
12  O. A. Vishnevskaya and Yo. A. Rapoport, Gorodishe Kyozeli-Gyr (K
voprosu o rannem etape istorii Khorezma),” Vestnik Drevney Istorii (1997).
13  S.W. Helms, V.N. Yagodin, A.V.G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and M.
Negus, “The Karakalpak-Australian excavations in ancient Chorasmia: the
northern frontier of the “civilised” ancient world,” Ancient Near Eastern
Studies 39 (2002): 7 ff.; P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the
Persian Empire (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 391. See also
S.W. Helms, V.N. Yagodin, A.V.G. Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and M. Negus,
“The Karakalpak-Australian excavations in ancient Chorasmia: the northern
frontier of the “civilised” ancient world,” Ancient Near Eastern Studies 39
(2002): 7 ff.
14  G. Khozhaniyazov, The Military Architecture of Ancient Chorasmia
(Persica 7, Paris: de Boccard, 2006), 62 ff. See also V.N. Yagodin and A.V.G.
Betts, Ancient Nomads of the Aralo-Caspian Region: the Duana archaeological
complex (Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement Series 25. Louvain:
Peeters, 2007).
23
15/03/11 08:10
 15  A.V.G. Betts and V.N. Yagodin, “The Fire Temple at Tash-k’irman-tepe,
Chorasmia,” in After Alexander – Central Asia before Islam, ed. J. Cribb and
G. Herrman (Proceedings of the British Academy No. 133, Oxford: OUP,
2007), 435-454.
16  Evidence from Toprakala indicates cultural and perhaps commercial
contact with the Kushan empire but it is not proven that the Kushans ever
held sway over Chorasmia. E.E. Nerazik and Yu. A. Rapoport eds, Gorod-
ishche Toprak-kala (raskopki 1965–1975) (Moscow: Nauka, 1981); Yu.
Rapoport and E. E. Nerazik eds, Toprak-kala. Dvorets (Moscow: Trud’i
Khorezmskoi Arkheologo-Etnograficheskoi Ekspeditsii XIV, 1984).
17  Yu. Rapoport and E. E. Nerazik eds, Toprak-kala. Dvorets (Moscow:
Trud’i Khorezmskoi Arkheologo-Etnograficheskoi Ekspeditsii XIV, 1984);
Yu. Rapoport, “The Palaces of Topraq-Qal’a, “ Bulletin of the Asia Institute
8 (1994): 161-185. For a critique of the cult interpretation see F. Grenet, “Palais
ou palais-temple? Remarques sur la publication du monument de Toprak-
kala,” Studia Iranica 15 (1986): 123-135.
18  F. Kidd, M. Negus Cleary and E. Baker Brite, “Public vs. Private.
Perspectives on the Communication of Power in Ancient Chorasmia,” in
Regimes and Revolutions: Power, Violence, and Labor in Eurasia Between the
Ancient and the Modern, eds. C. Hartley, G. Bike Yazıcıoğlu, and A. T.
Smith, forthcoming.
H
19  P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the Persian Empire
(Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 171. The authors are grateful
for helpful discussions with F. Grenet about the function(s) of the ‘temple/
palace’.
20  The pattern recalls the geometric frame at Nisa (V. N. Pilipko, “On the
Wall-Paintings from the Tower building of Old Nisa,” Parthica 2 (2000): 70
and fig. 1), where it acts as a frame for a battle (?) scene. Note however, that
the size of the shapes at Nisa is considerably larger than at Kazakly-yatkan.
Further possible, albeit later (second to third century CE) variations are
found at Toprak-kala; see Yu. Rapoport and E. E. Nerazik eds, Toprak-kala.
Dvorets. (Moscow: Trud’i Khorezmskoi Arkheologo-Etnograficheskoi Eks-
peditsii XIV, 1984), figs 43 and 81.
21  Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” figs 12 and
13 which shows some similarity to the depiction of grapes on the vine in
Assyrian art. See P. Albenda, “Grapevines in Ashurbanipal’s garden,” Bulletin
of the American Schools of Oriental Research 215 (1974): figs 1 and 3. Grapes
are also shown on a figurine from Dzhanbas-kala dated to the first to third
century CE: see K. Abdullaev, E. Rtveladze and G. V. Shishkina, eds, Culture
and Art of Ancient Uzbekistan. Exhibition Catalogue 1 (Moscow: Institut
Arkheologii Akademii Nauk UzSSR, 1991), cat. 317; finally, a reconstruction
of sculptured decoration from the Hall of Stags at Toprak-kala shows a grape
vine; see Yu. A. Rapoport, “The Palaces of Topraq-Qala,” Bulletin of the Asia
Institute 8 (1994), fig. 11.
22  See Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” figs
11-13. Skin coloring is also found on the “archer” from Koy-krylgan-kala (S.
Tolstov and B. Vaynberg, Koi-Krylgan-kala (Moscow: Nauka, 1967), fig. 80),
although here just one tone appears to be used (See Abdullaev, Rtveladze et
al. Culture and Art, cat., 332 for a color image). It is possible that several facial
skin tones were used at Toprak-kala although here the tones are not as skill-
fully blended as they are on the Kazakly-yatkan example; see Rapoport and
Nerazik, Dvoretz, fig. 82; for a color image see B. Marshak, “Pre-Islamic
Painting of the Iranian peoples and its Sources in Sculpture and the Decora-
tive Arts,” in E. Sims, Peerless Images: Persian Painting and its Sources, (New
Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), fig. 11.
23  Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” fig. 14 and
fig. 15. Similar shapes are found at Toprak-kala. See Rapoport and Nerazik,
Toprak-kala, tbl. II, 4 and 7.
24  F. Kidd, M. Negus Cleary, V. Yagodin, A. Betts and E. Baker Brite,
“Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 18 (2004
[2008]) Fig.7.
25  F. Kidd, “Animals on the walls. Notes on the Kazakly-yatkan Procession
Scene,” F. Kidd and A.V.G. Betts eds, New Directions in Silk Road Archaeology.
Proceedings of a Workshop held at ICAANE V, Madrid, 2006 (in press).
26  See Kidd, Negus Cleary and Baker Brite, “Public vs. Private,” forthcom-
24
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jiaaa_4.indb 24
ing for a more complete discussion of the decorative program. While the
elements of this program noted here are all static and immobile, moveable
items of decoration should also be considered. G. Pugachenkova, Skul’ptura
Khalchayana (Moscow: Iskusstva, 1971), 16, suggested that walls at Khal-
chayan may have been decorated with textile wall hangings; textiles from
Pazyryk – some possibly from a Central Asian workshop (see F. Hiebert,
“Pazyryk Chronology and Early Horse Nomads Reconsidered,” Bulletin of
the Asia Institute 6 (1992): 117-129) – provide an idea of the richness of such
decorations. Furniture, such as a carved ivory chair leg from the center of
the KY10 complex, is also important to consider in this context.
27  A.B. Tilia, Studies and Restorations at Persepolis and Other Sites of Fars
2 (Rome: IsMEO,1968), 65, 68 mentions that metal was once used to cover
various parts of the carvings; various holes and cuttings found on the
Persepolis reliefs indicate that metal covering/decoration was not
uncommon. Given the finds of nails and molded copper alloy in the KY10
complex, it cannot be ruled out that these were similarly used at Kazakly-
yatkan, although to date there is no evidence to demonstrate how or where
these fragments may have been fitted.
28  For further evidence of decorated ceilings in the Iranian world see J.
Alvarez Mon, “Aspects of Elamite wall painting: New Evidence from Kab-
nak (Haft Tappeh),” Iranica Antiqua 40 (2005): 149-164.
29  E. Baker Brite, Social Processes in the Production of Wall Paintings at
Kazakhl’i-yatkan, Uzbekistan (Unpublished Masters thesis, University of
California, Los Angeles, 2006); See also Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient
Chorasmian Mural Art” and E. Baker Brite, “Materials Analysis of the Wall
Paintings from Kazakhl’i-yatkan, Uzbekistan,” Arkheologiya Pri’Aralya,
forthcoming, for further description of the technical analysis and results.
30  The authors are especially grateful to Professors D. Scott and I. Kak-
oulli for assistance in the PLM identifications, and to Dr. S. Warmlander,
who assisted in the preparation of samples, the SEM processing and per-
formed gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) on several sam-
ples to identify binding media. Unfortunately, the results of the GC-MS
tests on the binding media were inconclusive.
31  Laboratory testing to identify the binding media used to adhere these
pigments to the painting ground was inconclusive. A more extensive analy-
sis of Chorasmian binding media performed by V. Bershtein, “On the Tech-
nology of Central Asian Wall Paintings: the Problem of Binding Media,”
Studies in Conservation 20, 1 (1975): 8-19. V. Bershtein and M. Tul’chinskii,
“An Investigation and Identification of Polysaccharides Isolated from
Archaeological Specimens,” Chemistry of Natural Compounds 12, 1 (1977):
12-15 suggests that plant gums, either from the apricot or sour cherry tree,
were extensively used in Chorasmian mural art from the second through to
the nineteenth centuries. The use of plant gum at Kazakly-yatkan would
additionally help to explain the difficulty in discerning this material during
the 2005 analysis.
32  D. Scott, A. Douglas, H. Doughty and C. B. Donnan, “Moche
Wallpainting Pigments from La Mina, Jequetepeque, Peru,” Studies in
Conservation 43, 3 (1998): 181 describes this effect, known as “optical blue”.
The authors are grateful to the UCLA/Getty Conservation Program faculty,
staff, and students for the assistance in the technical analysis of the Kazakly-
yatkan samples.
33  Sample 5 (2007) from Area 10 09, immediately to the west of the
western corridor. The identification of cinnabar in the Kazakly-yatkan
paintings is significant as it holds possible implications regarding trade in
minerals with areas external to Chorasmia. See Kidd, Negus Cleary et al.
“Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” 91, note 100, and E. de La Vassière,
Sogdian traders: a History. Translated by J. Ward (Boston: Brill, 2005), 18-19.
See also D. Fleming, “Darius I’s Foundation Charters from Susa and the
Eastern Achaemenid Empire,” Afghan Studies 3-4 (1982): 81-87. For
discussion of source areas of cinnabar see R. J. Gettens, Robert L. Feller and
W. T. Chase, “Vermilion and Cinnabar,” Studies in Conservation 17, 2 (May,
1972): 45-46.
34  See Baker Brite, Social Processes, 59-60 and Kidd, Negus Cleary et al.
“Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art,” 86 for a more detailed description of
analysis pertaining to evidence for re-plastering and re-painting.
15/03/11 08:10
 35  Of course it is possible that the different fragments may originally have
belonged to a single portrait; for example in the doorway cluster fragment
KY06 P008 could belong to the remains of the head preserved on fragment
KY06 P016.
36  See note 26 above regarding the possible use of wall hangings to deco-
rate walls. Wall hangings provide both decoration and heating and serve
both a practical and decorative function.
37  For example KY06 P001 means Kazakly-yatkan (KY), field season
2006 (06), fragment number (plaster, P) 001. The complete fragment name
also includes the area number (in this instance, 10 04), but has been dropped
in this article for the sake of brevity.
38  For example, Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient Chorasmian Mural
Art,” 81.
39  See I. Kakoulli, Greek Painting Techniques and Materials (London:
Archetype Publications, 2009), 8 for notes on preparatory drawing tech-
niques documented in ancient wall painting.
40  Baker Brite, Social Processes, 59.
41  All fragments are housed at the Institute of History, Archaeology and
Ethnology, Nukus, Karakalpakstan
42  Another portrait which potentially shows facial markings is KY07
P023a. Final conservation/restoration of the fragments preserving the face
H
may reveal further examples of facial markings.
43  There is some similarity in the curving folds over the arm of the
Kazakly-yatkan portrait with that shown on the ‘prince’ from Khalchayan
in B. Stavisky, La Bactriane Sous les Kushans: Problèmes d’Histoire et de
Culture, Translated by P. Bernard (Paris: Libraire d’Amérique et d’Orient,
1986), pl. 26. Note that in other photos of this sculpture the folds are not so
clearly visible, for example in G. Pugachenkova, Iskusstvo Baktrii Epokhi
Kushan (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1979), fig. 109 and Pugachenkova, Skul’ptura,
pl. 68
44  A possible parallel for these earrings is found at Toprak-kala; Yu. A.
Rapoport, E. E. Nerazik, and L. M. Levina, V Nizov’yach Oksa i Yaksarta.
Obrazy Drevnego Priaral’ya (Moscow: Indrik, 2000), ill., 50.
45  Flecks of paint are not uncommon on the paintings. See for example
KY06 P003. Final conservation/restoration of the fragments may reveal
similar examples of flecks.
The authors are grateful to V.A. Livshits for a preliminary reading of
these texts in which the ideogram MLK (ruler) appears more than once,
together with fragments of names and the ancient Chorasmian ideogram
for “son,” implying a reference to more than one ruler. For the procession see
Kidd et al., “Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art.”
46  The highest preserved section of wall is 3.80 m. above the floor.
47  See note 45 above. See also, for example, Kidd and Baker Brite, “Colour
power”; Kidd, Negus Cleary and Baker Brite, “Public vs. private”; F. Kidd,
“Steppe Elements in the Art of Chorasmia,” Proceedings of the Conference,
Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans: Iranian-Speaking Nomads of the Eurasian
steppes (Barcelona, SPUAB, forthcoming); and Kidd, Negus Cleary et al.
“Ancient Chorasmian mural art.”
48  For a useful overview of current issues in attributing sex and gender see
most recently K. Croucher, “Ambiguous genders: alternative interpretations:
a discussion of case studies from pre-pottery Neolithic and Halaf periods,”
Gender Through Time in the Ancient Near East, ed., D. Bolger (Lanham, Alta
Mira: 2008), 21-52 and A. Daems, “Evaluating patterns of gender through
Mesopotamian and Iranian human figurines: a reassessment of the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic period industries,” Gender Through Time in the Ancient
Near East, ed., D. Bolger (Lanham, Alta Mira: 2008), 77-118.
49  It is probable that facial hair can also be indicative of status and rank.
50  Abdullaev et al., Culture and Art, cat. 317.
51  Tolstov, Drevniy Khorezm, pl. 72, no. 8; Tolstov and Vaynberg, Koy-
krylgan-kala, tbl. 27, nos. 17-20; tbl. 29, no. 38.
52  Vaynberg, Monety, pl. 22, A1 and A2 clearly show this change.
53  In fact a closer parallel with the bird is found on the headdress worn by
the third century CE ruler Vazmar. See Vaynberg, Monety, pls. 22 and 23,
B25.
54  See note 46.
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55  See for example M. L. S. Sørensen, “Reading dress: the construction of
social categories and identities in Bronze Age Europe,” Journal of European
Archaeology 5, 1(1997): 93 – 114 and M. E. Roach-Higgins and J. B. Eicher,
“Dress and identity,” Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 10, 4 (1992): 1
– 8.
56  See Kidd and Baker Brite, “Color power,” for descriptions and discus-
sion of these variations. Note also that Rapoport (“Palaces,” 171) notes the
variety of costume in the ‘Hall of Kings’ at Toprak-kala. For detailed discus-
sion see Rapoport and Nerazik, Dvoretz, 116-135.
57  See Kidd and Baker Brite, “Colour power,” for further discussion of the
costume of the portraits.
58  This unique combination to date indicates the potential for more
specific groupings to be identified within the gallery after the fragments have
been completely conserved/restored. A possible comparison for this style of
representing the folds is the statue of the ‘prince’ (?) at Khalchayan. For the
clearest evidence of this ornamentation see Staviskij, La Bactriane, pls. 25
and 26. A terracotta figurine from Dzhanbas-kala offers another, local, par-
allel. See Tolstov, S. P. Drevniy Khorezm (Moscow, MGU, 1948), pl. 72, no.
4
59  See for example two birds, sitting possibly on the upright of a throne,
on either side of a figure of Atargatis on the Atargatis relief (or possible
Artemis or Astarte) from the Temple of Adonis at Dura Europos (S. Downey,
The Stone and Plaster Sculpture. Excavations at Dura-Europos, Monumental
Archaeologica 5 (Los Angeles, The Institute of Archaeology, University of
California, 1977), pl. 9, no. 33). In fact the parallels between the Dura doves,
also shown in profile and the Kazakly-yatkan bird protomes are very strong,
especially in the style of depicting the feathers and the eyes, the shape of the
beak, and the rather benign manner of birds, clear for example in the soft
curving lines and the slight tilt of the head on the Dura birds.
60  Vaynberg, Monety, pl. 10, IV, worn by the Chorasmian king Vazmar and
dated to the 3rd century CE. Birds also appear in the mural art at Toprak-kala.
See Rapoport and Nerazik 1984: tbl. II, 1; Rapoport, Nerazik, and Levina,
V Nizov’yach Oksa, ill. 52. Rapoport, Monety, pl., 10, I and IV. See also Rapo-
port and Nerazik, Dvoretz, 131 for a discussion of a sculptural fragment show-
ing an eagle headdress attributed by Tolstov to the Chorasmian king Vazmar
(c. third century CE) and F. Tissot, “Remarques iconographiques a propos
d’une tête de roi barbare du Gandhāra,” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1976): 71-83 and
plates.
61  For Parthian examples the head of Sanatruq at Hatra. See G. Her-
rmann, The Iranian Revival (Oxford, Elsevier-Phaidon, 1977), 62. For exam-
ples of bird headdresses from the steppe see N. Polosmak, “Menschen ous
dem Eis Siberiens,” Antike Welt 27 (1996): figs 21 and 25 and from the Cau-
casus see A. R. Kantorovich and V. R. Erlikh, Bronzoliteynoe Iskusstvo iz
Kurganov Adygei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyii Muzey Vostoka, 2006), cat.
108.
62  Abdullaev et al., Culture and Art, cat. 306.
63  Vaynberg, Monety, 18, but without substantiation.
64  See, however, Tissot, “Remarques” for a discussion of bird headdresses
in Iranian and Gandharan art.
65  Kidd, “Steppe elements”; Kidd, Negus Cleary and Baker Brite, Public
vs. private.
66  Note however, that the interpretation and comparison of such small
details on the paintings is fraught because of the level of preservation of the
fragments.
67  See above, note 9 regarding Parthian-Chorasmian relations. Vaynberg,
Monety, 86, however, states that the ruler portraits on Chorasmian coins
never show a spiral torque, while the torques are standard on almost all
Parthian coins .
68  For examples of spiral torques on anthropomorphic stone statues at
Bayte on the Ustyurt Plateau see V. S. Olkhovskiy, “Ancient Sanctuaries of
the Aral and Caspian regions. A Reconstruction of their History,” in Kur-
gans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements. Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age, eds., Davis-
Kimball, E. Murphy, L. Koryakova and L. Yablonsky (BAR International
Series 890, 2000), 33- 42, fig. 3. Other examples of steppe torques are found
in E. Reeder, Scythian Gold. Treasures from Ancient Ukraine (Harry N. Abra-
25
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 hams, Inc. Publishers in association with The Walters Art Galllery and the
San Antonio Museum of Art, 1999): Cat. Nos 125, 157, 159, 168; B. Piotrovsky,
Scythian Art (Leningrad and Oxford, Aurora and Phaidon, 1987): Cat. Nos.
124, 235 and 242; M. I. Artamanov, Sokrovishcha Sakov (Moscow, Iskusstvo,
1973), Cat. Nos 222, 224, 225, 226, 228, 230, 230; K. Akishev, Kurgan Issyk
(Moscow, Iskusstvo, 1978): pls. 28 and 29; A. I. Melyokova (ed), Stepi
Evropeyskoy Chasti SSSR v Skifo-Sarmatskoe Vremya, Arkheologiya SSSR
(Moscow, 1989): tbl. 55, no. 26 and tbl. 71, nos 37 and 2. For a discussion of
the manufacture of torques see E. Jacobsen, The Art of the Scythians. The
Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World (Leiden: Brill,
1995), 104. See also Kidd, “Steppe elements.”
69  Kidd “Steppe elements.”
70  See Kidd, “Steppe elements” regarding the torques in particular, and
Kidd, Negus Cleary and Baker Brite, “Public vs. private” for discussion of
the possible significance of torques and earrings in an elite context.
71  Vaynberg, Monety, 34.
72  A similar trait is found on early Parthian coins. See generally D. G.
Sellwood, An Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia, second edition (London:
Spink and Son, 1980). For further discussion see R. Vardanjan, “Zur
Deutung des Königsprofils auf Parthischen Münzen,” Archäologische
Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 32 (2000): 253-259.
H
73  F. Grenet, pers. comm., suggests that the red ears may emphasize the
importance of the role among the Iranian elite of listening and obeying the
words of the ruler.
74  The question of hierarchy among the portraits is discussed more fully
in Kidd, Negus Cleary and Brite, “Public vs. private”.
75  For discussion see Kidd, Negus Clear and Brite, “Public vs. private”.
76  For the texts see note 45. ‘Visual literacy’ is discussed most recently by
D. Schmandt-Besserat, When Writing Met Art. From Symbol to Story
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), 98. See also B. Marshak, Legends,
Tales, and Fables in the Art of Sogdiana (New York: Bibliotheca Persica Press,
2002), 25 ff.
77  For example images of the Achaemenid ruler are typically schematic in
an attempt to highlight the significance of the role of kingship rather than
the king as an individual. See J. Borchhardt, “Bildnisse Achaemenidischer
Herrscher,” in Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr
Fortleben, eds., H. Koch, and D. N. Mackenzie (Berlin, Dietrich Reimer
Verlag, 1983), 207-8.
78  Rapoport et al., V Nizov’yach Oksa, 47 notes that statue-ossuaries of
females predominate. See also Yu. Rapoport, Iz Istorii Religii Drevnego
Khorezma. Trud’i Khorezmskoi Arkheologo-Etnograficheskoi Ekspeditsii
6 (Moscow, 1971).
79  See note 50.
80  Vaynberg, Monety, pl. XVI. See also ‘Question of Identity’ above.
81  For a color image see Abdullaev et al., Culture and Art 2, cat. 318. For
discussion see Rapoport, Nerazik, and Levina, V Nizov’yach Oksa, 51.
82  Tolstov and Vaynberg Koi-Krylgan-kala, 257, fig., 102. The heads are
described as covered with red pigment.
83  Tolstov and Vaynberg Koi-Krylgan-kala, 257 compare the style as
Assyro-Babylonian. However, clear parallels for the heads are found in ter-
racotta art at Kazakly-yatkan (Kidd and Baker Brite, Terracottas) and on
ceramic bas-reliefs (Tolstov and Vaynberg Koi-Krylgan-kala, fig. 79) and on
statue-ossuaries (for example in Tolstov and Vaynberg Koi-Krylgan-kala, fig.
96 and perhaps fig. 91, which is described as a ceramic mask).
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84  For the archer from Koy-Krylgan-kala see Tolstov and Vaynberg, Koy-
Krylgan-kala, 215, fig. 80 (for a color image see Abdullaev et al. Culture and
Art 2, cat. 332. For the faces in the ‘crowd scene’ and the face in three quarter
profile with grapes (?) behind it in see Kidd, Negus Cleary et al. “Ancient
Chorasmian mural art,” figs. 10-13.
85  For a general discussion of Kushan period galleries see J. Rosenfield,
The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1967), 138-172.
86  Examples of later period mural art portrait galleries include Kuh-e
Khwaja and Hajiabad. The Sasanian period portraits from Hajiabad are
understood as true portraits and share some important links with the Kaza-
kly-yatkan portraits, such as the frame – in this case circular – around the
portrait, and the differential use of size to show status. See M. Azarnoush,
The Sasanian Manor House at Hājīābād, Iran (Firenze: Le Lettere 1994), pls
32-35 and discussion on p. 167 ff. Also comparable is the use of the black
contour lines, and the general simplicity of the style. For portraits from
Kuh-e Khwaja see T. Kawami, L. Becker and R. Koestler, “Kuh-e Khwaja,
Iran, and its Wall Paintings: The Records of Ernst Herzfeld,” Metropolitan
Museum Journal 22 (1987): 13-52. See also Rapoport, “Palaces,” and Rapoport
and Nerazik, Dvoretz for Toprak-kala.
87  For general discussion see Rosenfield 1967, p. 154-72. For Bayte see
Olkhovskiy “Ancient Sanctuaries “. Nimrud-dag/Commagene can also be
added to this list. See D. H. Sanders, ed. Nemrud Dağı: the Hierothesion of
Antiochus I of Commagene: Results of the American Excavations Directed by
Theresa B. Goell (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996). The High Palace at
Toprak-kala, although later, should also be mentioned here. A reconstruction
of the Hall of Kings suggests that there were approximately 30 or more bays
for life size statuary, interpreted by Rapoport as gods, and earlier, by Tolstov,
as royal ancestors. According to Rapoport, these main statues were
differentiated by their costume (Rapoport, “Palaces,” 171). Although
interpreted by Rapoport (“Palaces”) as a dynastic palace Grenet (F. Grenet,
“Palais ou Palais-Temple? Remarques sur la Publication de Monument de
Toprak-kala,” Studia Iranica 15 (1986): 123-135) questions the religious
function of the High Palace. This debate underlines the divergence of
opinion regarding such ‘galleries’.
88  Especially for the Kushan Empire, G. Verardi, “The Kusāna Emperors
as Cakravartins. Dynastic Art and Cults in India and Central Asia: History
of a Theory, Clarifications and Refutations,” East and West 33 (1983): 225-294
questions the appropriateness of the term ‘dynastic’.
89  According to Rapoport and Nerazik (Dvoretz, 130-2) the ‘Hall of
Kings’ at Toprak-kala may have held up to 27 sculptural groups, possibly with
a seated king or god at the center of each group. See above note 79 regarding
the diversity of costume at Toprak-kala.
90  The early Antique period corresponds to the ‘Kangiui’ period of
standard Chorasmian chronology as established by S.P. Tolstov and the
Soviet era Chorasmian Expedition. For a critical discussion of Chorasmian
chronology see Helms et al. Five Seasons of Excavations, p. 120 ff.
91  For fortresses see Betts et al. Interim Report on the Fortifications,
‘Regional Survey’, and for Koy-Krylgan-kala see Tolstov and Vaynberg, Koy-
Krylgan-kala.
92  For a discussion on the dating of Kazakly-yatkan see Betts et al. Interim
Report on the Fortifications, ‘Chronology’.
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Fig. 1.  Kazakly-yatkan site plan

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Fig. 2.  Reconstruction of the KY10 complex showing areas 10 04 and 10 09.

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Fig. 3.  Plan of the southern central tower detailing the pigment preparation area.

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Fig. 4.  Plan showing the location of fragments in the inner western corridor of the KY10 complex.

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Fig. 5.  Digitized tracings of fragments in the doorway cluster

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Fig. 6.  Digitized tracings of fragments in the south cluster

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Fig. 7.  Digitized tracings of fragments in the central cluster

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Fig. 8.  Digitized tracings of fragments in the north cluster

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Fig. 9.  Digitized tracings of fragments in the north cluster (cont)

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Fig. 10.  Color photos of fragments from the gallery. (See Color Plate 1)

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Fig. 11.  Color photos of fragments from the gallery (cont). (See Color Plate 2)

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Fig. 12.  Digitized tracing of fragment KY07 P010

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Fig. 13.  Digitized tracing of portrait KY06 P024a

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 H Table 1. Summary of fragments discussed in this article.

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