Composites Part A 28A (1997) 587-594

0 1997 Elsevier Science Limited

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
ELSEVIER
PII:S1359-835X(97)00009-2 1359-835X/97/$17.00

Comparison of the short beam shear (SBS) and

interlaminar shear device (ISD) tests

F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare*

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, 126 Spencer
Laboratory, Newark, DE 19716-3140, USA
(Received 12 April 1996; accepted 12 December 1996)

The Short Beam Shear (SBS) and Interlaminar Shear Device (LSD) tests are compared as methods for determining
interlaminar shear strength of thermoplastic composite rings. The rings were manufactured using laser-assisted
on-line consolidation and the interlaminar shear strength is taken as a measure of the quality of parts subjected to
various processing conditions. Although a number of shear test methods have been developed for use with composite
materials over the years, none provide pure uniform shear, or provide the entire stress-strain response to failure from a
single specimen [Adams, D.F. and Lewis, E.Q., Current status of composite material shear test methods. SAMPE 31,
1994,6,32-401. Hence, a testing technique is required to provide efficient interlaminar shear strength results. Through
the test results, it can be seen that a different mode of failure is acting in each of the tests. Finite Element Analyses
(EEA) of the test procedures show that the stress state at the failure site for SBS is not interlaminar shear whereas it is
the stress state in the failure zone of the ISD. Therefore, it is concluded that the ISD provides a better measure of the
interlaminar shear strength of these specimens. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Limited

(Keywords: short beam shear; interiaminar shear device; interlaminar strength)

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES tape while consolidating onto previously laid material on
the mandrel. Laser energy was used to melt the surfaces of
Interlaminar shear strength of a composite laminate is often the prepreg tape and consolidated material just before they
the limiting design characteristic, therefore a number of came into contact. A compaction roller was then applied to
tests have been developed to evaluate this parameter. the outer surface to provide contact pressure during
Although interlaminar tension is also an important para- bonding. After leaving the consolidation zone, the matrix
meter, the purpose of this study is to compare shear strength cooled and solidified. On the next pass. the outer surface of
measurement techniques. In addition, these tests can be used the previously added ply was consolidated with another
to assess the quality of manufacturing for a specific layer, thus building up the material to the desired thickness.
component. Two such tests, the Short-Beam-Shear2 and Ring specimens of 40-plies were manufactured with an
the recently developed Interlaminar Shear Device test’, inner diameter of 146 mm (5.75 in).
were used to assess the consolidation quality of a series of Having manufactured a variety of rings at different laser
thermoplastic rings manufactured using a laser assisted on- powers, interlaminar strength tests were used to investigate
line consolidation process. APC-2/IM7 preimpregnated tape the quality of consolidation4. Both tests were conducted on a
was used to manufacture rings representative of tape wound number of adjacent specimens cut from the rings. The
structures. The prepreg tape had a volume fraction of 60% interlaminar shear strengths, as well as the failure modes,
with a width of 5.9 mm (0.23 in) and a thickness of 0.15 mm differed between the two tests. In an attempt to reconcile
(0.006 in). these differences, FE models of typical specimens were
The rings were manufactured using varying laser power, generated in each testing configuration. The testing and
keeping winding speed, laser beam alignment and all other subsequent modeling is discussed in the following.
processing parameters constant. The on-line consolidation
technique is of great interest in the manufacture of
composite parts due to it’s high production speed, INTERLAMINAR STRENGTH TESTING
manufacturing flexibility, high energy concentration and
quick response. The rings used in the present study were The interlaminar shear strength and the fracture toughness
manufactured by winding the successive plies of prepreg in mode I and II loading are sensitive quantities for
evaluating fabrication quality, especially the consolidation,
*To whom correspondence should be addressed of the composite’. The aim of this work is to choose an

587
Comparison of the SBS and /SD rests: F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare
r 1.0
r s
Figure 1
d e
z
SBS specimen geometry designation
z _I
adequate method to perform a suitable interlaminar shear
strength test to character&e composite materials. A
description of each test performed will be outlined and a
brief theoretical discussion will show how the results are
extracted from experiments. Typical raw experimental data
will also be presented to show the general behavior of each
individual test.
Short-beam-shear (SBS) test
The SBS test used is defined by ASTM D 2344-842. Each
specimen was placed on two roller supports that allow
lateral motion and a load was applied directly at the center
of the specimen. The beam was loaded until fracture
occurred, and the fracture load was taken as a measure of the
apparent shear strength of the materia15. The fact that it is a
simple test makes the SBS test method attractive as a
materials screening test or as a measure of quality control.
The ASTM standard for testing carbon fiber composites
requires a span-to-thickness ratio of 4.0 and a length-to-
thickness ratio of 6.0 as shown in Figure 1. For ring
specimens (curved beams) however, the standard requires a
load nose diameter of 6.35 mm (0.25 in) and supports
consisting of two flat plates where the specimen edges are
1 Load
Figure 2 Schematic of SBS test method configuration
2.5
2.0
g 1.5
g
3
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Deflection(6) (mm)
Figure 3 Load versus deflection for a SBS specimen manufactured at
70 W at a winding speed of 2.0 cm/s
placed. Since large deflections, with respect to the specimen
size, were observed for the specimens tested in this study,
this technique was modified. Instead, cylindrical rollers,
much like the load nose, were used as supports. For the
specimens tested, larger rollers were selected for reasons
which will be described later in the text. The specimens
tested had average dimensions of 5 mm (0.2 in) in thickness
(t) and width (w) and were about 30 mm (1.2 in) in length
(0.
The tests were performed on an Instron 1125 testing
frame at room temperature using a 138 MPa (20 ksi) load
cell with a cross-head speed of 1.3 mm/min (0.05 in/min).
The failure load was interpreted as the first maximum load
attained. For the load nose apparatus used in the tests, the
loading nose cylinder diameter, dl, and the support roller
diameters, d,, were both 9.48 mm (0.37 in) in diameter
which were larger than the recommended ASTM standard.
The test setup is shown in Figure 2.
A typical SBS load/deflection plot is shown in Figure 3. It
was observed that the use of larger radii load nose and
supports reduced the problem of crushing failure at the
loading points. The curvature at the peak of the graph is due
to the load nose crushing. An investigation of different load
nose diameters was performed by Cui et aL6 who
determined that larger diameter load noses reduced the
contact stress concentration and avoided compressive
failure under the roller.
The apparent shear strength was calculated using the
formula2,
3Pf
i- -__ (1)
max- 2wt
where Pf is the load at failure, w is the width and t is the
thickness of the specimen. Equation (1) is derived from
elementary beam theory which assumes shear stresses to
vary parabolically through the thickness. Equation (1) was
used to calculate the mean apparent shear strength for each
series of tests which is reported as the ASTM result.
Elasticity and FE analyses7-’ have shown that the shear
stress distribution is not parabolic but varies for different
 Comparison of the SBS and ISD tests: F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare

platform

Specimen
7- I

L 1

Figure 4 Schematic illustration of the ISD apparatus

sections along the beam length. This deviation from classi-
cal beam theory is due to the additional transverse normal
stresses caused by the method of load introduction through
the cylinders. Also, the theoretical analyses have shown that
the longitudinal normal (flexural) stress distribution varies
non-linearly through the thickness and is a maximum at the
outer surface reaching a magnitude several times the value
predicted using the elementary theory.
Interlaminar-shear-device (ISD) test
The ISD test involves shearing a specimen to failure
along the direction of the fibers by applying a compression
load to the ends of the beam. The apparatus is shown
schematically in Figure 4. The aim is to measure the shear
strength in a plane parallel to the fiber direction. This
shearing load corresponds directly to mode II fracture which
involves sliding or in-plane shear, where the crack surfaces
slide over one another in a direction perpendicular to the
leading edge of the crack.
The force applied is therefore a direct shear force, in
contrast to the ASTM SBS test, which calculates the
‘apparent’ shear strength via measurement of the bending of
the specimen. An ISD was designed by Lauke”, and was
used to build a copy at the Center for Composite Materials at
the University of Delaware by Eggert’ ’ in order to conduct
comparable tests.
The length (E)of each specimen tested was about 10 mm
(0.4 in) and about 5 mm (0.2 in) in thickness (t) and width
(w). This gave a length-to-thickness ratio of 2 for each
specimen. A typical specimen is shown in Figure 5.
As shown in Figure 4, a load was applied onto the knub,
located at the top of the lever, from a universal Instron 1125
testing machine. The cross-head speed was set at 1.0 mm/
min (0.05 in/min) and a 138 MPa (20 ksi) load cell was used
to measure applied load. The two adjustable load noses were
set so that they barely touch as the lever is moved down past
load nose 2. An alignment wall on the stationary platform
was used to ensure that the specimen was mounted
vertically for the test.
Since the load is not applied directly above the specimen,
a leverage effect has to be taken into account. The actual
force acting on the specimen, P,, as shown in Figure 6, is
determined from the resolution of moments.
Taking moments at the pivot point from simple static’s,
the following moment balance results,
Ps=F;
where F is the load cell reading and P, is the force on the
r---l F

Side view Section A-A

w

I
r-L---L
r

Figure 5 LSD specimen geometry

I--
z
Figure 6
specimen
ISD geometric dimensions
b

for calculation of force acting on the

589
Comparison of the SBS and ISD tests: F. Rosseli and M. H. Santare
2.5
0.0 1 ’ I I I I
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
Displacement (8) (mm)
Figure 7 Loading versus displacement for an ISD specimen
tured at a laser power of 70 W at 2.0 cm/s
specimen. The dimensions of a and b for the device are, a =
40.4 mm (1.6 in) and b = 75.1 mm (3.0 in). The average
shear strength of a specimen at failure is found when P, =
Pf, which gives,
pf
7
ma-
--
Wl
where Pf is the load on the specimen at failure, w is the
width of the specimen and 1 is the length of the specimen.
Equation (3) assumes that the shear stress through the speci-
men is uniform, hence the sample fails simultaneously at all
points within the delamination area. This would require a
sample without defects and a homogeneous stress distribu-
tion3 which is not possible in practice but gives a very quick
and simple estimate of the average shear strength of the
composite specimen at failure. As shown in Figure 7, the
specimens fail in a brittle manner. The load-displacement
curve is approximately linear, except for the initial and final
regions of the curve. The nonlinear response is seen to die
out quickly and occurs in the low loading region of the plot
compared with the final failure load. In light of this obser-
vation, the initial response is considered relatively unimpor-
tant to the FE model which will be described in the next
section.
Experimental results
The simplest method to determine the effects of
processing parameters for the apparatus used in this work,
was to vary the laser power and keep the other variables
constant. The results for the SBS and ISD experiments for
this series of rings are shown in Figure 8. An increase
followed by a decrease in strength is observed for both tests.
This shows consistency between both tests used to evaluate
interlaminar strength. The apparent shear stress peaks for
the 70 W specimen in both cases, which demonstrates the
best consolidation for that series.
However, the calculated values for shear strength are
about 45% different as determined from the two tests.
Observation of failed specimens showed a complex failure
mechanism in the SBS test, while the ISD test specimens
590
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
/
I 0.0 ’ I I I I I I I
0.20 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0
Laser power (Watts)
manufac- Figure 8 Shear strength versus variation of laser power for SBS and ISD
experiments
appeared to have failure in pure shear. Therefore, to assess
the actual shear strength, more detailed analysis is needed.
The next section describes the Finite Element Analysis
applied to the test specimens for this purpose.
(3)
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The finite element method was used to calculate stresses in
the two shear strength tests and to evaluate the stress
distributions introduced by specific applied loadings. The
analysis was able to predict regions of high stress which
could not be captured by using simple, approximate analytic
expressions.
To ensure that a sufficiently fine finite element mesh has
been selected, a mesh convergence study was performed.
The h-method was used for mesh refinement for the two
models. This technique involved adding additional elements
(nodes) of the same type as used originally but smaller in
size. This method allows the new elements that are
introduced to be smaller in such a way that every point of
the solution domain is always within the element and all
previous meshes where contained in the refined mesh12. The
results used to compare the behavior of four different mesh
sizes for the models were stress components (TOO, urr, rer and
displacements. Nodal results for the different mesh sizes
were taken at positions away from the point of load
application. These regions were avoided since the stress
gradients at these positions are potentially very large and
may be sensitive to small changes in meshing. Nodes were
selected that were present in each of the changing meshes to
observe the rate of convergence. The stresses converged
much more slowly than the displacements which is expected
since a displacement based finite element analysis was used.
As a result from this convergence study, a mesh size of 4644
nodes was used to model the SBS test and a mesh size of
6664 nodes was used to capture the ISD behavior.
The geometry of each specimen was modeled to precisely
duplicate the geometry in each test. A local cylindrical
coordinate system was defined to generate the models where
the z-coordinate was always directed out of the plane of
 Comparison
testing such that it was perpendicular to the r-0 plane using
a right hand system. The circumferential, &direction, was
defined to be in the fiber direction and the radial, r-direction,
was defined to be perpendicular to the fibers and in the
direction through-the-thickness of the specimen.
Modeling assumptions
To simplify the modeling, a number of assumptions were
made. The assumptions were selected in such a way that
they would have a minimal effect on the outcome of the FE
results. Three-dimensional models were generated, as the
cross-section of the specimens was square it was unclear
whether a plane-stress or plane-strain assumption could be
used. For each model, the material and geometry is assumed
to be linear and homogeneous.
Since the composite rings were manufactured with all
fibers running in the circumferential direction (90-degree
orientation), it will be assumed for simplicity, that the
composite specimens tested are transversely isotropic.
Although orthotropy is a better material model for the
rings produced, preliminary studies showed the critical
stress components to be relatively insensitive to the out-of-
plane material properties.
The contact length of the load nose on the SBS specimen
for a given displacement was estimated from the roller
geometry. For a given displacement, the roller contacts a
specific area on the specimen. SBS specimens examined
after testing showed that the average indentation length was
about 0.8 (0.03 in) to 1 mm (0.04 in). The failure load was
distributed over a contact length of 0.8 mm (0.03 in)
(actually, 0.4 mm, since half of the model was generated).
To correctly distribute the failure load over that contact
length, a displacement was first applied over that contact
length which simulated the curvature of the roller. The
reaction forces over the nodes were extracted and converted
to reaction force ratios which defined the force distribution
over the loading region. These reaction-force ratios were
then used to define the failure load (obtained from the
experiment) distribution. This gave the model a displace-
ment field in the load region which resembled the test
specimen displacement in this region. The simple supports
were assumed to be flat surfaces since a zero displacement
was defined over a contact length of 0.6 mm (0.02 in) for the
model.
As with the SBS, the ISD load distribution was
determined by applying a displacement similar to that
induced by the load nose on the ISD and the reaction forces
were extracted. These reaction force ratios were then used to
apply the failure load on the model. Again, the model
displacement in the load region resembled the test specimen
displacements taking into account the rotational nature of
the loading.
Short-beam-shear (SBS) model generation
A three-dimensional model of one test sample was
generated to simulate the SBS test. The maximum shear
stress in the region of failure, as observed in the
of the SBS and ED tests: F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare
experiments, was of interest in the results. The failure
load measured from the experiment was discretized over the
loading region to predict failure stresses in the region of
failure.
Eight-noded, three-dimensional, linear displacement
solid elements, the C3D8 element type in ABAQUSi3
(HEX/Z as defined in PDA/PATRAN), were used to model
the SBS test. This first order tri-linear element was sufficient
to model the deformation and to simulate the shearing
behavior of the specimen. Each node on this three-
dimensional noded brick has three active degrees of
freedom, namely displacements in the 6, r and z directions”.
The mesh distribution over the model is regular away
from the locations of the loading roller and the roller
support. The mesh was refined in the loading and support
regions to capture the complicated displacement and stress
distributions expected in these regions. It is also important
to note that the shear stress at failure was extracted close to
the region of the load nose in the vicinity of the refined
mesh.
The analysis was performed by applying prescribed
boundary conditions and loads to the model. In the
experimental test, the simple supports remained stationary
while the cross-head moved down to apply a displacement
as the load cell recorded the reaction force. Due to
mechanical compliance of the Instron and due to load
nose crushing on the specimen, the displacement values
were less characteristic than load values. Therefore, the
failure load was discretized over the model. The experi-
mental failure load was applied over the model with a
distribution such that a deformation similar to that of a roller
is seen in the contact region. Since one quarter of the
specimen was modeled, nodes at the center span were
restrained in the circumferential (19)direction. To simulate
the half width direction, nodes were restrained from moving
in the z-direction.
Interlaminar-shear-device (ISD) model generation
A three-dimensional analysis was required to model the
non-symmetric boundary conditions that existed in the ISD
test. The data that was of most interest was the maximum
stress acting on the plane of failure for the model. The same
solid element used for the SBS model was applied to the
ISD model. This first order element was sufficient to model
the shear induced on the specimen.
The mesh distribution was regular away from the
locations of the load noses and was refined in the loading
and mid regions of the specimen in order to capture the
complicated displacement and stress distributions expected
in these regions.
The FEA was performed by applying various known
boundary conditions and loads to the model. In the
experimental test, the ISD rotating lever was forced down
onto the specimen by the cross head. As with the SBS test,
the experimental failure load was applied over the load
region of the model. To simulate the test, half of the bottom
region was restrained in the &axis (circumferential)
direction. Load nose 1 was modeled by applying a force
591
Comparison of the SBS and ISD tests: F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare

Shear stress (Q)

31.751

20.41.

Y.07.
-2.27 =
-11.M) =
-24.Y4 =
-36.28 =
-47.62 =
-5Wh=
-70.30 =
-*1.64=
-92.98 =
-10432 =
-115.66=
-127.00 =

Figure 9 Shear stress contour plot of the SBS FE model

distribution in the &axis direction. The nodes on the bottom
quarter face region were restrained in the z-direction, which
simulated the alignment wall. The back wall, provided by
the stationary platform, was modeled by restraining the
nodes on that face in the r-axis direction. The front wall,
provided by the rotating lever arm, was modeled in the same
manner.
Finite element results
These FE results were generated to determine accurate
stress distributions, since the analytic solutions have
assumptions and do not account for load points and high
stress regions. To give an insight into the individual FE
results, typical contour plots of interest will first be
presented.
distributions through the thickness of the beam near the
loading and support points were skewed toward these
respective surfaces of the beam, instead of being para-
bolically distributed as predicted by classical beam theory.
This agrees with the results predicted by previous elasticity
and FE analyses by Whitney* and Cui et ~1.~.
The FE results also show that the maximum shear stress
does not occur in the middle of the section; instead, it occurs
near the top surface near the load nose. The region of
maximum shear was found to occur approximately 2.0 mm
(0.08 in) from the top of the model and at a horizontal
distance of 0.95 mm (0.04 in) from the loading roller. In the
test specimens, interlaminar fractures appeared to initiate
approximately 2 mm (0.08 in) from the top of the failed
specimens. This is due to very high transverse compressive

Q-
SBS FE results
A
A typical shear stress distribution for a ring manufactured
at 70 W at a winding speed of 2.0 cm/s (0.79 in/s) is shown
0
in Figure 9. The contour plot shows element results which 0.95 mm

were extrapolated to the nodes by PATRAN. The difference

between the FE stress distribution and that obtained from
classical beam theory is due to the stress concentration
effect of the loading and support rollers and the compressive
stresses imposed due to the nature of loading. The presence
of the high compressive stresses in these regions explains
why damage often occurs underneath the loading and
supporting rollers.
Classical beam theory does not take into account the
stress concentrations at the load and support points. The
region of failure and the ASTM predicted failure stress is
plotted in Figure 10 for the 70 W specimen.
It can be seen, that the shear stress distribution close to
the loading cylinder is skewed toward the upper surface of 0.00 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0

the specimen. Considerable departure of the stress distri- Shear stress (MPa)
bution in the FE model from the classical beam theory was Figure 10 Shear stress distributions for the SBS model for a specimen
observed. It was found that the interlaminar shear stress manufactured at 70 W laser power and 2.0 cm/s (0.79 in/s) winding speed

592
 Comparison of the SBS and ISD tests: F. Rosselli and M. H. Santare
Figure 11 Contour plot of shear stress distribution for a ISD specimen
stresses under the loading roller, most of which dissipates
within a distance of half the specimen thickness.
ISD FE results
A typical shear stress distribution for an ISD specimen
manufactured at 70 W at 2.0 cm/s winding speed is plotted
in Figure 11. High shear stress concentrations are present in
the loading regions as with the SBS distribution. The
maximum shear stress was found to occur at a distance of
2.5 mm (0.1 in) from the inner radius of the curved
specimen and 0.4 mm (0.02 in) from the bottom of the
specimen, close to the edge of the load nose. The average
stress was calculated from the simple expression involving
the load divided by the length and width of the specimen.
The stresses in the direction perpendicular to the fibers
(radial or r-direction) are much lower than those in the
direction of the fibers due to higher stiffness in the fiber
direction. The shear stress along an axial row of elements
down the centerline is plotted in Figure 12 for the 70 W
specimen. The FE stress distribution shows an almost
constant shear stress distribution with two peaks occurring
in the regions of application of loading. If the results are
taken slightly to the left or right of the centerline, slightly
higher stresses are seen.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
A laser assisted on-line consolidation facility was used to
manufacture thermoplastic rings representative of tape
wound structures. Specimens were cut from the rings and
tested to investigate the quality of the interlaminar bond.
Two interlaminar shear strength testing methods, namely
the SBS and ISD tests have briefly been described and
Shear stress (Q)
(MPa)
16.32=
12.12=
7.YI=
3.71=
-0.494=
-4.70=
-KY0 =
-13.11=
-17.31=
-21.52=
-25.72=
-2Y.Y2=
-34.13=
-38.33=
-42.54=
compared. The SBS test, three-point bending of a short
beam, is currently an ASTM standard, however, the ISD
test, specimen under a compressive shear loading, is under
investigation. Both of these shear test methods are intended
to measure the same material properties. Curved specimens
from rings were tested, however it is important to note that
this work may also be applied to straight flat specimens.
Both tests show the same trends in strength, but provide
significantly different quantities for the interlaminar shear
strength values for specimens cut from the same rings.
Therefore, either method would suffice as a quality screen-
ing test to determine the relative quality of various parts
manufactured at different processing conditions. But in
making design calculations, accurate values for the inter-
laminar shear strength would be helpful. The question
arises, therefore, as to which test gives the more relevant
strength values. Finite element analysis of test specimens
loaded in the test configurations, were used to approximate
the state of stress at failure in the region of failure. These
analyses conducted for both the SBS and ISD tests, show a
completely different stress state in the regions of failure.
The different strength numbers, derived from the tests,
therefore correspond to different failure modes.
The primary advantages of the SBS test method are its
simplicity of use and small sample size which make it
attractive as a material screening test. This method,
however, has been widely criticized because a pure shear
stress state is not induced anywhere within the test
specimen, and the material can fail in either compression
or tension rather than shear’.
The ISD test has also been shown to be a very simple test
to conduct. From the load-displacement plot, it is easy to
determine when the specimen fails due to the brittle nature
of the failure. The ISD test discussed is rapid and the amount
of material required per test specimen is minimal, and
593
Comparison of the SBS and ISD tests: f. Rosselli and M. H. Santare

3.0 -

2.0 -
z?
& 1.0 -

4!
3 0.0 - I0 Section A (FEA) [

p -1.0 -

-2.0 -
L I
-3.0 -

Shear stress (Mpa)

Figure 12 Shear stress distribution for the ISD model for a specimen manufactured at 70 W laser power and 2.0 cm/s (0.79 in/s) winding speed

because the test is so simple to perform, many replicates can REFERENCES

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Comparing the SBS and ISD shear stress distributions in
3.
Figures 10 and 12 respectively, shows that the ISD gives a
simpler and more well defined shear stress distribution
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is heavily related to the position of failure. The experimen- 5.
tally failed specimens were used as a guide to determine the
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determine when the failure occurred, the load versus 6.
displacement plots show no distinct response at failure. A
series of interlaminar fractures occur throughout the speci-
men. For the ISD, it was clear that failure occurred in the 7.
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displacement plot shows exactly when the specimen fails.
The stress distribution clearly shows a relatively uniform 8.
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delamination region. 9.
10.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge support of this work by 11.
the National Science Foundation Grant number DMI
9596006. We also thank S. I. Gtiqeri for helping initiate
12.
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