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PART B: TELEVISION THEORY

Chapter 1: Principles of transmission

Frequencies reserved for television
The carrier frequencies for VHF television Channels 2-4 cover the frequency range 54 to 72
MHz. There is a band from 72-76 MHz which is reserved for government and non-government
services, including a standard aeronautical beacon at 75 MHz. VHF TV channels 5 and 6 are
between 76 and 88 MHz. The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF television
Channels 6 and 7.Above the FM is a range 108-122 MHz for aeronautical navigation including
localizers, radio ranging and airport control. From 122 to 174 MHz is another general service
band for both government and non-government signals. It includes fixed and mobile units and
amateur broadcast. Channels 7 through 13 span the frequency range 174-216 MHz. 216-470
MHz includes a number of fixed and mobile communication modes, including some
aeronautical navigation and citizen’s radio. 470-890 MHz includes UHF television channels 14
to 83. Frequencies 890-3000 MHz include a variety of aeronautical and amateur uses, studio-
transmitter relays, etc. There are radar bands 1,300-1,600 MHz.

The FM stations are assigned center frequencies at 200 kHz separation starting at 88.1 MHz,
for a maximum of 100 stations. These FM stations have a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the
center frequency, which leaves 25 kHz upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize interaction
with the adjacent frequency band. Television channels have 5 MHz separation.

World standards
A TV program produced in one country can't automatically be viewed in many other countries
without converting it to a different technical standard.
These technical differences relate to both incompatibilities in equipment and in the approach to
broadcasting the audio and video signals.
Some 14 different SDTV (standard definition) broadcast TV standards have been used at
different times throughout the world. They can be reduced to three primary groups:
 NTSC (National Television System Committee)
 SECAM (Sequential Color and Memory)
 PAL (Phase Alternating Line)
Within these there are two major differences:

 the total number of horizontal lines in the picture (525 or 625 for standard definition or
SDTV) and 1,125 and 1,250 for high-definition TV (HDTV)
 whether the transmission rate is 25 or 30 frames (complete pictures) per-second
In the next module we'll look at the digital, high-definitions broadcast standards.
Historically, the number of lines used in standard broadcast TV has ranged from the United
Kingdom's 405-line system to France's 819-line system. The phase-out of both these systems
left us with the 525 and 625 standards for SDTV.

You might think all this a bit technical, but hang in there. It's relevant to what you need to know,
especially with the international exchange of programming being a growing factor in the field's
economic viability.

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French standards VHF, UHF

VHF
Very High Frequency (VHF) is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency
electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding wavelengths of ten to
one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency (HF), and the
next higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency (UHF).
Common uses for VHF are FM radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, two way land
mobile radio systems (emergency, business, private use and military), long range data
communication up to several tens of kilometres with radio modems, amateur radio, and marine
communications. Air traffic control communications and air navigation systems work at
distances of 100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude.
VHF was previously used for analog television stations in the US, and continues to be used, but
not as much due to signal problems, for digital television.

Propagation characteristics
VHF propagation characteristics are suited for short-distance terrestrial communication, with a range
generally somewhat farther than line-of-sight from the transmitter.

 VHF waves are restricted to the local radio horizon less than 100 miles.
 VHF is less affected by atmospheric noise and interference from electrical equipment than
lower frequencies.
 While it is blocked by land features such as hills and mountains, it is less affected by buildings
and can be received indoors, although multipath television reception due to reflection from
buildings can be a problem in urban areas.
 Unlike high frequencies (HF), the ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves (called
skywave propagation).

UHF
UHF television broadcasting is the use of Ultra High Frequency (UHF) radio for over the air
transmission of television signals. Soon after the introduction of television broadcasting, the
demand for additional stations in urban areas motivated the allocation of UHF frequencies to
provide additional non-interfering channels. The high demand for mobile radio services and the
difficulty of covering a large area with powerful transmitters at these frequencies has led to
reallocation of television channels to other services. Digital television often uses UHF channels,
providing additional programming content in the same bandwidth.

Resume
 Band I
VHF  Band II
 Band III

 Band IV
UHF
 Band V

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SHF  Band VI

- Black and white and colour images

- Additive and subtractive analysis of colours
Basic TV transmitter
The basic television Broadcast transmitter block diagram is shown in figure (a).
The block diagram can be broadly divided into two separate section, viz., one that - Generates
an electronic signal (called video signal) corresponding to the actual picture and then uses this
video signal to modulate an R-F carrier so as to be applied to the transmitting antenna for
transmission, other that generates an electronic signal (called audio signal) containing sound
information and then uses this signal to modulate another RF carrier and then applied to the
transmitting antenna for transmission.
However only one antenna is used for transmission of the video as well as audio signals. Thus
these modulated signals have to be combined together in some appropriate network. In addition
there are other accessories also. For instance, video as well as audio signals have to be amplified
to the desired degree before they modulate their respective RF carriers.

This function is performed by video and audio amplifiers. The block picture signal transmitter
and audio signal transmitter shown in figure (a) may consist of modulators as the essential
component; Video signal transmitter employs an AM transmitter as amplitude-modulation is
used for video signals whereas audio signal transmitter employs FM modulator as frequency
modulation is used for sound information. Scanning circuits are used to mike the electron beam
scan the actual picture to produce the corresponding video signal. The scanning by electron
beam is in the receiver too. The beam scans the picture tube to reproduce the original picture
from the video signal and this scanning at the receiver must be matched properly to the scanning
at the transmitter. It is for this reason that synchronizing Circuits are used at the transmitter as
well as receiver.
Complete TV transmitter Block Diagram
Figure (b) depicts the complete block diagram of a Television Broadcast Transmitter. The
important block have already been discussed individually in the preceding sections. that makes
understanding of the diagram shown here much more simple. A brief explanation is given
ahead.
The block diagram can be broadly divided into two -sections, viz., an amplitude modulated
transmitter and a frequency modulated transmitter. Former is used for video modulation
whereas latter is used for audio modulation.

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Example:case of UK
The TV transmitter circuit given here uses UK standard 1 FM modulation for sound and PAL for video
modulation. The audio signal to be modulated is pre-amplified using the transistor Q1 and associated
components. The transistor Q2 has two jobs: production of carrier frequency and modulation. The pre-
amplified audio signal is fed to the base of transistor Q2 for modulation. Capacitor C5 and inductor L1
forms the tank circuit which is responsible for producing the carrier frequency. The video signal is fed
to the emitter of transistor Q2 via POT R7 for modulation. The modulated composite signal
(audio+video) is transmitted by the antenna A1. This TV transmitter circuit can be operated from 12V
DC. Either a 12V DC power supply or a battery can be used for the purpose, using a battery will surely
reduce noise and improve the performance. If you are going with a DC power supply, then it must be
well regulated and free of noise.

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Notes.
 Assemble the circuit on a good quality PCB.
 Inductor L1 can be made by making 4 turns of 24SWG enameled copper wire on a 6mm
dia: plastic former.
 T1 can be a radio frequency transformer with built in capacitor. (Can be found on old
transistor radio boards).
 Antenna A1 can be a 1M long copper wire. (Experiment with the length to get optimum
performance).
 This transmitter is working in VHF band somewhat between 50 – 210MHz.
 This transmitter is compatible only with PAL B and PAL G systems.
Slight adjustments are required on the value of C8 for getting optimum performance.

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Chapter 2 Video signals:

Broadcast television systems are encoding or formatting standards for the transmission and
reception of terrestrial television signals. There were three main analog television systems in
use around the world until late 2010s (expected): NTSC, PAL, and SECAM. Now in digital
television (DTV), there are four main systems in use around the world: ATSC, DVB, ISDB and
DTMB.
Comparisons between video and film quality are subject to lively debate.
Technically, video was inferior to film for many years.
However, most of the earlier weaknesses of video, such as loss highlight and shadow detail,
have been overcome with the newest professional video cameras.
Even so, many producers (and many actors) prefer the slightly softer look of film.

PAL and SECAM systems

Prior to the introduction of digital broadcasting, more than half of all countries used one of two
625-line, 25-frame systems: SECAM (Sequential Color and Memory) or PAL (Phase
Alternating Line).
The extra 100 lines in SECAM and most PAL systems added significant detail and clarity to
the video picture, but the 50 fields per second (compared to 60 fields in the NTSC system)
meant that the viewer could sometimes notice a slight flicker.
Even so, the 25 frames-per-second (fps) standard is very close to the international film standard
of 24 fps. Therefore, we can easily convert the 24-fps film standard to the PAL and SECAM
video systems. (Slightly speeding up film to 25 fps is hard to notice.)
Most countries around the World use one of three main television broadcast Standards.
These three main standards are NTSC, PAL and SECAM. However, each standard is not
compatible with the other. The charts below give a description of each standard and the
technical variations within each.

NTSC
Before we take up the new ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee) digital broadcast
standard, we'll take a quick look back at the systems that proceeded it and that are still used in
countries that have not made the transition to digital TV.
For almost 50 years he United States used the NTSC (National Television System Committee's)
525-line, 30 frames-per-second system. It was developed in 1941 as the broadcast standard for
black and white (monochrome) television.
By 1953, a NTSC color standard had been finalized. popular mechanics announces color
tv(Note the January 1954 issue of Popular Mechanics announcing the arrival of color TV in the
United States.)
We refer to the NTSC system of television as a 525-line, 60-field system.
he NTSC's 60-field system originally based its timing cycle on the 60 Hz (hertz or cycle)
electrical system these countries use.
Since other countries in the world use a 50 Hz electrical system, they developed systems of
television based on 50 fields per-second.
Digital TV standards, which we'll cover later in this module, take advantage of many new
technical capabilities and provide major improvements over the original NTSC standard.
The basic NTSC standard is more than 50 years old and many technical improvements have
become possible during the subsequent half-century.
The first colour TV broadcast system was implemented in the United States in 1953.
This was based on the NTSC (National Television System Committee) standard.

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NTSC is used by many countries on the American continent as well as many Asian countries
including Japan. NTSC runs on 525 lines/frame.

PAL
The PAL (Phase Alternating Line) standard was introduced in the early 1960's and implemented
in most European countries except for France.
The PAL standard utilises a wider channel bandwidth than NTSC which allows for better
picture quality. PAL runs on 625 lines/frame.

SECAM
The SECAM (Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire or Sequential Colour with Memory) standard
was introduced in the early 1960's and implemented in France. SECAM uses the same
bandwidth as PAL but transmits the colour information sequentially.
SECAM runs on 625 lines/frame.

Principles of antennae booster

Description.
The circuit shown here is of a TV antenna booster based on the transistor BF180. The circuit
operates in the UHF band and has a gain of 15dB. Capacitors C2,C3 C4 ,C5 and inductors L3,
L4 forms a UHF band pass filter. The input signal is fed to the emitter of Q1 through this filter.
Resistor R2 and R3 biases the transistor Q1 which is wired in the common base configuration.
Circuit diagram.

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Notes.
 Assemble the circuit on a good quality PCB.
 For better performance, enclose the circuit in a metal box.
 The circuit can be powered from 12V DC.
- HF,VHF and UHF heads
- Television remote controls
- Stages, intermediate frequencies, and couplings
- Relaxation amplifiers and detectors
- AGC and filter circuits

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Chapter 3 Audio Control

Boards, Consoles, and Mixers
Audio sources in a production must be carefully and even artistically blended to create the best
effect.

The control of audio signals is normally done in a TV studio or production facility audio boardwith an
audio board or audio console.

A sophisticated version, similar to what you would find in some TV stations, is shown in the right.

Audio boards and consoles are designed to do five things:

 amplify incoming signals

 allow for switching and volume level adjustments for a variety of audio sources
 allow for creatively mixing together and balancing multiple audio sources to achieve an
optimum blend
 route the combined effect to a transmission or recording device

Sophisticated audio boards or consoles also allow you to manipulate specific characteristics of audio.
These include the left-to-right "placement" of stereo sources, altering the frequency characteristics
of sounds, and adding reverberation.

For video field production smaller units called audio mixers provide the most basic controls over
audio.

A simplified block diagram of an audio mixer is shown below. The input selector switches at the top
of each fader can switch between such things as microphones, CDs, file servers, and satellite feeds.

The selector switch at the bottom of each fader typically switches the output of the fader between
cue, audition and program.

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Cue is primarily used for finding the appropriate starting point in recorded music. A low-quality
speaker is intentionally used in many studios so cue audio is not confused with program audio.

Audition allows an audio source to pass through an auxiliary VU meter to high quality speakers so
levels can be set and audio quality evaluated.

And, of course, program sends the audio through the master gain control to be recorded or
broadcast.

Even though audio boards, consoles, and mixers can control numerous audio sources, these sources
all break down into two main categories:

 mic-level inputs
 line-level inputs

Mic-level inputs handle the extremely low voltages associated with microphones, while line-level
inputs are associated with the outputs of amplified sources of audio, such as CD players.

Once they are inside an audio board, all audio sources become line-level and are handled the same
way.

Using Multiple Microphones in the Studio

Most studio productions require several mics. Since the mics, themselves, may have only a 5 to 10
meter (15-30 foot) cord, mic extension cables may be needed to plug the microphone into the
nearest mic connector.

Studio mics use cables with three-prong XLR or Cannon connectors, as shown below.

Since things can get confusing with a half-dozen or more mics in use, the audio operator needs to
make a note on which control on the audio board is associated with which mic. A black marker and
easily removed masking tape can be used on the audio board channels to identify what mic is
plugged into what channel. Mic numbers ("lav 1") or talent names ("John") can be used for
identification.

In the studio mic cables are normally plugged into three-prong XRL or Cannon connector receptacles
mounted in the studio wall as shown in this six-connector array.

Because mics represent one of the most problem-plagued aspects of production, they should be
carefully checked before the production begins.

Unless you do this, you can expect unpleasant surprises when you switch on someone's mic, and
there is either no audio at all, or you faintly hear the person off in the distance through another mic.
Either way, it's immediately clear that someone goofed.

There is another important reason that mics should be checked before a production: the strength of
different people's voices varies greatly.
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During the mic check procedure you can establish the levels (audio volume) of each person by having
them talk naturally, or count to 10, while you use a VU meter to you set or make a note of the
appropriate audio level.

Of course, even after you establish an initial mic level for each person, you will need to constantly
watch (and adjust) the levels of each mic once the production starts. During spirited discussions, for
example, people have a tendency to get louder. Monitoring audio gain will be discussed below.

It is also good practice to have a spare mic on the set ready for quick use in case one of the regular
mics suddenly goes out. Given the fragility of mics, cables, connectors, etc., this is not an unusual
occurrence.

An elaborate digital audio console (board), such as the type you would find in a major production
studio, is shown above. Note that many of the setting and monitoring status displays are in the form
of small LCD screens at the top of the board.

Using Multiple
Mics in the Field
The use of an audio mixer generally requires a separate audio person to watch the VU meter and
maintain the proper level on each input.

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Portable AC (standard Alternating Current) or battery-powered audio mixers, such as the one shown
here, are available that will accept several mic- or line-level inputs.

The output of the portable mixer is then plugged into a high-level video recorder audio input (as
opposed to a low-level mic input).

Most portable mixers have from three to six input channels. Since each pot (for potentiometer) fader
or volume control) can be switched between at least two inputs, the total number of possible audio
sources ends up being more than the number of faders.

Of course, the number of sources that can be controlled at the same time is limited to the number of
pots on the mixer.

There is a master gain control — generally on the right of the mixer — that controls the levels of all
inputs simultaneously. Most mixers also include a fader for headphone volume.

Although handheld mics are often used for on-location news, for extended interviews it's better ENG
mixer to equip both the interviewer and the person being interviewed with personal mics.

Whereas the mixer shown on the right above will probably require a special audio person to operate,
the cameraperson can operate the simple two mic mixer shown on the left. The output from the unit
is simply plugged into the camcorder.

Audio Mixer Controls

Audio mixers and consoles use two types of controls: selector switches and faders.

As the name suggests, selector switches simply allow you to select and direct audio sources into a
specific audio channel.

Faders (volume controls) can be either linear or rotary rotary gain control in design. A rotary fader is
shown here.

As we've noted, faders are also referred to as attenuates, gain controls, or pots (for potentiometers).

Linear faders (shown on the right) are also referred to as vertical faders and slide faders.

"Riding Gain"
It's important to maintain optimum levels throughout a production. This is commonly referred to as
riding gain.

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Although the recommended digital and analog audio levels my be different depending on the
production facility, to reduce confusion in the following discussion we'll use the analog standard of
0dB to represent a maximum level.

In this case normal audio sources should reach 0dB on the VU or loudness meter VU meter (next to
the 100 in the illustrations) when the vertical fader or pot is one-third to two-thirds of the way up
(open).

Having to turn a fader up fully in order to bring the sound up to 0dB indicates that the original source
of audio is coming into the console at too low a level. In this case the probability of system
background noise increases.

Conversely, if the source of audio is too high coming into the board, opening the fader very slightly
will cause the audio to immediately hit 0dB. The amount of fader control over the source will then be
limited, making smooth fades impossible. In either case an adjustment should be made in the output
of the originating audio source.

To reflect the various states of attenuation (resistance), the numbers on some faders are the reverse
of what you might think. The numbers get higher (reflecting more resistance) as the fader is turned
down. Maximum resistance is designated with an infinity symbol, ∞, which looks like an "8" turned
on its side.

When the fader is turned up all the way, the number on the pot or linear fader may indicate 0, for
zero resistance. Even so, just as you would assume, when the pot is turned clockwise or the fader
control is pushed up, volume is increased.

Level Control and Mixing

Audio mixing goes beyond just watching a VU meter. The total subjective effect as heard through the
speakers or earphones should be used to evaluate the final effect.

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For example, if an announcer's voice and the background music are both set at 0dB, the music will
interfere with the announcer's words. Using your ear as a guide, you will probably want to let the
music peak at around -15dB, and the voice peak at 0dB to provide the desired effect: dominant
narration with supporting but non-interfering background music.

But, since both music and voices have different frequency characteristics (and you'll recall that,
unlike VU meters, our ears are not equally sensitive to all frequencies), you will need to use your ear
as a guide.

During long pauses in narration you will probably want to increase the level of the music somewhat,
and then bring it down just before narration starts again.

In selecting music to go behind (under) narration, instrumental music is always preferred.

If the music has lyrics sung by a vocalist (definitely not recommended as background to narration)
they would have to be much lower so as not to compete with the narrator's words.

Using Audio From PA Systems

In covering musical concerts or stage productions a direct line from a professionally mixed PA (public
address) system will result in decidedly better audio than using a mic to pick up sound from a PA
speaker.

An appropriate line-level output of a public address (PA) amplifier fed to a high-level input of a mixer
can be used. However, don't connect a high-level or speaker level PA signal to a mic input. It can
damage the amplifier.

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Chapter 4 Digital television

The World Moves to DTV
By 2014, the majority of countries in the world had switched from analog to digital broadcasting.
Digital TV has numerous advantages. It uses a more efficient transmission technology allowing for
improved picture and sound quality.
In addition, digital signals provide more programming options through the use of multiple digital
subchannels (channels of information within the basic broadcast signal).
Compared to analog signals, digital broadcast signals react differently to interference.
Common problems with over-the-air analog television include ghosting of images (seeing multiple faint
images at the same time; note photo), noise or "snow" because of a weak signal, etc.
Changes in analog signal reception result from factors such as a poor or misdirected antenna and
changing weather conditions.
But even under these conditions an analog signal may still be viewable and you may still hear the sound.
Digital television transmissions are more demanding. The nature of digital TV results in a perfect picture
initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up interference or the signal is too weak to decode.
With poor reception some digital receivers will show a "blocky" video or a garbled picture with
significant damage, other receivers may go directly from a perfect picture to no picture at all. This
phenomenon is known as the digital cliff effect.
 The first country to make a complete switch to digital over-the-air (terrestrial) broadcasting was
Luxembourg, in 2006. Shortly thereafter, the Netherlands made the switch. Finland, Andorra,
Sweden and Switzerland followed in 2007.
In June 2009, major broadcast stations in the United States switched to DTV. We say "major" because
some lower power TV stations were allowed to stay with the NTSC analog standard for a period of time.
Some countries don't plan a complete analog-to-digital transition until around 2020.

New standards
As shown in the illustration below there are four basic international standards for digital broadcasting.
The United States and Canada use the ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee) standard.

The differences between the four systems gets quite technical and is beyond the scope of this discussion.
 One of the major differences between analog and digital TV is the number of horizontal
scanning lines that make up the picture. The greater number of lines the more picture detail is
possible. The table below summarizes these.

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As you can see, the ATSC standard is capable of 16:9 images up to 1920 by 1080 pixels in size and
resolution. This is more than six times the display resolution of the analog standard.
In addition, many different image sizes and line standards can be supported. These include:
 Standard definition—480i (interlaced) that are compatible with existing NTSC sets
 Enhanced definition—480p, (progressive), about the same quality as current DVDs
 high-definition—720p
 high-definition—1080i (the highest definition currently being broadcast)
 high-definition—1080p (Blu-ray equipment and a few cable operators)
It was thought that the move to digital TV and the "sudden" loss of all major NTSC television stations
in the U.S. would be met with widespread viewer consternation.
In fact, TV stations braced themselves for an avalanche of unhappy viewers demanding to know what
happened to their regular TV stations -- the ones they had been viewing for decades.
This did not happen for four reasons.
First, TV stations had launched a major educational campaign about the switch that had lasted for
months, second, most viewers were receiving the stations by cable or by satellite, which were not
affected, third, for some time new TV sets had been equipped to handle ATSC signals, and, finally, the
government went so far as to issue vouchers to help pay for set-top boxes to enable existing over-the-
air NTSC receivers to convert to over-the-air ATSC signals.

Differences in Detail
Compare the screen enlargements shown here that represent HDTV (on the left) and the standard
NTSC systems (on the right).

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When projected on a 16 x 9-foot screen and observed from normal viewing distance the picture detail
in good (1,080p) HDTV systems appears to equal or better that attained by projected 35mm motion
picture film.

HDTV can be converted to film and projected in a theater without most patrons

The enlarged illustrations on the left above show the relative pixel detail of SDTV and HDTV. (The
illustrations assume a 40-inch TV screen.)

SDTV produces an image with about 200,000 pixel (picture) points. HDTV increases that by a factor of
about 10 to two million pixels.

Ultra High-Definition
There are now two additional levels of sharpness beyond HDTV.

In 2013, Ultra high-definition sets and monitors started appearing.

These are divided into two levels: 2K with 2048 pixel lines and 4K with 4096 pixel lines. (Pixel stands
for pixel element.).

However, it's been shown that average TV viewers can't discern the difference between them and
HDTV at normal TV set viewing distances.

At present both 2K and 4K are beyond the capability of U.S. broadcast systems.

It is only when 2K and 4K images are projected on a large screen (as in a theater) that the difference
in detail becomes obvious.

In fact, the best video projectors can reproduce detail that is significantly beyond what's possible
with the standard 35mm motion picture projectors used in theaters.

As more and more theaters switch to video projection, the use of film is being phased out.

According the National Assn. of Theatre Owners' trade group by 2012 more than 85% of the U.S.'s
4,044 theaters, representing 34,161 screens, had gone digital. We'll have more on digital cinema
later in this module.

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Converting Wide-Screen Formats

Production facilities make the conversion of 16:9 HDTV/DTV images to the standard 4:3 aspect ratio
in the same way they convert wide-screen films to SDTV. (We'll cover in-set conversion approaches
later.)

Three approaches are used:

 First, is when the conversion involves cutting off the sides of 16:9 image to a narrower 4:3
size. We refer to this as an edge crop or 4:3 center cut.

If we shoot the original HDTV/DTV (or wide-screen film) with the narrower 4:3 cutoff area in mind,
losing the information at the sides of the picture should not be an issue. (This is the area on each side
of the red box in the photo below, which, as noted, is referred to as a center-cut of the full 16:9
raster.)

We refer to the procedure of keeping essential subject matter out of the cutoff areas as shoot-and-
protect.

 Second, the entire production can go through a process called pan-and-scan.

In this case a technician reviews every scene and programs a computer-controlled imaging device to
electronically pan the 4:3 window back and forth over the larger, wide-screen format. The red arrows
in this illustration suggest this panning movement.

In the above picture, cutting off the sides would not be an issue; but what if you had the two parrots
talking (??) to each other from the far sides of the screen?

 Finally, if the full HDTV/DTV frame contains important visual information (as in the case of
written material extending to the edges of the screen), panning-and-scanning will not work.

In this case, a letterbox approach can be used, as shown here.

But you can see the problem. The result is blank areas at the top and bottom of the frame. Often, we
reserve the letterbox approach for the opening titles and closing credits of a production, and pan-
and-scan is used for the remainder.

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Since some directors feel that pan-and-scan introduces pans that are artificial and not motivated by
the action (nor the composition they originally intended). They may try to insist their work be
displayed using letterbox conversion.

Originally, producers feared that audiences would object to the black areas at the top and bottom of
the letterbox frame. (More than one person who rented a film (video) in the letterbox format
brought it back to the video store complaining that something was wrong with the tape.) Today,
however, viewers accept this format.

There is another way of handling the 16:9 to 4:3 aspect ratio difference -- especially for titles and
credits. You've probably seen the opening or closing of a film on television horizontally "squeezed"
in. We refer to this optical technique as anamorphic conversion.

The effect is especially noticeable when people are part of the scene -- people who, as a result,
suddenly become rather thin. (Not that all actors would complain!)

Compare the two images above. Note how the bird in the squeezed 4:3 ratio on the right seems to
be thinner than the bird on the left.

Another way of visualizing the major SDTV-to-HDTV and HDTV-to-SDTV conversion approaches is
illustrated bellow.

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SDTV to HDTV In-Set Conversion Approaches

HDTV receivers can also (roughly speaking) convert SDTV (4:3) and HDTV (16:9) aspect ratios.
Manufacturers build three options into many HDTV receivers:

 Zoom - Proportionally expands SDTV horizontally and vertically to fill the 16:9 screen. This
eliminates the unused blank areas we would normally see at the edges of the picture, but it
also crops off some of the SDTV picture in the process.
 Stretch - Expands SDTV horizontally to fill the 16:9 screen. This makes objects a bit wider
than they would normally be.
 Combined zoom/stretch - A hybrid of the zoom and stretch modes that minimizes the
cropping effect of the zoom mode and the image distortion of the stretch mode.

Clearly, all these approaches leave something to be desired, so today savvy producers originate
productions in the 16:9 wide-screen format using the "shoot-and-protect" approach we've discussed.

JANVIER FOTSING