Child Development, February 1998, Volume 69, Number 1, Pages 219-230

Children’s Socialization Experiences and Functioning in Single-Mother

Households: The Importance of Fathers and Other Men
R e b e k a h L e v i n e Coley

This research considers the importance of biological fathers and other men for children in unmarried-mother
families. One hundred and eleven third- and fourth-gradechildren reported on the provision by fathers and
other men of various social, emotional, and disciplinary experiences. Factor analysis revealed 2 relational di-
mensions among these social experiences-warmth and control. Results of multivariate regression analyses
indicated that fathers’ provision of warmth and control related to better academic achievement for children,
and the provision of control from nonpaternal men predicted fewer teacher-rated behavior problems in school
and more prosocial behaviors toward peers. These relations were moderated by children’s gender, race, and
maternal marital history. Girls and Black children were more positively affected by relations with fathers and
father figures than were boys and White children, and divorced fathers were more influential in children’s
achievement than never-married fathers. Implications of the findings for social policy and intervention efforts
are discussed.

INTRODUCTION interactions with adults as well as in control and dis-

cipline provided by them are expected to contribute
The field of family research has historically focused
to the poor functioning of children in single-parent
almost exclusively on the impact of mothers on chil-
families in the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive
dren’s development and functioning, while the im-
realms.
portance of children’s relationships with fathers,
Relatedly, decades of research on parenting has
other family members, and nonfamilial adults has re-
determined the importance of parents’ provision of
ceived inconsistent and inadequate attention. In re-
warmth or responsiveness, and control or demand-
cent years, however, researchers from various theo-
ingness, for children’s healthy development (Baum-
retical perspectives are contributing to a growing
rind, l966,1991a, 1991b; Dornbusch et al., 1987).High
literature on children’s and adolescents’ social rela-
levels of both warmth and control, termed authorita-
tionships with nonmaternal adults (Cochran, Larner,
tive parenting, have been found to predict higher
Riley, Gunnarsson, & Henderson, 1990; Cohen, 1993;
competence in children, including better achieve-
King, 1994; Pearson, Hunter, Ensminger, & Kellam,
ment, higher self-esteem and social competence, and
1990; King, 1994; Taylor, 1996).
fewer problem behaviors (Baumrind, 1991a, 1991b;
Concern with children’s relationships with fathers
Dornbusch et al., 1987). Little research on parenting
and other nonmaternal adults is especially relevant
has considered the provision of these parenting prac-
for children residing in unmarried-mother house-
tices to children by adults other than the mother. This
holds. Theoretical arguments claim that children in
study aims to address this gap by studying single-
single-parent households have limited access to so-
parented children’s experiences of warmth and con-
cial relationships with nonmaternal adults and thus
trol provided by fathers and other male father fig-
experience deficiencies in interpersonal resources
ures.
compared to children residing with married parents
(Amato, 1995). For example, children residing with
only one parent are expected to have few opportuni- Research on Fathers
ties for positive and warm interactions with adults
Some believe that adults such as nonresidential fa-
and to lack adult, especially male, role models (Coch-
thers, kin, and others can successfully fulfill affective
ran et al., 1990; McLanahan & Booth, 1989; McLana-
and regulative roles for children in single-mother
han & Bumpass, 1988). In addition, single mothers
households (e.g., Amato, 1995); however, this claim
have been found to be less authoritative and to pro-
is not yet substantiated by consistent evidence. Much
vide less discipline and supervision to their children
of the research on children’s relationships with their
than married parents (Dornbusch et al., 1985; Dorn-
busch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; 0 1998 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
Steinberg, 1987).These deficiencies in warm, positive All rights reserved. 0009-3920/98/6901-0004$01.00
220 Child Development
nonresidential fathers focuses solely on payment of
child support or visitation schedules and does not ad-
dress more detailed processes or relationship quali-
ties (Amato & Rezac, 1994; King, 1994; Seltzer, 1991).
Perhaps not surprisingly, such research has found in-
consistent results of the effects of such experiences on
children’s functioning. For example, in one national
sample, single-parented children’s contact with fa-
thers related to lower behavior problems for boys but
not for girls (Amato & Rezac, 1994),whereas the fre-
quency of contact or closeness showed no effects in
others (Furstenberg, Morgan, & Allison, 1987; King,
1994). It is unknown what processes or relationship
qualities might underlie such inconsistent results, al-
though it is probable that the simplicity of the mea-
sures employed inhibit a complete display of links
between child functioning and social relationships
with fathers. Other studies employing a social sup-
port perspective have found that children’s ratings of
emotional and practical support from their families
predict positive outcomes such as high social compe-
tency, self-worth, and scholastic functioning (Cauce,
Felner, & Primavera, 1982; Coates, 1985; Dubow, Ti-
sak, Causey, Hryshko, & Reid, 1991), although these
studies do not separate out effects of relationships
with fathers versus mothers or siblings and do not
detail the types of social interactions experienced by
children.
Research that uses a broader definition of a father
(includingfather figures as well as biological fathers)
and allows children to self-nominate their father /fa-
ther figure seems to hold more promise. Zimmerman
and colleagues,for instance, found that within a sam-
ple of poor urban Black adolescents, boys’ relation-
ships with and emotional support from their fathers
or father figures (both residential and nonresidential)
predicted higher self-esteem, lower depression and
anxiety, and marginally lower delinquent behaviors
(Zimmerman, Salem, & Maton, 1995).
Research on Other Adults
Other research has considered children’s relation-
ships with other significant adults such as extended
family, neighbors, and teachers. Cochran‘s work with
elementary-aged children found that active relation-
ships with adult male relatives (e.g., having an uncle
who did projects with the child and took him special
places) were important for the academic success of
single-parented boys (Cochran et al., 1990).Research
that considers children’s relationships with nonfamil-
ial adults such as teachers, clergy, and others in the
community has found no consistent positive effects
of such support (Cauce et al., 1982; Dorsch & Keane,
1994; Dubow et al., 1991; Felner, Aber, Primavera, &
Cauce, 1985; McLoyd & Wilson, 1990))although ret-
rospective and resiliency studies often highlight the
importance of supportive unrelated adults (e.g.,
Manns, 1988; see also Darling, Hamilton, & Niego,
1994).
It seems likely that many studies of children’s rela-
tionships with their fathers and research on chil-
dren’s receipt of social support fail to find significant
results because of the brevity of the research instru-
ments. Numerous studies have used measures that
do not adequately capture the quality or depth of
children’s relationships with nonmaternal adults, do
not ask about specific types of social experiences, and
do not address the important parenting constructs of
warmth and control. In the current study, children
were allowed to nominate adults that were important
to them, and then answered numerous questions
concerning specific warm emotional and social inter-
actions (such as who praises the child, and who lis-
tens to or plays with him or her), as well as questions
concerning discipline and control (such as who says
no, and who punishes the child). Children’s relation-
ships with both biological fathers and other male fa-
ther figures are considered, and their links to chil-
dren’s functioning in behavioral, emotional, and
cognitive domains (as rated by numerous infor-
mants) are determined.
In line with past studies, it is predicted that chil-
dren’s receipt of warm and responsive social rela-
tionships with nonmaternal adults will predict bet-
ter academic functioning and higher self-esteem and
prosocial behaviors for children. Having access to
support and encouragement from additional paren-
tal sources such as fathers or other male father figures
is likely to raise children’s feelings of self-worth and
efficacy, thus leading to better social functioning and
achievement in school. Although very little work has
addressed the effects of discipline from nonmaternal
sources, it is predicted that the receipt of additional
control and regulation from fathers and other men
will affect children‘s behavior and self-regulation,
thus leading to a decrease in problem behaviors in
school (Amato, 1995).
Subgroup Differences
This sample includes a diverse group of children,
boys and girls, Black and White, living with never-
married and divorced mothers. Like past research,
this work will consider whether children’s demo-
graphic characteristics predict patterns of social rela-
tionships with their fathers and father figures, and,
additionally, whether sex, race, or maternal marital

history moderate the relations between the receipt
of warmth and control and children’s func-
tioning.
As in the research described above, studies that
consider subgroup differences in both availability
and influence of child-adult relationships do not ap-
pear to show clearly replicated patterns of results.
For example, Mott (1994), using national data from
the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),
found no differences in boys versus girls in the
amount of contact children had with their nonresi-
dential fathers or in the amount of discipline they re-
ceived, whereas Seltzer (1991) found nonresidential
fathers to have slightly more involvement with girls
than boys in national National Survey of Families
and Households (NSFH) data. Alternately, both
Amato and Rezac (1994)and Cochran (Cochran et al.,
1990) found that relationships with fathers or other
men predicted better functioning for boys but not for
girls. It seems likely that fathers and other men
would direct more attention to boys than girls, and
that boys would be more likely to see such men as
role models, thus leading to stronger effects for boys
than for girls.
Children’s racial identity may also influence both
the receipt and the meaning of warm and controlling
experiences with fathers and father figures. Black
children are more likely than White children to reside
without a father in the house, but they are also more
likely to have grandparents or other extended family
in their household (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 1996). Hence it is expected that
Black children will have less access to their biological
fathers, but possibly more access to other adults, than
will White children. Ethnographic research finds that
Black families have particularly strong kin supports
available to single mothers and children (Jarrett,
1995;Stack, 1974).However, interview and survey re-
search has not found consistent differences between
Black and White children in their levels of kin sup-
port or father-child contact (Cross, 1990; Hofferth,
1984; Seltzer, 1991).
Regardless of whether there are differences in the
amount of support available, it is possible that chil-
dren’s relationships with nonmaternal adults might
hold different meanings for Black than for White chil-
dren, or that types of interactions may influence the
two groups in dissimilar ways (McAdoo, 1993). For
example, authoritative parenting, encompassing
both high levels of warmth and control, has been
found to be more beneficial for White than for Black
adolescents (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Dornbusch, Rit-
ter, & Steinberg, 1991), and there is some hint that
authoritarian parenting, with high control but low
Rebekah Levine Coley 221
warmth, is more beneficial for some groups of Black
children (Baldwin, Baldwin, & Cole, 1990). Similarly,
physical punishment is related to higher levels of be-
havior problems for White children but shows no re-
lation to behaviors among Black children (Deater-
Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettie, 1996). It is possible
that Blacks, due to the likelihood of their living in
lower socioeconomic environments and of experienc-
ing racial discrimination, are more accepting of con-
trolling and directive parenting, viewing such prac-
tices as necessary training for Black children (Ogbu,
1985; Wilson, 1987).Thus, in this study it is expected
that control from men will be more beneficial for
Black than for White children.
Finally, children’s relationships with their fathers
may also be influenced by the marital histories of
their parents. For instance, never-married fathers
have less contact with their children and pay less
child support than their divorced counterparts (Selt-
zer, 1991), although other research suggests that
never-married mothers may make up for this by re-
ceiving more support and in-kind aid from extended
family sources (Hofferth, 1984). In addition, children
and mothers in never-married families have not ex-
perienced the changes and turbulence of divorce. It
is predicted, therefore, that children of divorced
mothers will report more contact with and be more
influenced by their social relationships with their bio-
logical fathers. Children of never-married mothers,
on the other hand, who are less likely to have a rela-
tionship with a biological father, are likely to be in-
fluenced more by other men.
Summary
Through a detailed study of single-parented chil-
dren’s social relationships with their fathers and
other men that addresses the provision of both
warmth and control, this research aims to shed light
on the influences such relationships hold on chil-
dren’s cognitive, social, and behavioral functioning.
Three questions will be addressed. (1)Do children of
different racial, gender, or maternal marital history
groups report different patterns of socialization expe-
riences with fathers and other men? (2) Are there sig-
nificant links between fathers’ and father figures’
provision of warm and controlling social interactions
and children’s academic achievement, problematic
and prosocial behaviors, and self-esteem? And more
specifically, do relationships with fathers influence
children differently than relationships with other
men, and does the provision of warmth and respon-
siveness affect children differently than the provision
of control and discipline? (3) Are these relationships
222 Child Development
moderated by children’s gender, race, or parental
marital history?
METHOD
The data for this project were collected in a large
Midwestern industrial city. This study uses mid-
elementary-schoolchildren, a population that seems,
for a number of reasons, to be best suited for a con-
centrated look at the effects of social interactions with
fathers and other adults. First, at the ages of 8 to 10,
children still spend most of their non-school time in
their own homes and neighborhoods or in situations
that their parents choose and provide for them. Sec-
ond, although peers play an important role for ele-
mentary school children, effects of peer pressure,
urges for independence from parents, and other ado-
lescent issues are not yet salient. And, lastly, the years
of middle childhood have largely been ignored in
past research in this area.
Participants were recruited in the third- and
fourth-grade classrooms of eight public schools.
Seventy-threepercent of families contacted agreed to
participate in both mother and child interviews.
Child data were collected in the schools during the
1991-1992 academic year. Children participated in
group interviews in their classrooms and were indi-
vidually interviewed for approximately 45 min by ei-
ther a graduate or undergraduate student or the prin-
cipal investigator. Mother data were collected in
home interviews during the Spring of 1992. These in-
terviews lasted 1 to 2 hr and were conducted by
trained female interviewers matched on ethnicity.
Teachers also completed questionnaires for each
child. Mothers and teachers were each paid $50
for their participation, and children received small
toys.
Sample
The sample for this study includes a subsample of
the entire study population, which included children
in married, stepparent, and single-mother families. In
this study, 111third- and fourth-grade children resid-
ing with unmarried mothers are included.’ The sam-
ple is evenly split among girls (n = 55) and boys
(n = 56) and among lower-class (unskilled and semi-
skilled; n = 55) and middle-class (skilled, technical,
and professional; n = 55) children. Fifty-three percent
(n = 59) are White and 47% (n = 52) are Black. Sixty-
two percent ( n = 69) reside with mothers who are
1. Two children of widowed mothers were not included in
analyses, due to the small size of this subgroup.
separated or divorced, and 38% (n = 42) reside with
never-married mothers.
Measures
Demographics
Demographic information, including maternal
marital history, gender of child, race, and socioeco-
nomic status, was supplied by mothers during indi-
vidual interviews. Socioeconomic status was deter-
mined using Hollingshead‘s Four Factor Index of
Social Status (1975),which takes into account the ed-
ucational achievement, occupational status, gender,
and marital status of the head(s) of the household.
For single-mother households in which the mother
receives child support or social security payments,
this measure also includes the relevant information
for the biological father of the children in the house-
hold.
Independent Variables
Warmth and control. During individual interviews,
each child completed a questionnaire concerning
child-adult interactions in various domains. Each
child first listed their mother, father, older and
younger siblings, and up to two additional persons,
including (1) other adults residing in their household
and/or (2) other adults with whom they are espe-
cially close, such as a relative or friend. The children
were allowed to choose the appropriate people. Any
of these individuals who were not appropriate (e.g.,
if the child indicated that his or her father was de-
ceased or that no other adults resided in the house-
hold or were especially close to the child) were not
included as responses. The interviewer then read 21
questions (e.g., Who teaches you? Who says they’ll
punish you if you don’t behave? Who takes you to
fun places?) and the child marked which person@)
engaged in each activity with them. More than one
person could be marked for each question.
Data revealed that no child named more than one
nonpaternal male adult in this measure. Each item
was recoded into two dichotomous variables indicat-
ing whether (1)the child’s father or (2) another man
fulfilled each activity. Varimax rotation factor analy-
ses were run separately for the father and other man
items. Each factor analysis produced two similar,
conceptually meaningful factors with eigenvalues
greater than 1; items with moderate to high factor
loadings (>.50) on one factor and low cross-loadings
were retained for each factor. This produced four
groupings of child-adult social interactions: father

Table 1 Birvariate Correlation Coefficients among Child-Adult
Interaction Variables
1 2 3 4
Father warmth 1.000
Father control .6997*** 1.000
Man warmth -.1117 -.0788 1.000
Man control - ,0415 -.1410 .4699*** 1.000
warmth (11 items, alpha = .95); father control (four
items, alpha = .78); man warmth (11 items, alpha =
.93); and man control (four items, alpha = .79). For
each scale, items were averaged, and, due to high
skewness, natural log values were computed.2Table
1 presents correlations among the independent vari-
ables.
Dependent Variables
Three areas of children’s functioning are consid-
ered, taking into account previous research findings:
academic achievement; social behaviors, including
problem and prosocial behaviors; and emotional de-
velopment, measured by self-esteem.These function-
ing variables incorporate information from four dif-
2. Numerous tactics were used to test the reliability and va-
lidity of these measures. All four scales had acceptable to excel-
lent internal consistency, with alphas ranging from .78 to .95.
The discriminant validity of the measures is also apparent
through comparisons of subgroups of children. As expected,
children of divorced mothers reported greater interactions with
their fathers than did children of never-married mothers:
warmth, t(110) = -2.27, p < .005; control, t(110) = -1.78, p <
.lo). Children residing in a household with a nonpaternal male
reported greater nonpaternal male interaction scores than did
children residing without a male: warmth, t(ll1) = -3.52, p <
,005; control, t(ll1) = -3.47, p < .005. In addition, in a separate
part of the interview, children were asked, “How often do you
see your father?” (coded on an 8 point Likert scale; 1 = never
in past year, to 8 = every day). This item correlated with father
warmth, r(104) = .53, p < .001, and father control, r(104) = .45,
p < ,001. The children’s measures also exhibit external validity
through comparisons with mother reports. Mother interviews in-
cluded eight items concerning their children’s relationships with
other adults. These items were worded, ”Does some adult,
other than you, sometimes help the children with schoolwork?
[ . , . take the children on outings-to places that are fun? . . .
get the children to behave?]. If yes, who?” Seven of these ques-
tions denoted warm child-adult interactions, and one measured
control. Responses of “father” were summed, as were responses
concerning a nonpaternal man; each of these scores correlated
significantly with sums of children’s warmth and control ratings
for fathers and other men, respectively: fathers, r(109) = .42,
p < ,001; nonpaternal men, r(109) = .20, p < .05.
Rebekah Levine Coley 223
ferent sources: school records, teacher ratings, peer
ratings, and children’s self report.
Academic achievement. Academic achievement
scores from the school-administered 1991-1992 Met-
ropolitan Achievement Test and the Otis-Lennon
School Ability Test were acquired from each child’s
school records. The normal curve equivalent scores
(which are scored on interval scales ranging from 1
to 99, with a mean of 50) in the three areas of reading
skills, language skills, and math skills were summed
into a combined achievement score.
Social behaviors. The Acting Out Behaviors subscale
(six items, alpha = .94) from the Teacher-Child Rat-
ing Scale (Hightower et al., 1986) was used to mea-
sure children’s disruptive and problem behaviors. A
measure of positive social behaviors was acquired
through sociometric ratings completed during class-
room group interviews. Children were asked to nom-
inate as many of their peers within their classroom as
they wished in response to the question, “Who helps
others a lot?“ A prosocial peer rating was created by
computing the proportion of same-sex classmates
who nominated each child, transformed using arc-
sine square-root transformation (see Kovaks, Par-
ker, & Hoffman, 1996, for further information on the
peer nominations).
Emotional development. Children’s self-concepts
were measured through Harter’s Self-concept Scale
(Harter, 1983), a classroom self-evaluation mea-
sure with 36 questions in which children rate their
likeness to various characteristics. In this study,
the composite scale Global Self-worth (six items,
alpha = .73) is used to measure children’s overall s e v
esteem.
RESULTS
Patterns of Children’s Interactions with Fathers
and Other Men
To address whether children’s demographic char-
acteristics predict different patterns of socialization
experiences with fathers and other men, separate
two-tailed t tests were run for each child-adult inter-
action variable. Results in Table 2 indicate that no sig-
nificant differences in levels of warmth or control re-
ceived by fathers or other men are found for separate
gender groups. As predicted, White children report
more warm and controlling interactions with their fa-
thers than Black children; however, the former group
also reports more interactions with other men, al-
though these differences are not significant. Children
of divorced parents report higher levels of warmth
from their fathers, as well as marginally more control
224 Child Development

Table 2 Differences in Reported Mean Values of Child Social Interactions by Demographic Characteristics
of Children

Parental History
Gender Race
Never Divorced/
Girls Boys White Black Married Separated
( w = 55) (n = 56) t (n = 59) (n = 52) t (n = 42) (n = 69) t

Father warmth .28 .30 .28 .35 .22 2.10* .19 .35 2.59“
(.36) (.35) (.38) (.3U (.2@ C39)
Father control .18 21 .41 25 .13 2.15* .14 23 1.65
(.30) (.31) (.34) ~25) (.26) (.32)
Man warmth .14 .13 .31 .I6 .11 .94 .12 .14 .41
(.25) (.26) (.26) (.24) (.26) C25)
Man control .10 .13 .65 , .14 .09 1.20 .07 .14 1.88+
(.20) ~27) 07) (W (.13) (.28)

Note: Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations of means. Separate variance t tests are reported, due to
differences in sample sizes and variances of subgroups.
+p < .lo; * p < 45.

from nonpaternal men, than their counterparts with
never-married mothers.
It is possible that the differences found between
White and Black children and between children of
divorced versus never-married mothers are due
more to socioeconomic differences than to race or
marital status per se. Indeed, when gender, race, mar-
ital history, and socioeconomic status are entered
into ordinary least-squares (OLS)regression analyses
for each of the four child socialization variables, no
significant results arc found, indicating that once
children‘s socioeconomic status is controlled, differ-
ences between racial and marital history groups dis-
appear (see Table 3).
Child Socialization and Child Functioning
The second set of analyses addresses whether in-
teractions with fathers and other men are related to
children’s functioning in the realms of academic
achievement, social behaviors, and self-esteem. OLS
regression analyses were run for each of the four
child functioning variables of academic achievement,
problem behaviors, prosocial behaviors, and self-
esteem. Because of high intercorrelationsbetween the
variables of father warmth and control and between
other man warmth and control, separate equations
were predicted using children’s experiences of
warmth from fathers and other men, and using their
receipt of control. In each regression, gender, race,
socioeconomic status, and maternal marital history
were first entered into the equation as controls.
Results for children’s receipt of warmth from fa-
thers and other men are presented in Table 4.After
controlling for demographic characteristics, children
who report more warm and responsive interactions
with their fathers perform better academically in
school. Contrary to predictions, the provision of

Table 3 Regression of Father-Child Interaction Variables on Children’s Demo-

graphic Characteristics
~ ~ ~ ~

Father Man Father Man

Warmth Warmth Control Control

Sex .05 -.lo .04 - .01

Race - .08 -.19 -.lo -.I5
SES .12 - .09 .12 - .11
Marital history .10 -.02 .09 .03

R2 of equation .05 .04 .05 .03

F of equation .42 .97 1.52 .76

Note: Sex is coded with female omitted; race with White omitted; SES is continuous;
marital history with never-married omitted. Cells present standardized beta weights.
 Rebekah Levine Coley 225

Table 4 Ordinary Least-Squares Regression Equations of Child Functioning Vari-

ables on Fathers’ and Father Figures’ Provision of Warmth

Acting Prosocial
Achievement out Peer
Score Behaviors Rating Self-Esteem

Sex - .24** .20* - .26** -.01

Race - .22* .13 - .09 .12
Marital history .15+ -.lo - .11 .12
SES .37** -.25* .07 .33**
Father warmth .19* .04 - .02 .01
Man warmth .08 - .05 .14 .01

R2 of equation .42 .19 .11 .11

F of equation 13.89** 3.87** 2.15+ 2.21*

Note: Sex is coded with female omitted; race with White omitted; SES is continuous;
marital history with never-married omitted. Cells present standardized beta weights.
+p < .lo; * p < .05; ** p < .01.

warmth from fathers and other men does not predict
children’s self-esteem or their positive or problematic
social behaviors.
Table 5 presents results for the provision of control
from fathers and other men, and indicates that higher
levels of control from fathers predict greater school
achievement, whereas more controlling and disci-
plinary experiences with nonpaternal men predict
better social behaviors, including lower teacher rat-
ings of problem behaviors in school as well as higher
prosocial ratings from peers. As predicted, no results
are seen for self-esteem.
Although it is presumed that the links observed
between fathers’ and other men’s provision of
warmth and control and children’s achievement and
behaviors are direct, it is also possible that these rela-
tions function through other paths. To test whether
this influence is functioning through maternal par-
enting practices, mothers’ warmth and control were
entered into the regression equations as controls. Re-
sults for fathers and other men do not change (data
not shown).
Moderating Effects of Gender, Race,
and Parental History
To address whether gender, race, or maternal mar-
ital history moderate the relations between children’s
social interactions with fathers and other men and
children’s functioning, interaction terms were made

Table 5 Ordinary Least-Squares Regression Equations of Child Functioning Vari-

ables on Fathers’ and Father Figures’ Provision of Control

Acting Prosocial
Achievement out Peer
Score Behaviors Rating Self-Esteem

Sex - .24** .20‘ - .26** - .01

Race - .22* .10 - .09 .10
Marital history .16+ - .09 -.11 .12
SES .36** - .26*‘ .09 .32**
Father warmth .16‘ - .06 - .07 - .03
Man control .04 - .21* .19* -.11

R2 of equation .45 .22 .13 .13

F of equation 13.17** 4.86** 2.65* 2.47%

Note: Sex is coded with female omitted; race with White omitted; SES is continuous;
marital history with never-married omitted. Cells present standardized beta weights.
+p < .lo; ‘ p < .05; * * p < .01.
226 Child Development

Table 6 Ordinary Least-Squares Regression Equations of Child Functioning Variables on Warmth Interac-
tion Variables

Acting Prosocial
Achievement out Peer
Score Behaviors Rating Self-Esteem

Sex - .26 .06 - .55* .07

Race - .01 .30 .42 .07
Marital history .35* -.15 .05 - .03
SES .36** - .26** .06 .31**
Father warmth X sex - .20 -.01 - .28 .05
Father warmth X race .08 .04 .32+ -.13
Father warmth X marital history .34** .09 .03 .09
Man warmth X sex .14 -.16 -.12 .07
Man warmth X race .17 .17 .34 .07
Man warmth X marital history -.06 - .14 .15 - .24

R2 of equation .49 .21 .15 .14

F of equation 8.77*** 2.55' 1.73* 1.61

Note: Sex is coded with female omitted; race with White omitted; SES is continuous; marital history with never-
married omitted. Cells present standardized beta weights.
' p < .lo; * p < .05; * * p < .01.

for each of the father and other man warmth and con-
trol variables with each of the three demographic
variables. Again, OLS regressions were run sepa-
rately for warm interactions and controlling interac-
tions for each of the four outcome variables.
Results for interactions between warmth and de-
mographic variables are presented in Table 6, and in-
teractions with the father and other man control vari-
ables are presented in Table 7. For both warmth and
control, relations between fathers' behaviors and
children's school achievement are moderated by pa-
rental marital history. As predicted, divorced or sep-
arated fathers are more influential for children than
are never-married fathers. High levels of paternal
warmth and control relate to better academic scores
for children of divorced or separated parents, but
these relations do not hold for children of never-
married parents. Gender is also a moderator of the

Table 7 Ordinary Least-Squares Regression Equations of Child Functioning Variables on Control Interac-
tion Variables

Acting Prosocia1
Achievement out Peer
Score Behaviors Rating Self-Esteem

Sex - .34 .I2 -.13 .20

Race .06 - .60* p.14 - .31
Marital history .41* - .07 .10 -.12
SES .33** - .22' .14 .32"
Father control X sex - .32' .05 -.18 .21
Father control X race .11 - .42* .21 - .34+
Father control X marital history - .44"* .10 - .03 .OO
Man control X sex .19 -.15 33 .05
Man control x race .21 - .44+ - .27 - .16
Man control X marital history -.14 - .06 .28 - .27

R2 of equation .50 .27 .18 .17

F of equation 9.12** 3.57** 2.22* 2.01"

Note: Sex is coded with female omitted; race with White omitted; SES is continuous; marital history with never-
married omitted. Cells present standardized beta weights.
p < .lo; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
+

relation between father control and children’s
achievement, with girls showing stronger positive
links than boys. Although this relation is in the same
direction for father warmth, the beta does not reach
significance.
Race also moderates the influence of children’s so-
cial relationships with men. The marginally signifi-
cant beta of the race X father’s warmth interaction
indicates that for Black children, greater warmth
from fathers predicts higher prosocial ratings,
whereas this relation is negative for White children.
The beta for the interaction of race and warmth from
other men is also high, again suggesting stronger ef-
fects of male warmth on Black children’s prosocial
behaviors, although this relation did not reach sig-
nificance.
Although warm relations with fathers are impor-
tant for Black children’s prosocial behaviors, control
and discipline are related to problem behaviors.
Greater control from fathers predicts lower rates of
problematic school behaviors for Black children but
higher rates for Whites, whereas control and disci-
pline from other men predicts better school behaviors
for both groups, although more strongly for Black
than White children. These results agree with the pre-
diction that Black children will benefit more than
White children from male control and discipline, and
rather surprisingly also show that relationships with
biological fathers, encompassing both warmth and
control, are more positive influences on Black than
on White children. Finally, a marginal result for self-
esteem indicates that whereas control from fathers re-
lates to slightly higher self-esteem for White children,
this relationship is negative for Blacks.
DISCUSSION
Results of this study indicate that single-parented
children’s social interactions with fathers and other
men are important predictors of healthy functioning
in both behavioral and cognitive realms. Chldren
who report more positive and warm social interac-
tions with their nonresidential fathers receive high
achievement scores in standardized school tests, and
children with nonpaternal men who play significant
disciplinary and regulatory roles show better behav-
iors. Teachers rate these children as exhibiting fewer
behavior problems in school, and their peers rate
them as being more helpful than their counterparts
with little adult male contact. Relations between chil-
dren’s social relationships with fathers and other
men and their self-reported self-esteem were notice-
ably sparse in this research, perhaps indicating the
growing influence of peers on children’s self-
Rebekah Levine Coley 227
concepts during preadolescent years (Brown, 1990;
Gauze, Bukowski, Aquan-Assee, & Sippola, 1996).
Findings linking men’s provision of discipline and
control to children’s behaviors and achievement
seem especially notable. Although permissive disci-
pline or a lack of structure and control have been
linked to high levels of problem behaviors and low
academic achievement in children in previous re-
search (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Maccoby & Martin,
1983),these studies concentrated exclusivelyon disci-
pline provided by residential parents, especially by
mothers. The results in this study extend these find-
ings to show the importance of discipline from both
nonresidential fathers as well as other nonpaternal
men, a group that has received little attention in pre-
vious research. It is notable also that the majority of
nonpaternal men named by children were not ex-
tended relatives but rather were partners or boy-
friends of the children’s mothers3 Although fathers
are assumed to be important and positive influences
on children (though, as noted previously, support for
these links with nonresidential fathers is sparse), and
stepfathers may be seen as bringing positive re-
sources, most notably money, to single-mother
households (Wallerstein,Corbin, & Lewis, 1988),ma-
ternal boyfriends have either been ignored or occa-
sionally vilified in research and the popular press. In
contrast, the current study provides support for con-
sistently positive relations between children’s social
interactions with nonpaternal men, many of them
maternal partners, and children’s functioning.
Results of this study also indicated moderation ef-
fects of children’s gender, race, and maternal marital
history. Not surprisingly, children’s social relation-
ships with fathers appear to be more influential for
the academic achievement of children of divorced
than of never-married parents. However, these rela-
tionships are also more significant for girls than for
boys. These gender differences run counter to previ-
ous research, which has found links between fathers
and other male relatives and children’s functioning
for boys, not girls (Amato & Rezac, 1994; Cochran
et ah, 1990). Differences may be due to the depth of
the research instruments used in this study, which
may do a better job of capturing the emotional qual-
3. Although the sample is too small to further divide nonpa-
temal men into more specific groups, the identities of these
adults are available in the data. This information shows that, of
all the men listed in response to a child-adult interaction ques-
tion, 57% were biological fathers of the children. Of the nonpa-
temal men, a full 60% were residential boyfriends or ex-hus-
bands of the mother, whereas 32% were male relatives, and 8%
were other men in the community such as a friend’s father or a
coach.
228 Child Development
ity of the father-child relationship. Qualitative re-
search is beginning to focus on the understudied
arena of urban girls’ relations with their fathers (e.g.,
Way & Stauber, 1996). Additional research is neces-
sary to further define these relationships and the
roles they play for girls’ development.
A third notable finding in the current research in-
volves the importance of fathers’ and father figures’
warmth and control for the behavioral functioning of
Black children. These results are contrary to studies
by Dornbusch and colleagues (Dornbusch et al., 1987,
1991) that found authoritative parenting, with high
warmth and high control, to be more beneficial for
White than for Black adolescents. However, the
Dornbusch studies measured parenting practices of
mothers (in mother-only families) or mothers and fa-
thers together (in married-parent families). In com-
parison, the current study suggests that for single-
parented Black children, a majority within the Black
community, the provision of warmth and control
from fathers and father figures appears to be para-
mount. These findings heighten concerns over the
lack of a consistent father or father figure in the lives
of many Black children.
It is important to note that the data collection
methods and the socialization variables developed in
this research differ substantially from past work.
Much research on nonresidential fathers uses single
items, such as the frequency of father-child visits, as
a proxy for the quality of father-child relationships
(King, 1994; Seltzer, 1991). On the other hand, much
research on young children’s social support systems
has used mother reports of children’s social net-
works, measures of available (not actual) social sup-
port, or has collected information from children
themselves, but in a directed fashion, with the iden-
tity of the adults assigned by the researchers and not
the respondents (Cochran et al., 1990; Galbo, 1984;
McLoyd & Wilson, 1990). In the current study, chil-
dren were allowed to identify the nonparental adults
most important to them, and then reported on nu-
merous types of direct interactions. The variables cre-
ated from these child reports thus reflect both the
specific identity of the adults as well as the number
and type of social interactions. These variables also
focus on two aspects of parenting that have been
found to be central determinants of child develop-
ment-warmth and control.
However, the child socialization measures in this
research also present some limitations. First, the chil-
dren were allowed to discuss a maximum of two non-
parental adults, thus possibly truncating a full de-
scription of their socialization experiences. Second,
although the measures address a variety of specific
types of social experiences, they may not adequately
capture the quality or frequency of the child-adult
interactions. Both of these factors could limit the
power of the predictive variables used in this study,
although neither would discount the findings. Third,
this research did not fully address the marital and
residential history of children’s families. Some chil-
dren have resided with unmarried mothers for their
entire lives, whereas other have experienced parental
divorce in recent years. The length of single parent-
hood, as well as the current relationship between
mother and father, could have unmeasured effects
both on children’s access to fathers and other father
figures, as well as on the effects of such relationships.
Finally, this work assumes that children’s social
interactions with adults have a direct relation to their
functioning. As the analyses are correlational, the di-
rection of effects cannot be absolutely assumed.
Moreover, it is possible that these relationships are
working through a different route altogether, such
as through parenting practices of mothers. Numer-
ous studies with Black families have found that ex-
tended kin support influences adolescent functioning
through improvements in maternal functioning, par-
enting practices, or family organization (McLoyd,
Jayaratne, Ceballo, & Borquez, 1994; Taylor, 1996;
Taylor & Roberts, 1995).Similarly, work with three-
generational households has shown that children of
single mothers are affected by adults in their house-
hold through the effect these adults have on their
mothers’ ability to parent consistently and firmly
(Dornbusch et al., 1985). In the current study, it is
possible that men who provide children with warmth
and control also provide their mothers with support
or aid, thus improving mothers’ functioning and par-
enting efficacy. However, the results of this study re-
mained even after controlling for mothers’ provision
of warmth and control to children, thus bolstering
confidence in the assumption of direct links between
fathers’ and father figures’ social interactions and
children’s functioning. Future research needs to more
fully consider both indirect and direct pathways from
adult support to children’s functioning within the
same statistical model.
Conclusions and Policy Implications
The consistently positive links between children’s
social interactions with men and their cognitive and
behavioral development found in this research lend
support to the importance of efforts that seek to in-
crease single-parented children’s exposure to and
close relationships with men. Such efforts fall into
three general categories: (1) Policies should encour-
age divorced or never-married fathers to play sig-
nificant roles in the lives of their children. Greater

enforcement of visitation rights as well as of child
support payments might help strengthen such rela-
tionships. (2) Policies should not discourage residen-
tial relationships or extended family residences for
unmarried mothers, as resulting relationships with
nonpaternal men appear to have positive influences
on children’s behavioral functioning. (3) Children’s
exposure to supportive males in their communities
and extended families should also be encouraged,
such as through community programs such as Big
Brothers as well as through school and other institu-
tional policies concerning the inclusion of alternate
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