Summary Engineering Psychology Courses

Ginanjar W. Pamungkas(2018S00002)
Kumoh National Institute of Technology – Student Exchange Program

Professor : Woo Chang Cha

May, 2018
Contents
Chapter 1 – Theory of Human Perception ............................................................................. 4
Signal Detection Theory .................................................................................................... 4
Signal Detection Evidence ................................................................................................. 4
Stimulus – Response Matrix .............................................................................................. 5
Signal Detection Theory Diagram ...................................................................................... 5
Signal Present Condition ................................................................................................... 7
Response Bias in Signal Detection ..................................................................................... 7
Response Criteria .............................................................................................................. 8
Measure Response Criteria ............................................................................................... 8
SDT Model ........................................................................................................................ 9
Setting the Response Criteria ............................................................................................ 9
Bias Factor: Signal Probability ......................................................................................... 10
Bias Factor: Payoffs ......................................................................................................... 10
RC Factor: Individual differences ..................................................................................... 11
Human Performance in Setting β .................................................................................... 11
Sensitivity ....................................................................................................................... 12
Factor Affecting Sensitivity .............................................................................................. 13
Receiver Operating Characteristic ................................................................................... 15
ROC Curve Effects ........................................................................................................... 16
SDT Application ............................................................................................................... 16
Analysis of Confidence Rating ......................................................................................... 17
Vigilance Task.................................................................................................................. 17
Vigilance Decrement Theory ........................................................................................... 18
VD Strategy ..................................................................................................................... 19
Information Theory ......................................................................................................... 20
Rationale......................................................................................................................... 21
Information Measurement .............................................................................................. 21
Other Information Reduction .......................................................................................... 22
Information Transmission ............................................................................................... 22
Absolute Judgement ....................................................................................................... 24
Human Performance in Absolute Judgement .................................................................. 24
Chapter 2 – Attention and System Performance ................................................................. 25
Attention in Human Information Processing Model ........................................................ 25
Information Biases in the Perceptual Process .................................................................. 26

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 Selective Attention theories models................................................................................ 26
Divided Attention Theories ............................................................................................. 26
Central Capacity Theory .................................................................................................. 27
Gestalt Principles ............................................................................................................ 27
Gestalt Psychology .......................................................................................................... 27
Auditory attention .......................................................................................................... 28
Cross Modality Attention ................................................................................................ 28
Attention switching to non-visual stimuli ........................................................................ 28
Chapter 3 – Language and Communication ......................................................................... 29
Top-down processing ...................................................................................................... 29
Bottom-up processing ..................................................................................................... 29
Context-Data Trade-offs .................................................................................................. 29
Code design .................................................................................................................... 30
Comprehension............................................................................................................... 31
Speech recognition ......................................................................................................... 32
Recognition Methods ...................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4 – Human Memory in Cognitive System ............................................................... 35
Memories in Human Information Processing Model ....................................................... 35
Perception vs Cognition .................................................................................................. 35
Memory and Information Process ................................................................................... 35
Anatomy of Memory ....................................................................................................... 36
Memory retrieval ............................................................................................................ 36
Memory improvement .................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 5 – Cognitive Organization of Knowledge............................................................... 38
Epistemology .................................................................................................................. 38
Insight vs Intuition........................................................................................................... 38
Knowledge in Human Intention and Perception .............................................................. 38
Knowledge Organization ................................................................................................. 39
Complex Knowledge Representation............................................................................... 39
Declarative methods ....................................................................................................... 40
Procedural methods ........................................................................................................ 40
Intelligence ..................................................................................................................... 40
Cognitive Model of Learning ........................................................................................... 41
Effective Training Principles ............................................................................................ 41

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Chapter 1 – Theory of Human Perception

Signal Detection Theory

Signal Detection Theory is a model & data analysis method for decision problems with
uncertainty (noise)

“Originates from World War II: aircraft detection on radar signals

Today: widely used in psychophysics, medicine, radiology and machine learning”

Developed by engineer and psychologist, Green & Swets at University of Michigan

Psychologist trying to measure absolute thresholds (i.e. minimum amount of sound

necessary to be detected) wanted to measure sensitivity and response bias
• How sensitive is the human organism in detecting sound
• Had prob.--how to parcel out effects of bias--some observers more inclined to say
they heard a tone than others
• Separate out our measure of sensitivity from bias
• Have independent measures of sensitivity and bias

Turns out to have application in many domains:

• Medical diagnosis, airport inspection, eyewitness testimony, industrial inspection,
vigilance

There have some parameter in Signal Detection,

Stimulus
• Sensory Input(s)
Signal
• Stimulus having a special pattern
Noise
• Obscuring stimuli
Task
• Report “yes” when signal present, otherwise “no”

Example Cases: Steam Power Plant

• Task: detect boiler leak
• Stimulus: sound pressure level(SPL) : DB
• Signal: higher than normal SPL

Signal Detection Evidence

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Stimulus – Response Matrix
Stimulus

Response

Evidence variable : X
Critical threshold: Xc, criterion β
X > Xc => “yes”

Signal Detection Theory Diagram

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Signal Absent Condition

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Signal Present Condition

Response Bias in Signal Detection

Bias toward CR:

• Conservative behavior
• Say “no” for the obscure signal
• Fewer FA, more MISS
• Ex: cautious to press TRIP button in NPP due to FA cost

Bias toward HIT:

• Liberal or Risky behavior
• Say “yes” for the obscure signal
• More HIT, more FA
• Ex: X-Ray review referred patient

Observers become more conservative over time

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Response Criteria

Measure Response Criteria

The ratio of neural activity produced by signal and noise at Xc

β=1
• P(hit) = p(CR), p(FA) = p(miss)
• Neutral
Lower β
• More “yes”, more hits, more false alarm
• Risky responding
Higher β
• Fewer “yes”, fewer hits, fewer false alarm
• Conservative responding

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SDT Model

Setting the Response Criteria

Direction for the optimal Beta

• Minimize errors
• Maximize total gain
Factors affecting bias
• Signal probability: P(S)
• Payoffs
o Cost for incorrect response(FA, Miss)
§ C(FA); Cost of false alarm, ex: TRIP cost from FA
§ C(M); Cost of a miss; ex: Miss malfunction signal
o Gains for correct Response(Hit, CR)
§ V(CR); Value of a correct rejection
§ V(H); Value of a hit, ex: reward for default product
• Individual difference

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Bias Factor: Signal Probability
Consider the obscure signal as a signal as possible
More signals detected, lower beta and increase P(H)
Optimal Performance
§ Maximize the number of correct response (Hit & CR) when P(signal) ≠ P(noise)
§ Minimize the number of error (Miss & FA) when P(signal)=P(noise), and C(FA)=C(M),
V(CR)=V(H)
β (opt) = P(N)/P(S)
§ More signal, beta decreased
§ β (opt) = 1 when P(S)=P(N)
More conservative at low signal probability

Bias Factor: Payoffs

Minimize error, maximize gain
Conditions
§ If it is important for signals never to be missed, reward for hit and high penalty fro
miss. => Low β
o Ex: When defective chips cost to much, discard good chip (FA)
§ Optimal Performance
o Maximize total expected gain
§ Β(opt) = P(N)/P(S) * (V(CR)+C(FA))/V(H)+C(M))
Probabilities Payoffs
§ Assume P(N) = P(S)
§ Reward hits in Payoffs makes observer more liberal than Penalize FA

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RC Factor: Individual differences

Some people more inclined to say they hear tone than others
Low criterion (threshold) – liberal (risky)
High criterion – conservative

Human Performance in Setting β

Difference between optimal beta and actual beta
§ Actual beta is more sluggish than optimal beta from the experiment : (sluggish β)
o High ideal β => less risky than they should be
o Low ideal β => less conservative than they should be

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Why sluggish β
§ People don’t like respond with lots of ‘Y’ or ‘N’ in a row
§ People have to keep track of how often signal occurred -may fail to attend, forget, …
§ People often show bias in proportion judgements (internal psychophysics may
reflect biases in perceptual judgement) (Hollands & Dyre, 2000)
§ Tend to overestimate rare event
§ Underestimate frequent event
§ Need to respond “creatively”
§ Expert: lower setting of β
§ Difficulty in specifying V & C values

Sensitivity

§ Resolution of detection mechanism

o Change by physical property of the signal (ex, intensity)
o Change by property of subject (ex, lack of training)
o How well the observer can separate the presence of signal from its absence
(Discriminability Index)
o Mostly affected by the environment itself around human.
§ Phenomenon
o Low d’ leads to poor SD performance

§ Example
o Failure to detect defects in lumber
§ Explanation
o Lack of memory to memorize signal

Sensitivity Measure

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Factor Affecting Sensitivity

§ Target (signal) Uncertainty) affects the sensitivity and so vigilance level

But not different vigilance decrement

§ Signal Strength
More sensitivity loss with low signal strength

§ Event Rate (speed up conveyer belt)

More sensitivity loss at higher event rate

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§ Simultaneous tasks produce greater sensitivity, no decrement
Successive vigilance task
o Observer must remember target, compare one target
Simultaneous vigilance task
o Target example shown, compare all target information

§ Decrement eliminated if task automatized

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 § Cognitive stimuli (meaningful stimuli) increase sensitivity.
Sensory task: auditory or visual intensity
Cognitive task: symbolic or alphanumeric stimuli
o Ex: Proofreading a final manuscript

Receiver Operating Characteristic

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ROC Curve Effects
ROC Curve: response bias + sensitivity effects
β : specifies a point on the selected ROC curve, depends only on sensation
d’: selects the ROC curve, depends only on decision

ROC Function

SDT Application
§ Medical Diagnosis
o MD (high d’) vs. Resident (conservative behavior)
§ Eyewitness Testimony
o Generally low => risky + lack of memory
o At the protected society for severe criminal justice
§ lower β => more HIT, more FA, increased innocent individual prosecuted
o At the normal society
o higher β => more Miss, less FA, decreased innocent
Individual prosecuted
§ Industrial Inspection
o Visual search
o Vigilance decrement

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Analysis of Confidence Rating

Vigilance Task

§ Vigilance
o Operator’s ability to detect signals over time period
§ Phenomenon
o Typical signal
Intermittent(not continuous), unpredictable, infrequent signal
o Signals may also be difficult to detect
low volume, not very different from background etc.
o Prolonged monitoring (watch)
o Vigilance Decrement
P(hit) or vigilance level decreases
P(miss) increases after about 30 min

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§ Free-response paradigm
Target event may occur at any time
Non-target events not defined
Event rate (frequency) = # of targets / unit time
E.g., monitoring for incoming threats, missiles

§ Inspection paradigm
Events occur at regular intervals
Circuit-board inspector
o Some boards are bad—targets; Each board is an event
Ambiguous event rate
o the # of targets per unit time or
o target probability: the ratio of targets to total events; constant even if the # of
target events per unit time is increased

Vigilance Decrement Theory

§ Sensitivity loss
Fatigue (Broadbent, 1971)
Continued vigilance causes fatigue, attentional lapses
Increases variability of S+N distributions
Sustained demand theory (Parasuraman,1979)
Sustained attention
o Require high workload => fatigue => sensitivity loss => Look away and blink more
often => miss signal
Demanding more resources when recall what the target signal looks or sounds like
o Produce more memory load and greater fatigue

§ Criterion shift (bias increment)

Expectancy theory

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 Arousal theory

VD Strategy
Increasing sensitivity
§ Show target examples
Reduce memory load
Simultaneous task vs, Successive task
§ Increase target salience
Signal enhancement technique;
o Blinking and target with motion
o Use redundant coding (multiple sensory modalities, e.g. both visual and auditory)
§ Vary event rate
Low event rate improves vigilance performance (Saito, 1972; Bottle inspectors):
sustained demand theory
§ Train observers
Automatic processing of the stimulus
§ Shift in response criterion
Instructions
o Instruct to adjust β to β opt
Knowledge of results, KR
o Allow accurate estimation of the true P(S)
False signals
o Keep beta low and raise subjective Ps(s) and arousal level
Confidence levels
o Report signal event with different confidence level
Other techniques
o Rest to increase arousal
o Biofeedback technique (Beatty et al, 1974)
§ Theta waves (brain wave at 3-7 Hz, indicating low arousal) (Beatty et al, 1974)

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Information in human factors

Type of information

Information Coding

Information Theory

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Rationale

Information Measurement

Equiprobable Case

Non-Equiprobable Case

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Other Information Reduction

Context

Redundancy

Information Transmission

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Researches in Information Theory

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Absolute Judgement
§ Assign a stimulus into one of three or more levels along a sensory dimension
o Stimulus: sample from a continuum
Pitch, brightness, loudness, color
o Response
Tone (A,B,C,D,E,F,G), brightness level (dim, medium bright)
Loudness level (soft, medium), color (red, green)
§ Phenomenon
o Failure to discriminate between > 5 stimuli
o Error occur at HT= 2 bit
§ Example
o Discriminate several tone pitches
o Estimate the size of a cloud
o Recognize the color of a warning light

Human Performance in Absolute Judgement

§ Memory limitation, not sensory limitation
§ Max channel capacity: somewhere between 2 and 3 bits
Taste <2 bits, line location<3.4 bits, angle <4.3 bits
§ The magical number seven plus or minus two, Miller (1956)
§ Closely related to learning
§ Edge effect
o Stimuli located in the middle of the range of presented stimuli (lowered sensitivity)
are generally identified with poorer accuracy than those at extremes

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Chapter 2 – Attention and System Performance

Attention in Human Information Processing Model

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Information Biases in the Perceptual Process

Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to sensations

Cognitive interpretation:
§ Process whereby stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning: semantic
meaning, psychological meaning
Affective interpretation:
§ Emotional or feeling response triggered by a stimulus

Selective Attention theories models

Notice little about irrelevant tasks

Divided Attention Theories

The ability to attend to more than one concurrent task (multi-tasking).
Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory

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Central Capacity Theory
Resource allocation with limited capacity
Affect of allocation
§ Resources
o Arousal
o Available capacity
§ Other Effects
o Enduring Dispositions
o Momentary Intentions

Gestalt Principles
Preattentive grouping principles (Palmer, 1992)
o Proximity, similarity, common fate, good
continuation, and closure
o Displays have high redundancy so that
knowledge of one location allow an accurate
guess of the location of other items (fig. b)
o Not applicable to less organized displays(fig. a). Resource Allocation Model
(Kahneman, D., 1973)

Gestalt Psychology
§ Gestalt psychologists focused on how we GROUP objects
together.
§ We innately look at things in groups and not as isolated
elements.
§ Proximity (group objects that are close together as being
part of same group)
§ Continuity (objects that form a continuous form are
perceived as same group)
§ Similarity (objects similar in appearance are perceived as
being part of same group
§ Closure (like top-down processing…we fill gaps in if we
can recognize it)

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Auditory attention
Auditory modality characteristics
§ Omni-directional
§ Transient input
§ Longer short-term memory than visual
§ Discrete movement localization (saccadic movement)
Divided attention
§ Pre-attentive processing: 3- 6 seconds at echoic memory
§ Parallel processing with auditory object
Focused attention fails with similar:
§ Pitch
§ Intensity but can ignore loud voice within 10 dB
§ Semantic context (Treisman 1964a)

Cross Modality Attention

Visual dominance
§ Shorter RT for visual stimuli
§ Decreased performance on non-visual time shared tasks
§ Simultaneous non-visual stimuli ignored
§ Motion sickness
§ Not always.
o Haptic dominance (Heller, 1992)

Attention switching to non-visual stimuli

§ Distracting
§ Alerting

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Chapter 3 – Language and Communication
Language is any formalized system of communication, especially one that uses sounds or
written symbols which the majority of a particular community will readily understand.

Top-down processing Tradeoff between BUP and TDP

Process with context and redundancy
§ Letter recognition
o Knowledge of surrounding letters may guide
the interpretation of ambiguous feature
§ Considerable frustration in proofreading.
Trade-off between BUP and TDP
§ Governed by redundancy(the amount of prior
word context) while bottom-up by stimulus
quality(flash duration) (Tulving et al, 1967)
Word superior effect
§ A recognition of a letter in a word can be
processed more rapidly than the letter by itself.
(Reicher,1969)

Bottom-up processing
Distinct advantage by developing automatic processing “I’ll complete my study at
(top-down processing) rather than increasing stimulus
quality(bottom-up processing). the
§ Accuracy and speed of recognition will be greatest if…
§ The displayed stimuli are presented in a physical format that is most compatible with
the visual representation of the unit in memory
o ex: Natural letter more easily recognized than dot matrix letter.
§ Upper case vs. Lower case
o Lowercase more variety in word shapes => more cues
o Text: mixed case (Tinker, 1955)
o Single word: upper case (Vartabedian, 1972)
§ Words > abbreviation or acronym.
§ Truncated abbreviation > contracted abbreviation(Ehrenreich,1981)
o Reinforcement: reinf > rnfn
§ Optimal size of chunks for data entry (Klemmer, 1969)
o 3-4 digits long

Context-Data Trade-offs
Present large print
§ Improve bottom-up sensory quality
§ Restrict the number of words on screen; Limit top-down processing

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Generally, top-down processing is efficient.

Code design
Tradeoff between T-D and B-U processing
§ Message of great probability (and therefore less information contents) may be
transmitted with less sensory evidence.
§ Signal detection theory
o P(S) increased => less info => beta lowered => detected at lower sensitivity
(with less evidence and therefore lower d’)
Shannon-Fano principle
§ Based on SD human performance
§ Most efficient or, economic code (fewest symbols)
o When message length information content of the message (H(S))
o Principle is violated if all messages are of the same length
o High probability (less-information-messages) should be short.
o Ex: P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.4, P(C) = 0.1, P(D) = 0.1; binomial code symbol (A=00,
B=01, C=10, D=11) violates the Shannon-Fano principle but (A=0, B=1, C=01,
D=10)
Zipf’s law (Ellis & Hitchcock, 1986)
§ All natural language follow the S-F principle.
§ Frequently occurring words are short (a, of, the)
§ Less frequently words are longer
§ Ex: engine status design
o N (expected normal condition, high frequency), HOT (less expected, lower
probability overheated condition)

Economy vs. Security

§ Case that high frequency (therefore short) messages of a low information contents
are very important
o Trade-off in economy vs. security
§ Ex) a,b,c => alpha, bravo, charlie

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Comprehension
Cognitive process in understanding text by Integrating the meaning of sets of propositions
(Kintch & Van Dijk,1978)
§ EX: “turn the top switch to on”
o Consist of two propositions; switch => on , switch => top

Start program if power is on

Hold proposition
in WM
Working memory load
§ More proposition => Poor comprehension
§ Working memory capacity in text comprehension = Max 4 propositions (Kintch’s
model, 1978)

Comprehension: Linguistic Factors

logical reversal
§ Slow comprehension with negative statement:
o “light on” vs. “light not off”; “no left turn” vs. “right turn only”
Falsification
§ Comprehend more rapidly if the proposition is true
Congruence
§ Rapid comprehension with false statement at the negative statement

Picture-sentence verification task: Clark & Chase,1972

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Absence of cues
§ Generally better at noticing that something unexpected is present than that
something expected is missing.
§ ex: Palm Spring aircraft accident: absence of Radar symbol.
Congruence vs. order reversal
§ ex) A > B > C (Desoto et al, 1965)
o “A is greater than B and B is greater than C” (A B B C)
o “B is greater than C and A is greater than B” (B C A B)
o “B is less than A and C is less than B” (B A C B): cognitive reversal
§ ex) congruent ordering (Bailey, 1989)
o Congruence between the actual sequencing of events and the ordering of
statements of the page
o “Do A, then do B”vs. “Prior to B, do A”
o “ If the light is on, start the engine” rather than “Start the engine if the light is
on”

Text Comprehension
Guideline for writing instruction or procedure(Bailey, 1989)
§ State directly what is desired without adding excess words
§ Use familiar vocabulary.
§ Ensure that all information is explicitly stated, not inferred.
§ ex: Do not use “it”, “this”
§ Provide context or cues for necessary knowledge.
§ Do not use negative word.
§ Avoid the predictable instructions as possible.
§ Use active statement rather than passive statement.

Speech recognition

Top down + Bottom Up

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Speech Intelligibility
Hearing is not the same as comprehension.
Intelligibility depends on
§ the information contents or redundancy available and
§ the degree of top-down processing based on context.

PB (Balanced Phonetically) Word

Recognition System Type

Speaker-dependent
§ Recognize speech for a single speaker’s voice
§ Train the system
§ Inexpensive
Speaker-independent
§ For multiple users
§ Limited to a single language or a dialect of a language
Speaker verification
§ Recognize individual voice
§ Train system
§ For security application
§ More accurate than fingerprinting, second only to retinal scans
Word Recognizer Type
§ Discrete (isolated) word recognizer
o Pause of at least 250 ms
§ Continuous word recognizer
o Can recognize words separated by less than 50 ms of silence

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Recognition Methods

Template matching
§ Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) technique
o Based on Dynamic programming
Phonetic matching
§ Break down speech into phonemes
§ Use HMM (Hidden Markov Modeling) to analyze the sequence of sounds
§ Less memory than template matching
Neural network processing
§ Simulating the operation of neurons in human brain
§ Better performance than DTW or HMM
Expert system
§ Rule based speech modeling

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 Chapter 4 – Human Memory in Cognitive System

Memories in Human Information Processing Model

Perception vs Cognition
Perceptual system
§ Process the physical representation for coding and interpretation of sensory stimuli.
Cognitive system
§ Process the mental representation for cognitive structure of current stimuli and
already stored concepts or knowledge.
§ How the human mind represents the concept and knowledge in human brain.
o knowledge representation
§ Unclear boundary between perceptual and cognitive system
Human Memory
§ Actual place for processing physical and cognitive representation

Memory and Information Process

Analogy of human memory and computer process
Information
process encoding storage retrieval
Memory coding (KR: Maintain encoded memory Retrieve encoded memory
Human concept, mental (neuron activation from LTM (forgetting:
memory image) pattern) retrieval failure)

Computer ASCII coding From K/B, Store information on HDD Fetch and display
system mouse or RAM information on monitor

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Anatomy of Memory

Amygdala
§ emotional memory and memory
consolidation
Basal ganglia & cerebellum
§ memory for skills, habits and CC responses
Hippocampus
§ memory recognition, spatial, episodic
memory, laying down new declarative
long-term memories
Thalamus
§ formation of new memories and working memories
Cortical Areas
§ encoding of factual memories, storage of episodic and semantic memories, skill
learning, priming.

Memory retrieval

Multi-store Modal Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

Memory improvement

Shallow Processing
1. Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical
qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.
2. Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its sound.

Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold

something in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information.

Deep Processing
3. Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and
relate it to similar words with similar meaning.

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Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis
(e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall.

For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.

Chunking Method
§ Chunking is a term referring to the process of taking individual pieces of information
(chunks) and grouping them into larger units. By grouping each piece into a large
whole, you can improve the amount of information you can remember.
§ Ex:
§ Probably the most common example of chunking occurs in phone numbers. For
example, a phone number sequence of 4-7-1-1-3-2-4 would be chunked into 471-
1324.

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Chapter 5 – Cognitive Organization of Knowledge

Knowledge is an organized collection of related information

Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge) definition based rationalism and empiricism

§ Authority, Empiricism, Reason, Intuition (Insight)
§ Plato definition on three conditions
o True
o Believe
o Justify
§ Gettier Problem
o A true proposition can be believed by an individual (purple region) but still
not fall within the "knowledge" category (yellow region).

Insight vs Intuition
§ Intuition is an immediate and instinctive response, whereas insight may require the
application of various thought processes and may not arrive spontaneously.
§ Insight is knowledge attained, where intuition is a sense of knowing. [Shah Wharton,
Author/Ghostwriter]
§ Intuition : ability to acquire knowledge without inference or the use of reason.
a fundamental capacity of human reason to comprehend the true nature of reality

Knowledge in Human Intention and Perception

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Knowledge Organization
Organize knowledge within the cognitive structure
§ How to represent knowledge stored at LTM
§ Mental schema
A field of study related to library and Information Science (LIS)
§ KO is a difficult task, and requires organization
skills of expertise in the domain.
§ Effective utilization of knowledge depends
critically on its organization
§ Knowledge Organization System (KOS)
o organize documents, document
representations and concepts.

Human thinking relies mainly on knowledge representation of concept and mental image
[Anderson, 1995].
Perception-based representation
§ Mental image
§ Language representation
Meaning-based representation
§ Concept or conception
§ Schema
o Semantic network, frame, script
§ Mental model
§ Display compatibility

Complex Knowledge Representation

Four properties to effectively represent complex knowledge in a given domain (Rich, 1993)
§ Representational adequacy
o Ability to represent all kind of knowledge required in a given domain
§ Inferential adequacy
o Ability to manipulate the representational structure in a way to derive new
structures representing new knowledge inferred from old one
§ Inferential efficiency
o Ability of knowledge structure to use efficient inference mechanism
§ Acquisition efficiency
o Ability the knowledge structure to acquire new information easily

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Declarative methods
§ Represent knowledge as a static collection of facts with limited set of procedures for
employing them
§ Ex) Semantic nets (Quillian, 1968)
§ Ex) Frame (Minsky, 1975)
§ Ex) Script (Schank & Abelion, 1975)
§ Ex) Logic

Procedural methods
§ Represent knowledge as procedures for employing the knowledge
§ Ex) Production system (Rule-based system)

Intelligence
An operational definition of Intelligence
§ “How can an organism with limited sensory and computational abilities understand
its environment well enough for it to act appropriately?”
o Example: What would it take to build a successful autonomous robot vehicle
with roughly the level of intelligence of a rabbit?
§ In this sense, Intelligence means:
o Ability to automatically perform tasks that concurrently require human
operators.
o More autonomy in computer systems; less requirement for human
intervention or monitoring
o Systems that are easier to use: able to understand what the user wants from
limited instructions
o Systems that can improve their performance by learning from experience
Artificial Intelligence
§ A study of how to make intelligent computer system
§ AI is a study of heuristic rather than algorithm
o Algorithm: A prescription for solving a given problem, over a defined range of
input conditions.
§ Ex: solving a quadratic equation, or a set of N linear equations involving N
variables.
o Heuristic: A rule of thumb, which usually works but may not do so in all
circumstances. Example: getting to class room in time.
§ Mostly algorithm based heuristic (ex: Inference engine)

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Cognitive Model of Learning

ACT model, 1976 ACT-R/PM model, 1998

Effective Training Principles

§ Automaticity
§ Elaborative rehearsal
§ Part-task training
o Segmentation
o Fractionization
§ Reduce cognitive load
§ Guided training or augmented feedback
§ Adaptive training
§ Knowledge of Results
§ Learning with case study
§ Consistency mapping

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