UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

DR. P.K.MANDAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL

SUBMITTED BY,

SUBHOJIT PAUL
ROLL NO:- 02
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have completed this project under the careful guidance of my
respected teacher Dr. P. K. MANDAL, Department of Physics, University
of North Bengal. He has suggested and helped me every now and then
regarding the project. I, therefore, convey my heartfelt gratefulness to
him for his valuable suggestion, supervision and lending me his
precious time.
Last but not the least, our computer lab technical assistant
Mr. Rajesh Pradhan showed me all the things related to computer
assembling and thus enabled me to finish my project in time.

Date:- 23rd May, 2016 Subhojit Paul

Place:- Department of Physics Department of Physics
University Of North Bengal University Of North Bengal
 CONTENTS

 COMPUTER GENERATIONS 01
 MAIN PARTS OF COMPUTER 04
 HARDWARE COMPONENTS AND
THEIR ASSEMBLING 12
 CABLES AND THEIR CONNECTIONS 20
 POST ASSEMBLY CHECKLIST 24
 BOOTSTRAPPING USING BIOS 25
 INSTALLING AN OPERATING SYSYEM 27
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 34
 CONCLUSION 36
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 37
  WHAT IS COMPUTER?
A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data)
and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of
instructions on how the data is to be processed. Conventionally, a computer
consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing
unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out
arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the
order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow
information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations
saved and retrieved.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER:-
When the computers first came into the scenario, they hardly had such speed and
mind-blowing features. After modification during different era, they have reached
such excellence. Generations of computers can be broadly differentiated in five
generations, such as-
 First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire
rooms. They were very expensive to operate
and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, the first computers generated a
lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time, and it could take days or weeks to
set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and
output was displayed on printouts.
 The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices.

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  Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors
Transistors replace vacuum tubes and
ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was far superior to
the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their
first-generation predecessors. Second-
generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output.
 Examples of 2nd Generation
computers:- IBM 1620, IBM
7094, CDC 1604
 Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed
on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts,
users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with
an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at
one time with a central program that
monitored the memory.
 Examples of 3rd Generation
computers:- IBM-360, HONEYWELL-6000,
IBM-370/168
 Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first

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 generation filled an entire room could now
fit in the palm of the hand. As these small
computers became more powerful, they
could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development
of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of
GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
 Examples of 4TH Generation
computers:- STAR 1000, CRAY-1 (SUPER
COMPUTER)
 Fifth Generation (Present and
Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that
are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is
helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular
and nanotechnology will radically
change the face of computers in years
to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input
and are capable of learning and self-
organization.
 Examples of 5th Generation
computers:- desktop, laptop,
notebook, ultrabook, chromebook

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  MAIN PARTS OF A COMPUTER:-
The computer performs basically five major operations of
functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it
accepts data or instruction by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it
can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in
the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a
computer. We discuss below each of these operations.
1. Input: In computing, an input
device is a peripheral (piece
of computer hardware equipment)
used to provide data and control signals
to an information processing
system such as
a computer or information appliance.

Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital

cameras and joysticks.
2. Control Unit (CU): The process of input, output, processing
and storage is performed under the supervision of a unit
called 'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving data,
when to stop it, where to store data, etc. It takes care of step
-by-step processing of all operations inside the computer.
3. Memory Unit: Computer is used to store data and
instructions.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The major operations
performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the
data for getting useful information.
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as

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the central processing unit (CPU). We may call CPU as the brain
of any computer system

 COMPUTER MEMORY:-
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is
the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus
one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536
memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
1. Cache Memory
2. Primary Memory/Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory
1. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

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2. Primary Memory / Main Memory
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It
has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and
ROM.
Computer’s memory can be classified into two types – RAM and ROM.
RAM or Random Access Memory is the central storage unit in a computer
system. It
is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and
the
data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the
computer’s processor. The more RAM a computer has, the more data a computer
can
manipulate. Random access memory, also called the Read/Write memory, is the
temporary
memory of a computer. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible
only
as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are cleared once the
computer is
turned off. There are several kinds of RAM which are discussed below:-
DRAM

Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of storage that is widely used

as the main memory for a computer system. Dynamic random-access memory
(DRAM) is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either
charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two values of
a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1. A DRAM storage cell is dynamic in that it
needs to be refreshed or given a new electronic charge every few milliseconds to
compensate for charge leaks from the capacitor.

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SRAM

SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its
memory as long as power is being supplied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which
stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have
to be periodically refreshed.

SDRAM

Synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM) is dynamic random

access memory (DRAM) that is synchronized with the system bus. It is a generic
name for various kinds of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) that are
synchronized with the clock speed that the microprocessor is optimized for. Short
for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds
than conventional memory.

DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM):

The next generation of SDRAM is DDR, which achieves greater bandwidth than
the preceding single data rate SDRAM by transferring data on the rising and falling
edges of the clock signal (double pumped). Effectively, it doubles the transfer rate
without increasing the frequency of the clock.
DDR2 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Two SDRAM):
Its primary benefit is the ability to operate the external data bus twice as fast as
DDR SDRAM. This is achieved by improved bus signal. DDR2 SDRAM is very similar
to DDR SDRAM, but doubles the minimum read or write unit again, to 4
consecutive words.
DDR3 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Three SDRAM):
DDR3 memory reduces 40% power consumption compared to current DDR2
modules, allowing for lower operating currents and voltages (1.5 V, compared to
DDR2's 1.8 V or DDR's 2.5 V). DDR3 continues the trend, doubling the minimum
read or write unit to 8 consecutive words.
DDR4 SDRAM (Double Data Rate Fourth SDRAM):
DDR4 SDRAM provides the lower operating voltage (1.2V) and higher transfer
rate. DDR4 will not double the internal prefetch width again, but will use the
same 8n prefetch as DDR3.

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ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read
and contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It
typically contains manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM also
stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start
the computer software
operating, once the power is turned on. Read-only memories can be
manufacturer-programmed or user-programmed. While manufacturer-
programmed ROMs have data burnt into the circuitry, user programmed ROMs
can have the user load and then store read-only programs. PROM or
Programmable ROM is the name given to such ROMs. Information once stored on
the ROM or PROM chip cannot be altered. However, another type of memory
called EPROM (Erasable PROM) allows a user to erase the information stored on
the chip and reprogram it with new information. EEPROM (Electrically EPROM)
and UVEPROM (Ultra Violet EPROM) are two types of EPROM’s.
3. Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently.
CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can
access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
A. HARD DISK DRIVE:-

A hard drive disk (HDD), hard disk, hard drive or fixed disk is a data storage
device used for storing and retrieving digital information using one or more rigid
("hard") rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material. The
platters are paired with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm,
which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-
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access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved
in any order and not only sequentially. HDDs are a type of non-volatile memory,
retaining stored data even when powered off.
MAGNETIC RECORDING:-
An HDD records data by magnetizing a thin film of ferromagnetic material on a
disk. Sequential changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary
data bits. The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions in
magnetization. User data is encoded using an encoding scheme, such as run-
length limited encoding, which determines how the data is represented by the
magnetic transitions.
A typical HDD design consists of a spindle that holds flat circular disks, also
called platters, which hold the recorded data. The platters are made from a non-
magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy, glass, or ceramic, and are coated with
a shallow layer of magnetic material typically 10–20 nm in depth, with an outer
layer of carbon for protection. For reference, a
standard piece of copy paper is 0.07–0.18
millimeters.
Information is written to and read from a platter as
it rotates past devices called read-and-write
heads that are positioned to operate very close to
the magnetic surface, with their flying height often
in the range of tens of nanometers. The read-and-
write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material passing
immediately under it.
In modern drives, there is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the
spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the
heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each
head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is
moved using a voice coil actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor. Early
hard drive disks wrote data at some constant bits per second, resulting in all
tracks having the same amount of data per track but modern drives (since the
1990s) use zone bit recording—increasing the write speed from inner to outer
zone and thereby storing more data per track in the outer zones.
In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that
their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects, thermally induced

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magnetic instability which is commonly known as the "superparamagnetic limit".
To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers,
separated by a 3-atom layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the
two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.
COMPONENTS:-
 A typical HDD has two electric motors; a
spindle motor that spins the disks and an
actuator (motor) that positions the
read/write head assembly across the
spinning disks. The disk motor has an
external rotor attached to the disks; the
stator windings are fixed in place. Head
stack with an actuator coil on the left and read/write heads on the right.
 The actuator is a permanent magnet and moving coil motor that swings the
heads to the desired position.
 The HDD's electronics control the movement of the actuator and the rotation
of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller.

B. OPTICAL DISK DRIVE:-

 In computing, an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light
or electromagnetic waves within or near the visible light spectrum as part
of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some
drives can only read from certain discs, but recent drives can both read and
record, also called burners or writers. Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-
ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read and
recorded by such drives. Optical disc drives that are no longer in production
include CD-ROM drive, CD writer drive, and combo (CD-RW/DVD-ROM)
drive. As of 2015, DVD writer drive is the most common for desktop PCs
and laptops. There are also the DVD-ROM drive, BD-ROM drive, Blu-ray Disc
combo (BD-ROM/DVD±RW/CD-RW) drive, and Blu-ray Disc writer drive.
 The most important part of an optical disc drive is an optical path, placed in
a pickup head (PUH), usually consisting of semiconductor laser, a lens for
guiding the laser beam, and photodiodes detecting the light reflection from
disc's surface.

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  Initially, CD lasers with a wavelength of 780 nm were used, being within
infrared range. For DVDs, the wavelength was reduced to 650 nm (red
color), and the wavelength for Blu-ray Disc was reduced to 405 nm (violet
color).
 A recorder encodes (or burns) data onto a recordable CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R,
or BD-R disc (called a blank) by selectively heating parts of an
organic dye layer with a laser. This changes the reflectivity of the dye,
thereby creating marks that can be read like the pits and lands on pressed
discs. For recordable discs, the process is permanent and the media can be
written to only once. While the reading laser is usually not stronger than
5 mW, the writing laser is considerably more powerful. The higher the
writing speed, the less time a laser has to heat a point on the media, thus
its power has to increase proportionally. DVD burners' lasers often peak at
about 200 mW, either in continuous wave and pulses, although some have
been driven up to 400 mW before the diode fails.
 For rewritable CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, or BD-RE media, the
laser is used to melt a crystalline metal alloy in the recording layer of the
disc. Depending on the amount of power applied, the substance may be
allowed to melt back (change the phase back) into crystalline form or left in
an amorphous form, enabling marks of varying reflectivity to be created.
 BUSSES:-
In computer architecture, a bus or buss is a communication system that transfers
data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This
expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and
software, including communication protocols.
Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but
the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical
function as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use
both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either
a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched
hubs, as in the case of USB.

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  HARDWARE COMPONENTS AND THEIR ASSEMBLING:-
 OPENING THE CASE/CHASSIS:- A computer case also known as
a computer chassis, tower, system unit, cabinet, base unit or
simply case is the enclosure that contains most of the components
of a computer (usually excluding the display, keyboard and mouse).
Cases are usually constructed from steel (often SECC — Steel, electro
galvanized, cold-rolled, coil) or aluminium. Plastic is sometimes used
1. Turn off the computer, monitor, and peripherals. Make sure that everything
normally attached to computer is turned off and unplugged. The computer is
easier to move around that way.
2. Unplug the computer from the wall or uninterruptable power supply. (Unplug
the power cord from the back of our PC, too.)
3. Remove the screws from PC’s back or outside edges. Many PCs use two large
thumbscrews along one edge. Others use Phillips head screws. Some new
models have sides that simply flip down when we depress a release.
4. Remove the PC’s cover or side panel. On some computers, the cover slides
toward the front; others come out the back. We may need to pull pretty hard.
5. While the case is off, take the computer outside and use a can of compressed
air to blow out all the dust from inside. Clean away the dust balls clinging to
any outside vents, as well.

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 MOTHERBOARD:-

 Find the motherboard standoffs (spacers) that should have come with the
case. They are screws, usually brass, with large hexagonal heads that are
tapped so we can fasten screws into the top. These hold the motherboard
up off the case preventing a short-circuit. Set these aside.
 Remove the I/O Shield from the back of the case where the ports on the
back of the motherboard will fit, and put in the I/O Shield that came with
motherboard. There may be small metal tabs on the inside of this face
plate, if so we may have to adjust them to accommodate the ports on the
back of the motherboard.
 Some case styles make it difficult to install the motherboard or the CPU
with the power supply installed. If the power supply is in way, take it out
and set it aside (we'll put it back in later).
 Now locate the screw holes on motherboard and find the corresponding
holes on the motherboard plate (or tray) in the case. Put a standoff in each
of these holes on the tray and position the motherboard so that we can see
the holes in the top of the standoffs through the screw holes in the
motherboard.

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 ONCE THE MOTHERBOARD IS INSTALLED, IT IS TIME TO PLUG THE OTHER
COMPONENTS.

 PROCESSOR:-

 How to install an Intel PROCESSOR:-

1. Start with motherboard outside of PC’s
case, on a flat surface. Release the small metal lever
holding the CPU retention bracket to Intel’s LGA
socket in the motherboard.
2. Now we can insert the chip. Make sure that
we line up the two guiding notches on the socket
with the notches along the edge of the chip. These
notches are designed to prevent us from seating the
CPU in the socket in an improper manner.
3. With the chip seated in the socket, we can lower
the retention bracket back into place. Make sure
that we slip the notch at the end of the bracket
around the single screw at the base of the socket
before we use the metal lever to lock the CPU into
place.

4. When the CPU’s installed, it’s time to attach the cooler. If we’re using the
stock Intel cooler there will already be thermal grease on the underside of
the heat sink.

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 5. The final step is to connect the fan header wire
leading from CPU to the CPU fan header on
motherboard.

 HEAT SINK:-

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an
electronic or a mechanical device into a coolant fluid in motion. Then-transferred
heat leaves the device with the fluid in motion, therefore allowing the regulation
of the device temperature at physically feasible levels. In computers, heat sinks
are used to cool central processing units or graphics processors.
 Heat Sink Principle:-
A heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher temperature device to a lower
temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air, but can also be
water, refrigerants or oil. If the fluid medium is water, the heat sink is frequently
called a cold plate. In thermodynamics a heat sink is a heat reservoir that can
absorb an arbitrary amount of heat without significantly changing temperature.
Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a temperature higher than
the surroundings to transfer heat by convection, radiation, and conduction. The
power supplies of electronics are not 100% efficient, so extra heat is produced
that may be detrimental to the function of the device. As such, a heat sink is
included in the design to disperse heat to improve efficient energy use.
To understand the principle of a heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat
conduction. Fourier's law of heat conduction, simplified to a one-dimensional
form in the x-direction, shows that when there is a temperature gradient in a
body, heat will be transferred from the higher temperature region to the lower
temperature region. The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, , is
proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the cross-sectional
area through which heat is transferred.

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  MEMORY SLOTS:-

 Next, we will need to install the

RAM (random access memory). Find
the RAM slots on motherboard; they
will look something like the picture on
left.
 To install the RAM modules,
first push on the levers (white plastic
in the picture) on either side of the
RAM socket, so that they move to the sides. Do not force them, they
should move fairly easily.
 POWER SUPPLY OF COMPUTER - SMPS:-
D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C.
to A.C. Converters belong to the
category of Switched Mode
Power Supplies (SMPS). The
various types of voltage
regulators, used in Linear Power
Supplies (LPS), fall in the
category of dissipative
regulator, as they have a
voltage control element usually
transistor or zener diode which
dissipates power equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated input
voltage and a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the current flowing through it. The
switching regulator acts as a continuously variable power converter and hence its
efficiency is negligibly affected by the voltage difference. Hence the switching
regulator is also known as ‘non-dissipative regulator’. In a SMPS, the active device
that provides regulation is always operated in cut-off or in saturation mode.

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  DIFFERENCES WITH LINEAR POWER SUPPLY:-
1. A linear power supply supplies constant voltage while a switched power
supply doesn’t
2. A linear power supply is much simpler than a switched mode power supply
3. A switched mode power supply is more power efficient than a linear power
supply
4. A switched mode power supply is more likely to create interference than a
linear power supply

 INSTALLING THE POWER SUPPLY:-

Installing power supply is pretty straightforward, if it came with a case it was pre-
installed and if we took it out earlier to get the motherboard in, now is the time to
put it back. Otherwise a few moments of screwdriver work will get the job done.
 Generally there will be a bracket on the top of the case where the
power supply is mounted and a few screws used to fix it in place.
 We may then connect the main power, a 20 or 24 pin plug, into the
motherboard. There may also be an additional four or eight pin

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 power lead that needs to be plugged in to the motherboard (the CPU
power connector) usually located near the processor socket.
 INSTALLING SECONDARY DRIVES:-
Next install the hard drive and optical drives.
 Most new drives are SATA (Serial
ATA) which use simple, small cables for a
data connection. The ends of the cables are L
shaped, just look carefully at the cable ends
and the connector on the drive and match
them up. Only one drive can be connected to
each SATA port on the motherboard. Some
SATA drives have two different power ports -
make sure we connect ONLY ONE of these
ports to the power supply, connecting both
can damage the drive.
 Older drives have PATA (Parallel ATA)
connections which use a flat ribbon (IDE)
cable for data connection. When using an IDE
cable, plug the two connectors that are closer together into the 2 drives,
and the third to the controller or motherboard. The connector furthest
from the board should be attached to the drive set as Master. Make sure
the drive that we will install wer OS on is the primary master. This is the
master drive on the Primary IDE bus which is usually the IDE 40 pin port on
the motherboard labeled “Primary” or “IDE 1”.
 Next, plug a 4 pin molex power connector into each hard drive and optical
drive.
 If we install a floppy disk drive, the cable is very similar to the IDE cable, but
with fewer wires, and a strange little twist in the middle. Floppy drives do
not have master/slave configurations.
 INSTALLING DRIVE JUMPERS:-

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 The drive jumpers are in the middle (between
the connector for the cable and the power
connector) but the location may vary. If we are
using SATA drives there is no need to adjust
jumpers Before we install IDE/ATA (PATA) drives,
we will need to set the drives jumpers. Each
IDE/ATA channel can handle two drives, a master
and a slave. We have to see drive's instructions on how to set the jumpers. The
jumper configurations are usually either printed on the back, or on the top of the
drive. Drives can be configured in 2 ways: Drive Select or Cable Select.

 "Cable select": Use this if we have 80-pin cables. Cable select

automatically assigns slave/master based on the plug on the IDE
cable the drive is plugged into. Put the jumper on CS.
 "Drive select": If we are using a 40 pin cable, we must use "drive select".
Master/slave status is determined by the jumper. In this mode, configure the
drive on the end connector as the master, and the drive connected to the
middle connector as the slave. Note that Drive Select will always work, while
Cable Select will only work if we have the proper cable.

a SATA cable

 FRONT PANEL CONNECTION OF CPU CHASSIS:-

There will be a set of pins, usually near the front edge of the motherboard
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 to which we will attach the cables sometimes already connected to the
front of the case, or if needed supplied with the motherboard. Most of the
time the plugs will be labeled as the pins they will connect to in the
motherboard, there they can be difficult to read since the print is very small
or we may not be in the right orientation to do so.

Note:
The front panel LEDs are polarized: usually the positive wire is a color while the
negative wire is white or black,this may be important if we have to do alterations or
do not have the proper cables.

In addition, we can connect any case-specific ports if they are supported by the
motherboard. Many cases have front mounted USB, Firewire and/or sound ports.

 CABLES, THEIR CONNECTIONS BETWEEN HARDWARE COMPONENETS AND

EXTERNAL PORTS:-

(A) POWER CABLES:- These cables are used to distribute electricity from the
power supply to the motherboard and other components. Here we can see some
types of power cables such as

1. ATX (24 or 20 PIN): Just like other components, motherboard requires

power for successful operation. ATX ( Advanced Technology Extended)gives
the power the motherboard.

2. AUX(4 or 6 pin) : To allow for additional power supply to the

motherboard for display purposes there may be also a 4-pin or 6-pin
Auxilliary Power Connector (AUX) that connects the motherboard.
3. SATA (15 pin) : 15 pin Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
power connectors are used to connect the hard disk drives, optical drives.

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 4. MOLEX (4 pin) : 4 pin MOLEX power cable is used to give power to hard
disk drives and optical drives that do not have SATA arrangements.

5. BERG (4 pin) : 4-pin BERG power connector is used to power up the

floppy disk drive.

(B) DATA CABLES:- it transmits data between the motherboard and the secondary
storage devices e.g. HDD CD-ROM drive. It has two variants-
1. PATA cables:- Parallel Advance Technology Attachment cables transfer
data 16 bits at a time. The traditional cable uses 40 pin connectors attached to a
ribbon cable. Each cable has two or three connectors. A stripe on PATA cables
denotes the position of pin 1. PATA is a type of internal computer port that
attaches to hard drives and other devices. PATA has been replaced by the
faster. PATA devices are easy to spot by the rather large 40-pin port that connects
to a parallel ATA cable. PATA cables are flat, wide, ribboned cables with 40
parallel wires, hence the designation, parallel.

2. SATA cables:- Serial Advanced Technology Attachment is a 7-pin

connector which serves the purpose of transferring data to the motherboard.
 Advantages of SATA (over PATA):-

 SATA uses long and thin cables which are less bulky and fragile than the old
Parallel ATA cables.
 It uses 7-pin data connector as compared to the 40-pin connector in Parallel ATA.

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 The old PATA cables were bulkier which block airflow and induce heat in the
motherboard. SATA cables are easy to install and gives more space for other
cables to be installed on the motherboard.
 The data speed varies in the range 1.5 Gbps to 6.0 Gbps.

3. FLOPPY data cables:- The floppy data cables usually has three 34-pin
connectors. A stripe on the cables indicates the position of pin 1. It transfers data
from Floppy disk drive to the motherboard.
 DIFFERENT EXTERNAL CONNECTION PORTS:-

Computer Power Cord:-

Connect one end to: AC power socket

Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer monitor

Note: Always turn off power supply unit (with the 1-0 switch at the back) before
connecting a power cord to it.

PS/2 Cable

Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse

Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below)

 Purple PS/2 port: keyboard

 Green PS/2 port: mouse

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 VGA (VIDEO GRAPHICS ARRAY):-

Created way back in the 1980’s, the VGA connection

cable was the standard cable used to connect a
computer to a monitor. More recently, it has faded
out of popularity due to the gradual shift towards
digital connections over analog. Still, if we look on
any video card or display apparatus, there is a good chance we’ll see a VGA port.
VGA connections can be identified by 15 pins arranged in 3 rows with 5 on each
row. Each row corresponds to the 3 different color channels used in display: red,
green, and blue.

USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):-

From left to right: micro USB, mini USB,

type B standard USB, and type A standard
USB (both female and male).

The USB connection is quite possibly the most pervasive connection type in
today’s world. Nearly every form of computer peripheral device — keyboards,
mice, headsets, flash drives, wireless adapters, etc. — can be connected to wer
computer through a USB port. The design has evolved over the years, which
means there are multiple versions of USB available:

 USB 1.0/1.1 can transmit data at speeds up to 12 Mbps.

 USB 2.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 480 Mbps and is compatible with older
versions of USB. At the time of this article, USB 2.0 is the most common type
found in the market.
 USB 3.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 4.8 Gbps. It is compatible with previous
versions of USB.

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ETHERNET:-

Ethernet cables are used to set up local area

networks. In most cases, they’re used to
connect routers to modems and computers.

 EXTERNAL CONNECTIONS:-

After connecting all the peripherals of the CPU we must connect the basic
I/O devices to check the computer is working properly or not. For this purpose-

 Attach the monitor cable to the VGA port and tighten the screws

 Plug the keyboard port to the USB or PS/2 keyboard port

 Plug the mouse post to the USB or PS/2 mouse port

 POST ASSEMBLY CHECKLIST:-

 CPU fan and processor fan are attached to power

 Secondary drives are connected to power

 Front panel ports are connected properly.

 No wire is interfering the movement of the fan.

 All connectors are tight.

 All the I/O devices are connected properly.

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  IF EVERYTHING ATTACHED IS ASSEMBLED ACCORDING TO THE ABOVE
PROCEDURE THEN WE HAVE TO REATTACH THE CHASSIS AND POWER UP
THE COMPUTER FOR PROCEEDING TOWARDS INSTALLING AN OPERATING
SYSTEM.

 POWER UP:-
Take a moment to check one more time that everything is as it should be. Make
sure we've turn on the monitor, then press the power button, and observe the
inside of the open machine. (Do not touch any part of the inside of the machine
while it is powered up – we will NOT die but our computer might.)
The PC start-up process includes the following processes-
1. POST
2. CMOS
3. THE SETUP PROGRAM
4. THE BOOT PROCESS
5. OPERATING SYSTEM
The first thing to look for is that the CPU cooler fan spins up, if it does
not, cut the power immediately. This fan should start up right away;
something is wrong if it doesn’t and the CPU is in danger of
overheating so we have to stop now and troubleshoot.
If the CPU fan spins up, check that all the other fans that should be
spinning – case fans and fans on the power supply and video card (if
installed) are also spinning.
If the fans spin, we can turn our attention to the monitor, what we
are hoping to see is the motherboard’s splash-screen, usually
featuring the manufacturer’s logo which means the start-up and BIOS
are working properly. If we see this, take a moment to bask in the
glow, we’ve built a computer!
 BOOTSTRAPPING USING BIOS:-
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory in the ROM to initialize the
system and load some startup software, usually an operating system, from some
external peripheral device. At power-up, the central processor would load
its program counter with the address of the boot ROM and start executing

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instructions from the ROM. This Power-On Self-Test(POST) may include testing
some of the following things:

 Video adapter
 Cards inserted into slots, such as conventional PCI
 Floppy drive
 Temperatures, voltages, and fan speeds for hardware monitoring
 CMOS used to store BIOS setup configuration
 Keyboard and Mouse
 Network controller
 Optical drives: CD-ROM or DVD-ROM
 SCSI hard drive
 IDE, EIDE, or Serial ATA Hard disk drive
 Security devices, such as a fingerprint reader or the state of a latching
switch to detect intrusion
 USB devices, such as a memory storage device
If we don’t see the motherboard manufacture’s logo on startup, if smoke appears,
or if the computer does not do anything, unplug the power cord immediately and
check the steps above to make sure we have not missed anything. Give special
attention to the cables and power connections. If the computer does appear to
come on, but, we hear beeps, listen carefully to the beeps. These beeps are
created by the BIOS POST (Power on self-test).
 IDENTIFICATION OF BEEPS:-
The beeps usually give us an information about the problem. Typically, a single
beep denotes the computer is working properly whereas, if there is any hardware
problem, we may get a series of beeps. In our case, 1 beep means passed POST, 2
beeps means video error and 3 beeps means memory error.
 AFTER SATISFYING ALL THE STEPS MENTIONED ABOVE, WE CAN PROCEED
TO INSTALLING AN OPERATING SYSTEM ON THE ASSEMBLED COMPUTER

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  WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

An operating system (OS) is system software that

manages computer hardware and software resources and
provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is a component of the system software
in a computer system. Application programs usually
require an operating system to function.

 INSTALLING AN OPERATING SYSYEM:-

 The first thing to do after we have a working PC is install an operating
system
(OS). We can select from several available on the internet or from local
computer store. The first option, and the one taken by most people, is to
install Microsoft Windows, of which the current version is Windows 10.
Another option is to install a GNU/Linux distribution (a Free Software
operating system). Note that we also have the option of installing more
than one operating system in what is called a multiboot setup.
 If we are going to install both, install Windows XP/7/10 first. This is because
Windows overwrites the software that GNU/Linux requires to start up,
even if something’s already there. If we install Windows before all of other
systems, we will be able to easily boot into all of them.
INSTALLING WINDOWS 7 :-
The installation of Windows is relatively easy and discussed below-
 Push the power button on the front of the PC, put the CD-ROM in optical
drive, and follow the on-screen instructions.
 If we are doing a Windows-only install, just allocate all of the hard drive to
Windows. Again, for a Windows only install, the NTFS file system is faster
and more efficient.
 Some people find that it’s useful to create separate partitions for the
operating system and data. This means that if something goes wrong with
the operating system, the partition can be formatted and the operating
system can be reinstalled possibly without losing data.

STEP- 1 :- Enter computer's BIOS. Turn off the computer that we want to
install Windows on then turn it back on. When the BIOS screen appears or we
are prompted to do so, press Del , Esc , F2 , F10 , or F9 (depending on

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 computer’s motherboard) to enter the system BIOS. The key
to enter the BIOS is usually shown on the screen

STEP- 2 :- Find BIOS's boot options menu. The boot options

menu of BIOS may vary in location or name from the
illustration, but we may eventually find it if we search around.

STEP- 3 :- Select the CD-ROM drive as the first boot device of the computer.

 Although this method may vary among computers, the boot options menu is
typically a menu of movable device names where we should set CD-ROM drive
as the first boot device. It can also be a list of devices that we can set the order
of their boot on. Save the changes of the settings.
 Press the button indicated on the screen or select the save option from the
BIOS menu to save configuration.

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STEP- 4 :- Shut off computer. Either turn off the computer by choosing the shut-
down option in current operating system, or hold the power button until the
computer powers off.

STEP- 5 :- Power on the PC and the insert

the Windows 7 disc into CD/DVD drive.
Start computer from the disc. After we
have placed the disc into the disc drive,
start the computer. When the computer
starts, press a key if we are asked if we
would like to boot from the disc by
pressing any key. After we choose to start
from the disc, Windows Setup will begin
loading.
 If we are not asked to boot from the
disc, we may have done something
wrong. Retry the previous steps to solve
the problem.

STEP- 6:- Choose Windows Setup

options. Once Windows Setup loads,
we'll be presented with a window.
Select preferred language, keyboard type, and time/currency format,
then click Next.

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STEP- 7 :- Click the Install
Now button.

STEP- 8 :- Accept the

License Terms. Read over
the Microsoft Software
License Terms, check I
accept the license terms,
and click Next.

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 STEP- 9 :- Select the Custom installation

STEP- 10 :- Decide on which hard drive and partition we want to install Windows
on. A hard drive is a physical part of computer that stores data, and partitions
"divide" hard drives into separate parts.
 If the hard drive has data on it, delete the data off of it, or format it.
 Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
 Click Drive options (advanced).
 Click Format from Drive options.
 If the computer doesn't have any partitions yet, create one to install Windows on
it.
 Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
 Click Drive options (advanced).
 Select New from Drive options.
 Select the size, and click OK.

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 STEP- 11 :-
Install Windows on
preferred hard drive
and partition. Once
we've decided on
where to install
Windows, select it
and click Next.
Windows will begin
installing.

 The screen just beside will be

shown until the Windows
setup is complete.

 These steps carry off after we

have finished installing
Windows and our computer
has started in Windows 7

STEP- 12 :- Type username and computer's name and click Next.

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Type password and click Next. If we don't want a password, leave the text
boxes blank and then click Next.

STEP- 13 :- Enter product key then

click Next. Product key is located on the case of Windows 7 disc if we
purchased the disc. To skip entering product key, just click Next, but
Windows will run on a 30-day trial, and we'll have to enter a key once
the 30 day trial time is up.
STEP- 14 :- Choose Windows Update settings.
 Use recommended settings automatically sets update and security settings
recommended by Microsoft.
 Install important updates only configures computer only to install necessary
updates.
 Ask me later disables security until we have made a decision.
 Set time and time zone.
STEP- 15 :- Set network type.
 If the computer is connected to own personal network, choose Home
network.
 If we are connected to the network at workplace, choose Work network.

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 If we're connected to a
public network from
places such as restaurants
and shops, choose Public
network.

 DRIVERS:-
Now that computer is relatively secure, we will need to install software
to control various hardware components. This type of software is known
as a driver. Although, most of the hardware will come with a cd
containing the necessary driver, consider downloading the driver
straight from the company’s Internet site. This will insure we have the
latest edition of the software. Knowing where to download the driver is
also good in case we lose the cd that came with the device.
 SOFTWARE:-
There is an abundance of useful software available for download gratis.
From web browsers to word processors to graphic manipulation
programs, there is plenty of software available online. Though most of
what is available is safe and useful, it’s always a good idea to do a little
research and make a backup before installing anything new.
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Static electricity is the biggest danger to the expensive parts we are about
to assemble, even a tiny shock, much too small for we to feel, can damage
or ruin the delicate electronic traces, many times smaller than a human
hair.
2. Nobody but we is at fault if we shock the components with static electricity.
Make sure that we take the precautions in the previous paragraph to
ground from static electricity.

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3. Turn off computer and switch off Power Supply at the wall before installing
or removing any components - if power is flowing to components as they
are installed or removed, they can be seriously damaged. In order to have a
computer properly grounded, we need it plugged in at the wall but turned
off at the power supply and at the wall. The neutral line may be earthed.
4. Never cut the grounding pin off power cord. This "safety ground" stands
between us and potentially lethal voltages inside the power supply.
5. Be wary of sharp edges! Many lower-end PC cases have sharp, unfinished
edges.
6. Dismantling discrete electronic components such as the Power Supply or
Monitor is dangerous. They contain high voltage capacitors, which can
cause a severe electric shock if we touch them. These hold a charge even
when the unit is not plugged in and are capable of delivering a fatal shock.

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 CONCLUSION:-

I have described a set of design principles designing effective assembly

instructions that are easy to understand and follow. If we are serious, we have
probably at least glanced over this project as we considered building our own
computer, and hope it has inspired us to go ahead with this project.
Throughout we’ve tried to steer us clear of some of the pitfalls and alert us to
some of the safety issues involved, and in so doing, we have undoubtedly
overemphasized the dangers and difficulty. The computer we built will always
mean a little bit more to us than one buy, not least because we designed it
ourselves and will no doubt be upgrading it from time to time for years to
come. We may find a little smile of satisfaction creeping onto our face each
time we hit the power button, and I think we’ll find that smile is an ample
return for our time and effort.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY:-
1. Modern Computer Hardware Course by
Manahar Lotia, Pradeep Nair, Payal Lotia
2. Computer Hardware: Installation, Interfacing, Troubleshooting
and Maintenance by James K.L
3. Build a Computer from Scratch by Jeff Heaton
4. http://www.xplora.org/downloads/Knoppix/books/How_To_
Build_A_Computer.pdf
5. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/pdf
/computer_memory.pdf
6. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_To_Assemble_A_Desktop
_PC/Assembly
7. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_To_Assemble_A_Desktop
_PC/Choosing_the_parts

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