Schmitt Inverter Waveform Generator

Schmitt Waveform Frequency

CMOS Schmitt Waveform Generator

Clock Waveform Generators

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NAND Gate Waveform Generator

table NAND Gate Waveform Generator

555 Timer Block Diagram

 • Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the
negative (0v) supply rail.
 • Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative
pulse on this pin “sets” the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops

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 below 1/3Vcc causing the output to switch from a “LOW” to a “HIGH”
state.
 • Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is
capable of sourcing or sinking up to 200mA of current at an output
voltage equal to approximately Vcc – 1.5V so small speakers, LEDs or
motors can be connected directly to the output.
 • Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop
controlling the state of the output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is
generally connected to a logic “1” level when not used to prevent any
unwanted resetting of the output.
 • Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by
overriding the 2/3Vcc level of the voltage divider network. By applying a
voltage to this pin the width of the output signal can be varied
independently of the RC timing network. When not used it is connected
to ground via a 10nF capacitor to eliminate any noise.
 • Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is
used to reset the Flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc
causing the output to switch from “HIGH” to “LOW” state. This pin
connects directly to the RC timing circuit.
 • Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the
Collector of an internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the
timing capacitor to ground when the output at pin 3 switches “LOW”.
 • Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general
purpose TTL 555 timers is between 4.5V and 15V.
The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are
three 5kΩ resistors connected together internally producing a voltage
divider network between the supply voltage at pin 8 and ground at pin 1.
The voltage across this series resistive network holds the negative inverting
input of comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive non-inverting input to
comparator one at 1/3Vcc.
The two comparators produce an output voltage dependent upon the
voltage difference at their inputs which is determined by the charging and
discharging action of the externally connected RC network. The outputs
from both comparators are connected to the two inputs of the flip-flop which
in turn produces either a “HIGH” or “LOW” level output at Q based on the
states of its inputs. The output from the flip-flop is used to control a high
current output switching stage to drive the connected load producing either
a “HIGH” or “LOW” voltage level at the output pin.
The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple astable
oscillator by connecting two resistors and a capacitor across its terminals to
generate a fixed pulse train with a time period determined by the time
constant of the RC network. But the 555 timer oscillator chip can also be
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connected in a variety of different ways to produce Monostable or Bistable
multivibrators as well as the more common Astable Multivibrator.

Monostable 555 Timer

Bistable 555 Timer (flip-flop)

Sinking and Sourcing the 555 Timer Output

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555 Timer Transistor Driver

The transistor in the two examples above, can be replaced with a Power
MOSFET device or Darlington transistor if the load current is high. When
using an inductive load such as a motor, relay or electromagnet, it is
advisable to connect a freewheeling (or flywheel) diode directly across the

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load terminals to absorb any back emf voltages generated by the inductive
device when it changes state.

Pulse Width Modulated Waveform

The time, TH, for which the output is “ON” is: TH = 0.693(RA).C
The time, TL, for which the output is “OFF” is: TL = 0.693(RB).C
Total “ON”-“OFF” cycle time given as: T = TH + TL with the output
frequency being ƒ = 1/T
Diode D3 is our old favourite the flywheel diode used to protect the
electronic circuit from the inductive loading of the motor. Also if the motor
load is high put a heatsink on the switching transistor or MOSFET.
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Pulse width modulation is a great method of controlling the amount of
power delivered to a load without dissipating any wasted power. The above
circuit can also be used to control the speed of a fan or to dim the
brightness of DC lamps or LED’s. If you need to control it, then use Pulse
Width Modulation to do it.

A B DIRECTION

0 0 STOP ; 0 1 ANTI-CLOCKWISE ;1 0 CLOCK WISE ;1 1 NOT ALLOWED

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Logic Signal Voltage Levels

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“buffer”

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PULL UP and PULL DOWN resistor used in micro controller to give
the logic signal HIGH and LOW

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1. Using External PULL-UP Resistor
2. Using Internal PULL-UP Resistor

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Parts List

R1, R2, R6 = 1K,R3 = 150K,R4, R5 = 150 Ohms,R7, R8, R9, R10 = 470 Ohms,C1 = 0.1uF,

C2, C3 = 0.01uF,C4 = 1uF/25VT1,T2 = TIP122,T3, T4 = TIP127 T5 = BC557,

T6, T7 = BC547,D1---D4 = 1N5408,Z1 = 4V7 400mW IC1 = 556,S1 = SPDT toggle switch

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PIR Controlled Fan Circuit for Schools
and Colleges

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R1, R2, R3 = 1K, 1/4W,

P1, P2,P3 = 10K, LINEAR PRESETS,

C1 = 1000uF/25V

Z1, Z2, Z3 = 3V, 400mW ZENER DIODE,

T1, T2,T3 = BC 547B,

RL1, RL2= RELAY 12V,SPDT,400 OHMS,

D1--D4 =1N4007,

TR1 =0-12V, 500mA,

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 TR2 = 25- 0 - 25 VOLTS, 5 AMPS. WITH SPLIT CENTER TAP,GENERAL
PCB,METALLIC ENCLOSURE, MAINS CORD, SOCKET, FUSE HOLDER
ETC

How to Convert an Ordinary Transformer into a Stabilizer Transformer

How to Set Up the Unit

Since we know that the AC mains voltages fluctuations will always create a
proportionate magnitude of the DC voltage fluctuations from a transformer,
we may assume that for input voltages of 210, 230 and 250, the
correspondingly obtained equivalent DC voltages should be 11.5, 12.5 and
13.5 respectively.

Now the setting of the relevant presets becomes very simple as per the
above voltage levels.

 Initially keep the both the transformers TR1 and TR2 disconnected from the
circuit.
 Keep the slider of P1, P2, and P3 at somewhere around midway position.
 Connect the external variable power supply to the circuit. Adjust the voltage
to about 12.5.
 Now slowly start adjusting P3 until RL2 just activates.
 Decrease the supply voltage to about 11.5 volts (RL2 should deactivate in
the course), adjust P1 so that RL1 just deactivates.
 Gradually increase the supply to about 13.5 – this should make RL1 and
RL2 to energize one after the other, indicating the correctness of the above
settings.
 Now slowly adjust P2 so that RL1 again deactivates at this voltage (13.5).
 Confirm the above settings by varying the input voltage from 11.5 to 13.5
back and forth. You should get the following results:
 RL1 should deactivate at 11.5 and 13.5 voltage levels, but should remain
activated in between these voltages. RL2 should switch ON above 12.5
and switch off below 12 volts.

The setting procedure is now complete.

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R5, R6, R7, R8 = 1M ¼ watt,
All Triacs are 400 volts, 1KV rated,
T1, T2, T3, T4 = BC 547,
All zener diodes are = 3 volts 400 mW,
All Diodes are = 1N4007,
All presets = 10K linear,
R1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 = 1K ¼ watt,
N1 to N4 = IC 4093,
C1 and C3 = 100Uf/ 25 volts,
C2 = 104, ceramic,
Power Guard Stabilizer Transformer = “Made to order” having 170, 225,
240, 260 volts output Taps at 225 volts input supply, or 85, 115, 120, 130
volts taps at 110 AC input supply.
TR1 = Step down transformer, 0 – 12 volts, 100 mA.

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Pull-Up and Pull-Down Resistors
How Logic Inputs and Outputs Work in Digital
Circuits
In digital electronics and most microcontroller based circuits the involved
digital signals are processed in the form of logic1 or logic0, i.e. “HIGH” or
“LOW”.

Digital logic gates become the fundamental units of any digital circuit, and
by utilizing “AND”, “OR” and “NOT” gate we are able to build complex
circuits, however as noted above digital gates can accept only two voltage
levels which “HIGH” and “LOW”.

The “HIGH” and “LOW” are generally in the form of 5V and 0V respectively.
“HIGH” is also referred as “1” or positive signal of the supply and “LOW” is
also referred as “0” or negative signal of the supply.

Problems arise in a logic circuit or a microcontroller when the fed input is

somewhere in the undefined region between 2V and 0V.

In such a situation a logic circuits or microcontroller may not recognize the

signal properly, and the circuit will make some wrong assumptions and
execute.

Generally a logic gate can recognize the signal as “LOW” if the input is
below 0.8V and can recognize the signal as “HIGH” if the input is above 2V.
For microcontrollers this can actually vary a lot.

Undefined Input Logic Levels

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The problems arise when the signal is between 0.8V and 2V and varies
randomly at the input pins, this issue can be explained with an example
circuit using a switch connected to an IC or a microcontroller.

Assume a circuit using a microcontroller or an IC, if we close the circuit, the

input pin goes “LOW” and the relay turns “ON”.

If we open the switch, the relay should turn “OFF” right? Well not really.

We know that the digital ICs and digital microcontrollers only takes input as
either “HIGH” or “LOW”, when we open the switch, the input pin is just open
circuited. It is neither “HIGH” nor “LOW”.

The input pin must be “HIGH” in order to turn the relay off, but in the open
situation this pin becomes vulnerable to stray pickups, stray static charges,
and other electrical noise from surrounding, which can cause the relay to
go ON and OFF randomly.

To prevent such random triggers due to stray voltage, in this example it

becomes mandatory to tie the shown digital input pin to a “HIGH” logic, so
that when the switch is flipped off, the pin automatically connects to a
defined state “HIGH” or the positive supply level of the IC.

To keep the pin “HIGH” we can connect the input pin to Vcc.

In the below circuit the input pin is connected to Vcc, which keeps the input
“HIGH” if we open the switch, which prevents random triggering of the
relay.

You may think, now we have the solution worked out. But no....not
yet!

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As per the diagram if we close the switch there will be short circuit and shut
off and short circuit the whole system. Your circuit can never have any
worst situation than a short circuit.

The short circuit is due to very large current flowing through a low
resistance path which burns the PCB traces, blowing of fuse, triggering
safety switches and even may cause fatal damage to your circuit.

To prevent such heavy current flow and also to keep the input pin in “HIGH”
condition, we can utilize a resistor which is connected to Vcc, that is
between the "red line".

In this situation the pin will be in a “HIGH” state if we open the switch, and
on closing the switch there won’t be any short circuit, and also the input pin
is allowed to directly connect with the GND, making it “LOW”.

If we close the switch there will be negligible voltage drop via the pull-Up
resistor and rest of the circuit will remain unaffected.

One must choose the Pull-Up / Pull-Down resistor value optimally so that it
won’t draw excess through the resistor.

Calculating Pull-Up Resistor value:

To calculate an optimum value, we have to know 3 parameters: 1) Vcc 2)
Minimum threshold input voltage which can guarantee to make the output
“HIGH” 3) High level input current (The required current). All these data are
mentioned in the datasheet.

Let’s take the example of logic NAND gate. According to its datasheet Vcc
is 5V, minimum threshold input voltage (High level Input voltage VIH) is 2V
and High level input current (IIH) is 40 uA.

By applying ohm’s law we can find the correct resistor value.

R = Vcc - VIH (MIN) / IIH

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Where,

Vcc is the operating voltage,

VIH (MIN) is HIGH Level Input voltage,

IIH is the HIGH Level Input Current.

Now let’s do the matching,

R = 5 - 2 / 40 x 10^-6 = 75K ohm.

We can use a resistor value maximum of 75K ohm.

NOTE:

This value is calculated for ideal conditions, but we don’t live in an ideal
world. For best operation you may connect a resistor slightly lower than
calculated value say 70K, 65k or even 50K ohm but don’t reduce the
resistance low enough that it will conduct huge current for example 100
ohm, 220 ohm for the above example.

Multiple gate Pull-Up resistors

In the above example, we saw how to pick a Pull-up resistor for one gate.
What If we have 10 gates which all are need to be connected to Pull-Up
resistor?

One of the ways is to connect 10 Pull-Up resistors at each of the gate, but
this isn’t cost effective and easy solution. The best solution would be
connecting all the input pins together to single Pull-Up resistor.

To calculate the Pull-Up resistor value for the above condition follow the
formula below:

R = Vcc - VIH (MIN) / N x IIH

The “N” is the number of gates.

You will notice that the above formula is the same as the previous one; the
only difference is multiplying the number of gates.

So, let’s do the math again,

R = 5 -2 / 10 x 40 x 10^-6 = 7.5K ohm (maximum)

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Now for the 10 NAND gates, we got the resistor value in a way that the
current is 10 times higher than one NAND gate (In previous example), so
that the resistor can maintain minimum of 2V at peak load, which can
guarantee the required output without any error.

You can use the same formula for calculating Pull-Up resistor for any
application.

Pull-Down Resistors:
The Pull-Up resistor keeps the pin “HIGH” if no input is connected; with
Pull-down resistor, it keeps the pin “LOW” if no input is connected.

The pull-down resistor is made by connecting the resistor to ground instead

of Vcc.

The Pull-Down can be calculated by:

R = VIL (MAX) / IIL

Where,

VIL (MAX) is LOW level input voltage.

IIL is LOW level input current.

All these parameters are mentioned in the datasheet.

R = 0.8 / 1.6 x 10 ^-3 = 0.5K ohm

We can use maximum of 500 ohm resistor for Pull-down.

But again, we should use a resistor value less than 500 ohms.

Open collector output / Open Drain:

We can say a pin is “open collector output” when the IC can’t drive the
output “HIGH” but can only drive its output “LOW”. It simply connects the
output to the ground or disconnect from ground.

We can see how the open collector configuration is made in an IC.

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Since the output is either ground or open circuit, we need to connect an
external Pull-Up resistor which can turn the pin “HIGH” when the transistor
is OFF.

This is same for Open drain; the only difference is that the internal
transistor inside the IC is a MOSFET.

Now, you may ask why do we need an open drain configuration? We need
to connect a Pull-Up resistor anyway.

Well, the output voltage can be varied by choosing different resistor values
at the open collector output, so it gives more flexibility for the load. We can
connect load at output which has higher or lower operating voltage.

If we had a fixed pull-up resistor value we can’t control the voltage at the
output.

One disadvantage of this configuration is that, it consumes huge current

and may not be battery friendly, it need higher current for its correct
operation.

Let’s take example of IC 7401 open drain logic “NAND” gate and see how
to calculate pull-up resistor value.

We need to know the following parameters:

VOL(MAX) which is the maximum input voltage to IC 7401 which can guarantee
to turn the output “LOW” (0.4V).

IOL(MAX) which is the Low level input current (16mA).

Vcc is the operating voltage which is 5V.

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So, we here we can connect a Pull-Up resistor value around 287 ohm.

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38
4 pieces of 6 V, 200 AH batteries connected in series to form
a battery bank of 24 V with a capacity of 200 AH

4 pieces of 12 V, 100 AH batteries connected in parallel to

form a battery bank of 12 V with a capacity of 400AH.

Formula 1
Power in Watts (W) = Voltage in Volts (V) x Current in
Amperes (A).

Formula 2
For an inverter running from a 12 V battery system, the DC
current required from the 12 V batteries is the AC power
delivered by the inverter to the load in Watts (W) divided by

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10 & for an inverter running from a 24 V battery system, the
DC current required from the 24 V batteries is the AC power
delivered by the inverter to the load in Watts (W) divided by
20.
Formula 3
Energy required from the battery = DC current to be
delivered (A) x time in Hours (H).
estimate the total AC watts (W) of load(s)
how long the load(s) will operate in hours (H)
DC current in Amperes (A)
the total AC Watts delivered by the12 V inverter = 1000 W.
the DC current to be delivered by the 12 V batteries =
1000 W ÷10 = 100 Amperes.
12 V batteries = 100 Amperes × 3 Hours = 300 Ampere Hours
(AH).

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