MODERN HISTORY SUMMARY NOTES

CASE STUDY 1: THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMANOV DYNASTY

NICHOLAS II AS AUTOCRAT

Social Structure

Social Pyramid:

 Tsar
 Ministers, army officers
 Nobility, clergy
 Bourgeoisie (middle class)
 Large peasant mass

Before Nicholas II’s rule, there was increasing repression through Alexander III.

Government (of the Russian Empire)

 The Tsarist system of government was an absolute monarchy. The Tsar had complete power.
 There was no elected representative body and no constitution.
 The Tsar was advised by his ministers.

Nicholas II believed he should have absolute power, believed only he should have power, desperate
to keep power; Believed in repression - limited freedom.

Revolutionary Groups

LEFT WING RIGHT WING

 Bolsheviks  Cadets
 Mensheviks  Octobrists
 Socialist Revolutionaries (can be
considered more neutral)

POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL GRIEVANCES IN 20TH CENTURY RUSSIA

Growth of Industrial Development: living and working conditions

Industrial development

 Social change of industrial growth in Russia was too sudden.

 Urban working class more than doubled 1865-1890. By 1900 2¼ million workers.
 Hereditary working class – no longer displaced peasantry. True proletariat.
 Housing was inadequate, living conditions were poor.
 No right to strike, or trade unions. Therefore, no protection against exploitation.

Why did the government encourage the industrialisation of Russia?

Russia was socioeconomically backward when compared with the rest of Western Europe, and
wanted to keep up with the rest of the world.

How did industrialisation affect Russia?

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There were poor working and living conditions which weren’t resolved and got worse leading up to
the 1905 Revolution and beyond. Workers got low wages, economic and social conditions were not
faring well. There was increasing discontent amongst workers, causing a problem for the Tsar.

Causes and effects of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)

Russia had imperial ambitions: to expand its territory (or empire) into the same area as Japan.

Briefly describe the main events of the war.

In 1904, Russia and Japan went to war over land in Asia. Russia underestimated Japan, and ended up
with Russia being forced to negotiate peace terms with the Treaty of Portsmouth.

Explain the impact of the war on Russia.

Japan won, which resulted in embarrassment for the Tsar and acted as proof the government was
incompetent (+ Tsar’s weakness). It caused Russia to lose Manchuria and worsened its economy.

1905 Revolution

Bloody Sunday, originally a peaceful protest, was begun by a radical priest, Georgy Apollonovich
Gapon. People wanted to achieve better working conditions and resolve other grievances. They
weren’t completely opposed, only to their lifestyle. Only led a peaceful protest to try and petition
better working conditions and other demands. Carried a photo of the Tsar (shows respect). Due to
the aggressive response from the Tsar’s troops, it ended as a bloodbath which began the 1905
Revolution. Strikes grew in number, peasant revolts, organisation of political parties, etc.

The October Manifesto // made the 1905 revolution unsuccessful.

 August 8 - offered the formation of a Duma. Only power of consultation, couldn’t pass any
laws, only the Tsar could consult them and did not have to listen.
 MANIFESTO: a statement.
 October 17, 1905 // OCTOBER MANIFESTO!!
o Duma with a guarantee of rights and freedoms
o Satisfied liberals most // supported the Duma, only appealed to middle class people
o Withdrew from the revolution
 Nicholas continued to use violence to stop the revolts, especially with the formation of the
St Petersburg Soviet Union, who represented workers and soldiers. They were not satisfied
with the October Manifesto, which did nothing to address problems with workers and
soldiers.

THE TSAR’S FAILURE TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS OF RUSSIA

The Dumas

Land reforms of Stolypin (Prime Minister) didn’t satisfy peasants.

The Duma that was promised through the October Manifesto didn’t have any particular political
power as it was only consultative. ‘Fundamental Laws’ (1906) allowed the Tsar to dismiss the Duma,
announce elections, choose and dismiss ministers, declare new laws (when announcing a state of
emergency) whenever he liked, thus rendering the Duma almost useless. The Tsar kept sacking the
Duma when it challenged his authority, and this ended up in having three Dumas (the third having
more conservative members) in order for the Tsar to maintain his power, and to restrict the power
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of the Duma. The Tsar was already unwilling to have a Duma as he wished to maintain his autocratic
power, and hence, did not agree with constitutional reform.

Rising civil unrest, demonstrations/strikes

In early 1912, soldiers shot dead 300 striking miners. As news spread, people went on strike which
by July 1914, Russia was echoing the revolutionary discontent of 1905.

THE ROLE OF WORLD WAR 1 IN THE FALL OF THE TSARIST REGIME

Reasons for entry

 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to throne of A-H was assassinated by a Serbian. (28th June
1914) which caused problems because A-H hated Serbia.
 Alliances in Europe
o Triple Entente: France and Russia (military alliance) + Britain
o Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
 Russia and Serbia are BFFs especially after the assassination.
 23rd July - Austria (BFFs w/ Germany) made an ultimatum - a demand with consequences
 28th July - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
o Russia mobilises army against A-H and Germany.
 August 1 - Germany declares war on Russia.
 August 3 - in order to invade France, Germany was to invade Belgium on the way to France.
 August 4 - Britain and Belgium are allies to protect Belgium’s independence, and Britain
declared war on Germany.
 Germany and A-H against Russia. Russia entered into war because people supported the war
as it encouraged patriotism.

Early setbacks: Tannenburg and Masurian Lakes

Battles of Tannenburg

 Fought between Russia and Germany from 26-30 August 1914.

 Germany won, Russia’s worst defeat in WW1.
 Thousands of casualties, Russians were taken

Masurian Lakes

 There were 2 battles

 Pushed the Russian First Army across its entire front.
 These weren’t a threat for the rest of the war.
 Brought down the morale of Russia, had a bad impact.

Economic, social and political problems caused by the War

 As a result of World War 1, there was inflation of everyday goods. Soldiers were dying as
Russia was fighting a 20th century war with 19th century training (and inadequate equipment)
with the Tsar making poor decisions, causing soldiers to suffer and failing to make effective
financial plans. Also, there was inadequate medical care and shortages of food, guns and
bullets, and loss of land.
 Food was prioritised for the armed forces rather than the cities.
 Everything was more expensive due to limited supply and living standards declined.
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 War increased the pressure on Russia’s industries, the workforce was 4x larger than it had.

Influence of Rasputin

 People didn’t like the idea of a German born leading the country as they were fighting a
German war (Alexandra).
 Rasputin brought the royal family into scandal, people weren’t sure of his intentions.
 He became influential in the royal family as he claimed he was able to cure Alexei’s (Tsar and
Tsarina’s son) of haemophilia.
 Made bad decisions on behalf of Alexandra (while the Tsar was on the battlefield).
o People believed peasants weren’t worthy of being in politics.
 Rasputin died in December 1916, and was shot three times, then thrown into a frozen river.

March Revolution

 23rd February 1917 - Julien calendar // 8th March 1917 – Gregorian

23rd February - start of revolution

 Began with bread riots

o Women started rioting, strikes start; riots, then strikes beginning Feb. 23
 Over the next few days, riots and strikes increase.
o Moving into a state of anarchy
o Absence of Tsar - on battleground
o Breakdown of order, duma trying to gain control

26th February

 Tsar ordered troops to put down disturbances, and Soldiers decided they didn’t want to
support the Tsar, chose not to shoot rioters, so wasn’t as extreme as Bloody Sunday 1905.
 Tsar losing ability to put down revolution

27th February

 Tsar ordered Duma to end, sent orders but the Duma didn’t disperse. Instead of dispersing,
they decided to be a Provisional Government until a constitution was granted.
 Reformation of the Petrograd Soviet who supported the Provisional Government.

Tsar’s abdication

 The Tsar was losing control of the country, forced to abdicate // official abdication March 15
 Only in favour of his son and brother. Brother said no, end of 300 years of Romanov rule.
 Army lost confidence in the Tsar

Assassination of Imperial Family

 In May 1918, Red Army guards imprisoned the Russian royal family in Yekaterinburg in the
Ural Mountains (division between Europe and Asia).
 During this time, the Tsar and his family lived in a house (home of a merchant of the
Bolsheviks) their captors called the ‘House of Special Purpose,’ where escape was
impossible.
 On July 1917, the family disappeared. A few weeks later, it was reported the Bolsheviks had
shot the family, executed by a firing squad along with servants and doctors.
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CASE STUDY 2: THE ORIGINS OF THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT, 1880s – 1947
ZIONISM: ITS ORIGINS AND ASPIRATIONS

Outline the biblical attachment of the Jewish people to the Middle East up to their expulsion by the
Romans.

Jewish people believe they have a covenant from God to have the land, an attachment, which is why
they feel as though Israel is their land. They are descendants of Abraham through his son Isaac.
Israelites were the Chosen People of God and led by Moses from the desert to the Promised Land.

Define the concept of Zionism.

Zionism was the concept of moving back to the Promised Land, and a desire to create a homeland
for the Jewish people, as a refuge against persecution.

Describe the development of Zionism in the 19th Century - How did it begin? What did it hope to
achieve?

 First wave of Zionist immigration 1881-1903, 10000 migrants, twenty agricultural

settlements. Finance from foreign benefactors e.g. Baron Rothschild.
 Theodor Herzl: Austrian Jew. 1896 pamphlet "The Jewish State" described isolation of Jews
in European society. Following, esp. among Jews in Eastern Europe - 'new Moses'. First
Zionist Congress, Basle, August 1897 - a significant first step though there were many
different views; it was a blasphemy, assimilation was better.
 1900 - Jewish national Fund established to buy land in Palestine for Jewish occupation.
 Herzl willing to accept sites other than Palestine, e.g., Uganda. With death of Herzl in 1904,
the Uganda option died and led to the second wave of immigrants (2nd Aliyah).
 The Zionist movement was an old-style colonialist movement that gave no regard to the
rights of original inhabitants. The aim of Zionism was the dispossession of the Arabs to
create a completely Jewish state. Land bought by the Jewish National Fund could not be sold
or leased back to Arabs.

Describe the persecution of Jews in Europe up to World War I.

Anti-Semitism is prejudice towards Jews. They were segregated from society and sometimes there
were Pogroms - Russian term for attacks on Jewish people and placed in Ghettos - a word for a
Jewish community.

Explain the Palestinian response to Jewish settlement in Palestine up to World War I.

Palestinian people were powerless to stop Jewish settlement, as land grants were given by the
Ottomans, the current ruling power in Palestine at the time, which made them angry.

CONFLICTING ARAB AND JEWISH RESPONSES TO THE BALFOUR DECLARATION

Outline Britain's growing influence in the Middle East up to World War I.

Britain had influence in the Middle East such as Egypt (Suez Canal), Sudan, and Cyprus, etc.

Explain the significance of the Middle East in British war strategy during World War I.
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Egypt was a British colony – soldiers were sent to Egypt to train, and then fought in the ‘Gallipoli
campaign.’ The Brits wanted to weaken the Ottoman Empire with the Gallipoli campaign, which
ultimately failed.

What were each of the following and what was the impact of each on Britain, Arabs and Jews?

McMahon-Hussein Correspondence (1915)

This correspondence was between the British High Commissioner in Cairo, Sir Henry McMahon, and
the Arab ruler of Mecca, Amir Hussein. At this time, the Ottoman Empire was in control of most of
the Middle East, and had just sided with Germany in WW1. The correspondence aimed to have an
understanding which promised the Arabs a portion of the Ottoman Empire in return for support
against the Ottomans. It also suggested Britain would support Arab independence after the defeat of
the Ottoman Empire.

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

This was a secret agreement between Sir Mark Sykes of Britain, and Georges Picot of France. It
opposed the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence as it would divide the Middle East into territories
assigned to Britain and France, and there was no indication of any independence for the Arabs in this
agreement.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

This was a public statement of support for Jewish people attached to a letter written by the British
Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, to Lord Rothschild, a prominent British Jew. The British hoped to
achieve two aims through this declaration: Jewish support and a Jewish population in Palestine to
assist Britain’s interests in the Suez Canal. This declaration contradicted the two made before it, and
stated it was aware of the Zionist movement and acknowledged Palestine could be a ‘national home
for the Jewish people.’ As a result, Britain did not honour its promise to create a Palestinian state
and there was a rapid increase in Jewish migration to Palestine.

In 1920, the League of Nations gave Britain and mandate over Palestine, and the Balfour Declaration
was included as part of the agreement. The mandate came into effect in 1923, and did not
guarantee either a Jewish or Arab state. In 1922, the Churchill White Paper tried to reassure Arabs
there would be no Jewish state, further complicating the situation. By the late 1920s, the Arab
perspective changed, and there was increasing violence between both Arabs and Jews. The Peel
Commission in 1936 tried to separate Palestine, which contradicted the later White Paper of 1939
which tried to gain support of the Arabs to gain support in the Middle East. It tried to suppress
Jewish migration, and promised Arab independence within 10 years, and Jewish immigration to be
restricted for 5 years then cease.

THE NATURE OF ARAB AND JEWISH RESPONSES TO THE QUESTION OF A JEWISH HOMELAND POST
WW2

Arab and Jewish responses to Britain as an occupying power during World War II

Most Jewish groups supported Britain in their attempts to defeat Germany, and Arabs tried to work
with the British.

The British policy on Jewish emigration to Palestine

Britain tried to limit Jews entering Palestine after the Holocaust. They turned back ships, adding
horror to what the Jews had faced, hence support grew in the western world for a Jewish homeland.
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The impact of the Shoah (Holocaust)

The British were severely weakened by war efforts against Germany, and could not stop the influx of
Jews immigrating because they did not have anywhere to go. Displaced persons turned away by the
British to honour the Palestinian Arabs. Migration by displaced Jews to Palestine made the Jewish
population more concentrated.

The recommendation of the Anglo-American Committee of Enquiry (November 1945)

The Anglo-American Committee of Enquiry recommended some form of joint Arab-Israeli State,
where 100 000 Jews would be allowed to emigrate, however, Britain refused to accept this.

Jewish attempts at migration and the British response (e.g. Exodus 1947)

The British kept turning back refugee ships. The immigration ship, Exodus was intercepted by the
British navy and its 4500 refugees were transported back to displaced persons camp in Germany.

Result of meeting of Arab states in Syria in 1946

The meeting threatened the British and American interests in the Middle East if the rights of the
Palestinian Arabs were not respected.

Jewish terrorism

Jewish militants responded to British policies in July 1946. They bombed the southern wing of the
King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which was the headquarters of the British civil and military
administration. 91 people were killed. In another attack, bodies of two British sergeants were hung
up in public and bodies booby-trapped in retaliation for the execution of Jewish terrorists. The
British had to take protection in secure compounds. At the height of conflict, 100 000 British soldiers
were in Palestine to keep control of a population of about 1 600 000.

1947: British gave up on their mandate over Palestine and announced a departure date of May 15
1948. They handed over the question of what to do about the opposing claims of Arabs and Jews to
the newly formed United Nations.

THE UN PARTITION OF PALESTINE

How did the United Nations become involved in the Palestine issue?

The UN was created during WW2 to replace the League of Nations, and the future of Palestine was
left in the hands of the UN after the British gave up on their mandate.

Outline the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) partition plan for Palestine.

There were two main proposals to resolve the conflict. Jews wanted a division in two separate
states, one Jewish and one Arab; and the Arabs favoured a unified state with proportionate
representation for Muslims, Jews and Christians. In April 1946, UNSCOP was formed to settle these
disputes and comprised of 11 nations. The verdict from the Committee recommended a three-way
division of Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state and a UN zone.

What was the response of the USA and USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) to partition?

To ratify the decision, a 2/3 majority in the UN Security Council was needed. The US and USSR
supported partition, both for their own reasons.

How did the Arabs respond to partition?

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Many smaller states were against the decision and a majority vote was only achieved after pressure
by Jewish supporters. Arabs saw partition as a betrayal, and took the case to ICJ arguing a country
could not be divided against the wishes of its majority population (2/3 of Palestine were Arabs).
However, the UN had no means to enforce the partition, and so Arabs and Jews had to fight for their
land, which turned into full scale war.

When was the end of the British Mandate and the proclamation of the state of Israel?

May 1948 was the last month of British occupation, and Jewish leader, David Ben-Zurion proclaimed
the state of Israel.

CORE STUDY: THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY

IMPERIALISM

Reasons for the growth of imperialism

Many world powers, in particular, European powers, wished to gain more resources and land.
Imperialism began to become a race – where it was almost a competition to see which countries
could take control of more countries.

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 1 (more emphasis)

Long-term causes:

Unifications of Italy and Germany

Outline how and when Italy was unified.

Peace from the Congress of Vienna (1815) started to break down as countries began to become
independent. Louis Napoleon, Emperor of France agreed to support Count Cavour of Piedmont (PM
of Italy) for his aim to have Italian nationalism in war to seize the Italian provinces of Lombardy and
Venetia from Austria (1858). Napoleon proposed Italy should be placed under the presidency of the
Pope, making an attack on the Peace of Vienna. Finally in 1860, an Italian state as formed, headed by
the king of Piedmont emerged as a new power.

Outline the three stages in which Germany was unified.

Bismarck (rep of Germany, the Chancellor/Prime Minister) aimed to create one nation of all German
speaking provinces and to achieve this Bismarck planned to start three wars. One in 1864 against
Denmark, obtained Schleswig and Holstein. The next, in 1866 against Austria, where the North
German Confederation was formed, and Austria lost control of Venetia, causing Italy to gain another
state. And finally, in 1870 against France.

What was the significance of the unification for Germany and Europe?

Germany took two French provinces, Alsace and Lorraine, but also took 5 billion Francs indemnity.
The unification changed the balance of power, and caused Germany to be the more powerful. The
remainder of Europe now realise Germany is a rising power.

Bismarckian Diplomacy

Franco-Prussian War (1870)

What was the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War?

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France lost, and in 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles.
Wilhelm I was made emperor.

What did Bismarck want to achieve in his relations with other countries after the war?

He wanted to ensure France would not be able to have revenge for the result of the Franco-Prussian
War – preventing them from having any allies, and stop them from having an alliance with Russia,
and so created the Three Emperors’ League, a neutral agreement (defensive military alliance).

Three Emperors’ League (1873)

When and what was the Three Emperors’ League?

Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. However, this changes because of conflicting interests in the
Balkans – A-H and Russia don’t want each other’s influence on newly independent countries. The
League was formed as Bismarck was able to placate is his allies.

Balkans Crisis, 1875-8

Following the successful revolt from Turkish control by some Balkans countries in 1875, Bismarck
was forced to step in to prevent conflict between his allies Russia and Austria. At the Congress of
Berlin in 1878 a settlement was reached.

What was the outcome of the Congress and how did it affect Austria and Russia and their relations
with Germany?

Austria had control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a Bulgarian state was proposed as a protégé of
Russia which ended up having smaller territory than proposed. Russia felt cheated, and thought
Bismarck was a ‘dishonest broker’ – not negotiating out of good faith. A-H was happy, Russia wasn’t.

Dual alliance (1879) and the Triple Alliance (1882)

What was the Dual and Triple Alliance? Why were they signed?

The Dual Alliance was an agreement signed by Germany and Austria-Hungary, where in case of a
threat of war from Russia to either Germany or Austria, they would aid each other (as a result of the
Balkans conflict). It was signed as Bismarck hoped German influences would ward off the possibility
of conflict with Russia. WHILE ALSO IN ALLIANCE W/ A-H AND RUSSIA! Italy then applied for
membership of the Dual Alliance, and was allowed to join, hence making it the Triple Alliance. The
Italians promised to declare war on France in case they attacked Germany, and to come to the
assistance of both Germany and Austria if either should be attacked by two or more powers.

Balkans in 1885

What was the impact of the Balkans Crisis of 1885 on Germany's relations with her allies?

In 1885, Bulgaria achieved independence from Russia, and the Tsar (A III) threatened to use force to
achieve submission. However, the Austrians would not allow this, and this led to tension between
Germany’s allies and did not know how to maintain the differences between these two powers. Due
to conflict, Bismarck is unable to save the Three Emperors’ League.

What replaced the Three Emperors' League in 1887?

 MODERN HISTORY SUMMARY NOTES
The Three Emperors’ league was replaced by the Reinsurance Treaty (Russia refuse to renew the
Three Emperor’s league), a bilateral treaty with Russia which was a defensive military alliance, and
reassured Russia of Germany’s support in Bulgaria and the Straits.

The Triple Entente

Franco-Russian Entente (1894)

What was Wilhelm II's new course for Germany foreign policy?

Wilhelm II replaced Bismarck (got sacked in 1890) and didn’t want to have a system as complicated
as Bismarck’s, cancelled the treaty with Russia because of opposition with Austria, and continued an
alliance with Austria.

What brought about an improvement in Franco-Russian relations?

Russia got money to assist in industrialisation from France and a need for a newer society, and
France needed an alliance, possibility to buy their way out of terms made by their loss against
Germany earlier. (France invests money into the Russian economy, leads to pursuing a closer
diplomatic alliance)

What were the terms of the Franco-Russian Entente?

A defensive military alliance, forming a strong rival bloc for German nations.

What were the consequences of the Entente for Germany?

France was no longer isolated, and Bismarck’s original plan failed (to isolate France).

Explain why Germany adopted the Schlieffen Plan and how it was to operate.

Germany adopted the Schlieffen Plan because they were now surrounded on two fronts through
France and Russia, which now meant they had enemies on two sides. The plan was to attack one
country, then attack the other, i.e. attack France first then Russia. Go through Belgium and attack
Paris and defeat France in 6 weeks.

Entente Cordiale (1904)

What was Britain's traditional foreign policy in relation to continental Europe?

Britain were in ‘splendid isolation’ meaning they had no relations with other countries.

Outline the factors that caused Britain to rethink this policy:

Britain started feeling threatened by other situations in the rest of Europe, such as the Franco-
Russian Entente, two powers that Britain found dangerous when combined together and had a
rivalry with. The new idealistic image Germany wished to portray through Wilhelm II’s Weltpolitik
caused Britain to realise Germany could be a big threat. Britain also realised their economic power
was declining. As a result of the Boer War, Britain realised they needed many resources to defeat
other powers, and possibly needed allies.

Outline Britain's responses to these threats:

In response to the Franco-Russia Entente, which could pose a threat to Britain’s security of their
colonial power, it established the Naval Defence Act 1889 to continue building its navy and defence.
Britain had no one they could turn to for an alliance, and sought to look to non-European powers for
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help at the height of colonialism. They turned to America, and complied with their wishes but acted
as a friendly neutral power, refusing to join any diplomatic initiative which could be seen as hostile
to the US. Britain also looked into an alliance with a power in eastern Asia with Japan as they held
the similar distaste for the Franco-Russian Entente, and shared the same views on Russian
colonialism in Manchuria, and then signed a treaty in 1902.

What was Delcassé's important contribution to French diplomacy?

Delcassé attempted to make France a stronger nation, by first recognising that Germany would be a
clear threat in the near future, and place a bit of focus on protecting France on its shared border
with Germany. He also tried to undermine the Triple Alliance and tried to remove Italy from the
alliance as a weak link, and hence, Italy’s promises of aid to Germany and Austria seemed to have
been revoked. When war was threatened in Sudan, and France was up against Britain, Delcassé
recognised there were weaknesses through the Franco-Russian alliance, which could threaten war
with England over conflicting interests with Russia, and did not want to be drawn into war because
of that. Finally, Delcassé chose to recognise Britain had a common enemy in Germany, and
therefore, agreed to come to a compromise in relation to all colonial problems.

What types of agreements were made between Britain and France as part of the Entente Cordiale?

They agreed to settle their colonial difference, and remove any possible causes of ill-will so a basis of
action against Germany could be planned.

How was the entente different from France’s alliance with Russia?

This was only an agreement, not an alliance which could guarantee the other country’s safety in case
of attack, but an understanding as a result of both Britain and France coming to a compromise and
accepting who their common enemy was.

Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)

What factors brought Britain and Russia to look for an agreement?

In 1907, Britain and Russia came to a resolution of conflict over Persia, or today’s Iran. They realised
Germany was a forming threat.

What were the terms of their entente?

The terms were to recognise the conflicting interests of both Britain and Russia, and come to a
compromise on colonial interests, and recognise Germany as a common enemy.

In what way was it similar to Britain's agreement with France?

It was a colonial settlement, and a recognition of common interests.

Moroccan Crises

1905-6 – Wilhelm II setting up the Algeciras Conference in January 1906.

What was the purpose of Wilhelm II's visit to Morocco in 1905?

At the time, Morocco was under French control as a result of the Entente Cordiale. The purpose of
Wilhelm II’s visit to Morocco in 1905

In what ways did Germany appear dominant at this stage?

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Germany appeared dominant as they were taking advantage of Russia’s weakness, and hence,
France’s weakening of power while Russia was fighting a war.

What was the outcome of the Algeciras Conference of January 1906?

The Algeciras Conference ended as a loss for Germany, where their ally, Austria-Hungary and the
plan for Germany to appear more powerful backfires and instead strengthens the forming
relationship between Britain and France.

1911 – French troops in Fez, Germany sending a gunboat which seemed like one for war.

What brought about this crisis?

There was an internal conflict against the Sultan in Fez, Morocco, where France brought in troops to
protect foreign residents. For no particular reason, the Germans decided to send a gunboat as a way
to intimidate France.

What was the German response?

The Germans claimed to want a piece of land in order to hide their intimidation towards the Triple
Entente.

Balkans Crises

Balkans Crisis 1908

Outline the aims of Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.

Russia wanted a warm sea port in ‘the Straits,’ or Bosphorus, to be used for the warships whether it
be in peace or war. Austria wanted more influence in the Balkans and wished to annex Bosnia and
Herzegovina. However, this was made more difficult because Serbia wanted more influence through
the concept of nationalism driven by them to unite the Balkans ad wishing to remove A-H’s
influence.

What agreement did Isvolsky and Aerenthal make?

Isvolsky agreed to accept the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in return for Austria
recognising Russian rights in the straits.

What unilateral action did Aerenthal take?

Aerenthal decided to go forward and annex Bosnia/Herzegovina without any prior notice. !!!!
THEY OWNED BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Why did war almost break out and how was war averted?

Germany decided to take Austria’s side on the matter and proposed a settlement which would
confirm Aerenthal’s actions, sending arms into Bosnia. Russia was forced to back down, hence
averting war.

Balkans Wars 1912-13

Outline the reasons for the First Balkan War (1912).

A Balkan league composed of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro with the support of Russia
for the purpose of extending territory. They declared war on the Turks.
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What were the results of the First Balkan War?

Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia take more territory.

Outline the reasons for the Second Balkan War (1913).

Conflict between the Balkan leagues because Bulgaria wanted more land. Bulgaria lost, and
therefore lost more territory.

What were the consequences of the Second Balkan War?

Serbia grew, and Bulgaria tried to assert independence and ultimately, in WW1 went on the side of
Germany and Austria-Hungary. Serbia has doubled in size, hence threatening Austria’s want of
influence in the Balkans. Serbia wants united opposition against Austria to free the area, especially
Bosnia. Austria’s aim is to crush Serbia. The wars have made Austria more fearful of Serbia and their
growing influence in the area. Serbia wanted Slav-Nationalism – where they would be able to rule
themselves.

Short-term cause(s)

The July Crisis

Who was Franz Ferdinand?

Franz Ferdinand was the Archduke/Heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary.

Why was Franz Ferdinand assassinated?

Serbia was promoting nationalist groups, e.g. ‘The Black Hand’ aimed to create disturbance in Bosnia
(to get rid of Austrian influence). Franz and his wife Sophia were in an open car riding around
Sarajevo, and on the way to the town hall where their reception was, a person threw a bomb which
didn’t kill the archduke. However, the driver took a wrong turn, and allowed Gavrilo Princip (the guy
who threw the bomb, a Serbian part of the Black Hand) to shoot the archduke and his wife.

What led to the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July 1914?

Austria wants to crush Serbia, and now they have an excuse to do so. Germany offered to support A-
H against Serbia in any way it required, known as the ‘blank cheque.’ On July 23, they give Serbia an
ultimatum (a demand with consequences) to the Serbian government threatening war if they didn’t
concede to its demands. Serbia gave into every demand except for the one requiring Austrian
officials into the country in July 25. Austria began bombing the Serbian capital, Belgrade and then
requested assistance from Russia (July 26). On July 28, Austria officially declares war on Serbia.

How did this local war spread to be a general European War?

(July 29) By requesting help from Russia, it comes to the aid of Serbia and begins mobilising its army,
but also against Germany as they will leave it unprotected if only going against A-H. (July 30)
Wilhelm asks the Tsar to withdraw the mobilisation order, as it would disturb the operation of the
Schlieffen Plan. Germany declared war on Russia and announced the mobilisation of German forces.
France ordered the mobilisation of its forces in support of its ally, Russia. Germany began putting its
Schlieffen Plan into operation by sending troops towards the Belgian border. Britain honoured its
1839 Treaty of London promise to protect Belgium by giving Kaiser Wilhelm until midnight the
following day to recall his troops. There was no reply - Britain, therefore, declared war on Germany
(August 4).