Naturally occurring earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored
elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a
fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities
or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault
surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once
the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing
stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This
continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly
allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy.[1] This
energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional
heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This
process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden
earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only
10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of
the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is
converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's
available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are
negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's
deep interior.[2]
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows
hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float
on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. [1]Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where
tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and most are found underwater. For example, a mid-
oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates
whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes
can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, e.g., in the East
African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America.
This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. [2] Volcanism
away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called
"hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from
the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created
where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption.
One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet
engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted
particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of
the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure
the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb
heat radiated from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere).
Historically, volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines.

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. [1] The European
Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered
by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of
the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern
in agriculture, civil engineering and public health.

Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or ocean, in
which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual
boundaries,[3] or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an
areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes
in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant
unless they flood property or drown domestic animals.

Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel,
particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and
businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be
eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally
lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide
easy travel and access to commerce and industry.

Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes
and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or
community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.