Problem 8.

1:

Increasing temperature in a pure metal results in an increased number of vacancies in the lattice
and more atomic vibration. Collectively, these result in lower conductivity. In semiconductors, higher
temperatures result in more electrons overcoming the energy gap and entering the conduction band,
resulting in higher conductivity.
Problem 8.2:

The resistivity of an impurity in a binary alloy can be determined from Nordheim’s rule (Equation
8.14). The resistivity of the impurity (i) is

i = CX (1-X) = (5500 n m) (.02) (1-.02) = 107.8 n m = 1.078 x 10-5  cm

Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity, so the resistivity of the copper is (1/6.0 x 10 5( cm)-1)

c = 1.67 x 10-6  cm

For the overall metal, a simple mixing rule is used:

m = vcc + vii = (1.67 x 10-6  cm)(0.98) + (1.078 x 10-5  cm)(0.02)

m =1.85 x 10-6  cm

m = 1/m = 5.40 x 105 ( cm)-1

Problem 8.3:

Equation 8.8 provides:


 = end or  d  .
en

The electrical conductivity () of gold (from table 8-2) is 4.3 x 105 ( cm)-1.

The charge of an electron (e) is a constant (1.6 x 10 -19 C)

Gold has one unpaired electron so

 Au N A
n ,
M Au

where Au is the density of gold, NA is Avogadro’s number, and MAu is the molecular weight of gold. Thus,

(19.32 g / cm 3 )(6.02 x10 23 atoms / mol )

n
g
(196.97 )
mol

n = 5.90 x 1022 electrons/cm3

4.3 x10 5 (cm) 1


d  = electrons
en (1.6 x10 19 C )(5.90 x10 22 )
cm 3

cm 2
 d  45.5
Vs
Problem 8.4:

Beyond the obvious fact that the electrical conductivities, molecular weights, and densities would be be
different, zinc has more than one unpaired electron in its outer shell. As such, the number of free
electrons per unit volume (n) would increase accordingly.
Problem 8.5:

A dielectric material reduces the strength of an electric field without reducing the voltage.
Problem 8.6:

The emitter gives off electrons (or holes in the case of a p-n-p transistor) that are collected in the
collector and result in a large increase in current in the collector.
Problem 8.7:

MOSFETs perform the same function with the same operating principle as BJT transistors but operate
with much smaller gate currents and are not subject to breakdown.
Problem 8.8:

The energy gap represents the amount of energy an electron must obtain to move from the valence
band (where it does not conduct) to the conduction band. The larger the gap, the more insulating the
material. The primary factors impacting the size of the band are temperature, the presence of
impurities, and the amount of plastic deformation in the lattice.
Problem 8.9:

In n-type semiconductors , the dopant donates electrons to the conduction band which causes the
number of holes to be less than the number of electrons in the conduction band. In p-type
semiconductors, the dopant removes electrons from the conduction band causing there to be more
holes than electrons.
Problem 8.10:

Piezoelectric materials convert mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice-versa. These materials are
highly polarized, but the positive and negative charges are symmetrically distributed. Ferroelectric
materials have permanent dipoles and polarize spontaneously without the application of an electric
field. Barium titanate is piezoelectric below the Curie temperature in its FCC form, but transforms into a
perovskite structure above the Curie temperature that is ferroelectric.
Problem 8.11:

Note – error in text. Should be comparing equation 8.2 and 8.15

Equations 8.2 and 8.15 are actually the same, in different form. 8.2 defines current density as

(Change in total charge)/(Area)(change in time).

Equation 8.15 expresses exactly the same information in terms of drift velocity (average velocity of
electrons). The number of electrons in a volume (n)* the charge of an electron (e) provides charge per
volume. Multiplied by a velocity (linear distance/time) results in change in charge/ area*time.
Problem 8.12:

In forward bias, increased voltage causes the electrons and holes to migrate to the p-n junction. As a
results, the depletion zone becomes thinner as current increases.
Problem 8.13:

In an n-type semiconductor, the dopant atoms donate an electron to the conduction band. Obviously, a
hole must exist to balance the charge, but the hole remains in the valence band, not the conduction
band.
Problem 8.14:

Phosphorus would serve as an electron donor because it has five valence electrons. Four of the
electrons participate in covalent bonding, leaving the fifth hovering just below the conduction band.
Relatively little energy is needed to donate that electron to the conduction band.
Problem 8.15:

Silicon is used in semiconductors because :

1. It retains its semiconductor properties at high temperature ;

2. its oxides are easily produced in high purity forms;
3. It has the best properties of any known material at the semiconductor/dielectric interface.
Problem 8.16:

The application of an electric field applies a force that causes electrons to migrate in the
direction opposite the field. Since a hole is just the absence of an electron, the movement of
electrons in one direction results in the effective accumulation or apparent movement of holes
in the other.
Problem 8.17:

Polymers make exceptional insulators because their extensive covalent bonding results in
essentially all s- and p- shells being filled, leaving no free electrons to migrate.
Problem 8.18:

Equation 8.8 provides:


 = end or  d  .
en

The electrical conductivity () of copper (from table 8-2) is 6.0 x 10 5 ( cm)-1.

The charge of an electron (e) is a constant (1.6 x 10 -19 C)

Copper has one unpaired electron so

 Au N A
n ,
M Au

where Au is the density of copper, NA is Avogadro’s number, and MAu is the molecular weight of copper.

Thus,

(8.94 g / cm 3 )(6.02 x10 23 atoms / mol )

n
g
(63.55 )
mol

n = 8.47 x 1022 electrons/cm3

6.0 x10 5 (cm) 1


d  = electrons
en (1.6 x10 19 C )(8.47 x10 22 )
cm 3

cm 2
 d  44.3
Vs
Problem 8.19:

Transistors work by surrounding an emitted with a collector material. When operating, all
electrons (or holes) given off by the emitter are taken in by the collector, resulting in a
substantial increase in current in the collector.
Problem 8.20:

The selection of a dopant depends first and foremost on whether an electron donor or
electron acceptor is needed. Group VA atoms make excellent electron donors for n-type
semiconductors, while group IIIA atoms function as acceptors in p-type semiconductors. Once
the appropriate group has been selected, compatibility between the host lattice and dopant
molecule becomes important. Factors influencing compatibility include the relative radii of the
dopant and lattice molecules, number and type of bonds, and growth conditions.
Problem 8.21:

Because the operation of a semiconductor depends on the precise alignment of lattice

molecules and dopant molecules down to the nanoscale, the presence of even tiny numbers of
minute impurities can completely alter the performance of the product. As microelectronics
become smaller and more densely packed, these problems become more acute. The majority of
the cost of production of electronic circuits comes from the need to maintain such high level of
material purity.
Problem 8.22:

Diamonds make attractive semiconductor candidates because they can be doped with other
atoms such as boron (which also gives them a blue color) that either donate or accept an
electron to the conduction band. Diamond retains its semiconductor properties at temperatures
much higher than silicon and they are far more resistant to chemical attack or radiation damage.
Problem 8.23:

Materials created through projection lithography are not subject to surface damage caused by
coming in contact with the mask, as often results in simple photoresist lithography.
Problem 8.24

Transducers convert sound waves to electric fields. Piezoelectric materials have the ability to
convert mechanical energy (like a sound wave) to electrical energy. As such, piezoelectric
behavior is the key to transducer production.
Problem 8.25

The attached graph shows that Moore’s law has applied remarkably well. The data are
respectably close to linear. However, we are approaching packing densities close to molecular
scale which will require significant technological advances to continue to progress at the same
relative rate. The 5-year extrapolation depends on when the problem is being solved.
Problem 8.26:

An effective gain medium must be capable of passing from a higher energy state to a lower state
and transfer the energy to the laser beam. Optimal gain materials have large separations
between the energies of these two states.
Problem 8.27:

The cladding must have a lower index of refraction than the core so that the optical
signal is reflected back into the core through total reflection.
Problem 8.28:

The critical angle of incidence is determined by equation 8.23

n2 1
 c  sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 ( ) = 48.6
n1 1.333
Problem 8.29:

The critical angle of incidence is determined by equation 8.23

n2 1.49
 c  sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 ( ) = 68.6
n1 1.60
Problem 8.30:

Snell’s Law (eq 8.22) provides:

n1 sin  2

n2 sin 1

We are given n1=1; n2 = 1.309, 1 = 15º

Rearranging eq 8.22 gives

n1 sin 1 (1) sin(15)

 2  sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 ( ) = 11.4
n2 1.309