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Diesel Combustion control in common rail engines by new injection strategies

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International Journal of Engine Research
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Diesel Combustion control in common rail engines by new injection strategies

C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano
International Journal of Engine Research 2002 3: 23
DOI: 10.1243/1468087021545513

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Diesel combustion control in common
rail engines by new injection strategies
C Beatrice, P Belardini and C Bertoli
Istituto Motori CNR, Naples, Italy
M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano
Fiat Research Centre, Orbassano, Turin, Italy
Received 25 January 2002
Abstract: The improvements of the solenoid injector and
of the electronic control unit of the present common rail
(CR) injection system allow the use of multiple sequential
injections. Thanks to this feature this advanced common
rail system is capable of performing up to five consecutive
injections in one engine cycle, thus improving control of
the combustion process. In particular, at some operating
conditions, activation of a small injection after the main
one allows soot produced in the previous stages of the
combustion process to be oxidized without increasing
nitrogen oxide emissions. This paper describes the exper-
imental results obtained with the application of a prototype
of this advanced common rail system both to a Fiat 1.9
JTD eight-valve four-cylinder engine and to a single-
cylinder prototype having the same combustion system
and large optical access, allowing investigation of the
injection and combustion processes. Multidimensional
modelling of the combustion process and pollutant forma-
tion was also employed to interpret the trends observed in
the experiments.
Key words: diesel engines, combustion, multiple
injections
1. Introduction
Today direct injection (DI) engines have a share of
about 85 per cent of the total production of diesel
passenger cars in Western Europe and the diesel
share in total passenger car production has increased
to over 30 per cent in the last few years. This is
mainly due to the improvements achieved with the
introduction of a new generation of DI engines. The
key technology that allowed the dramatic change in
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Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1
JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE
the image of the diesel passenger car has been the
introduction to the market of the common rail (CR)
fuel injection equipment (FIE) [1, 2]. However, due
to some design limitations, the first generation of
common rail FIE cannot handle sequential injections
with reduced dwell times between one injection and
the next [3±5]. In order to achieve an optimization
of the combustion process, especially looking at
the future Emissions Standards (Euro4 limits:
CO/NO /PM =0.5/0.25/0.025 g/km), it is neces-
x
sary to overcome these limitations in order to
manage multiple sequential injections. The standard
`pilot-main’ strategy consists of splitting the injection
into a pilot one, to control combustion noise, and the
following main injection with a relatively long mini-
mum dwell time (around 1.8 ms). With a CR system
able to activate multiple injections [1, 3, 5] the main
injection can be split into a sequence of very closely
coupled stages (usually up to three). The flexibility
of the system also allows the management, if needed,
of injection stages at larger dwell times with respect
to the main injection. The most diffused multiple
injection strategy is characterized by a first injection
(called `pre-injection’) very near to the main injection
and by an injection following the main one (called
`after-injection’) [3]. The effects of multiple injection
on soot formation and oxidation processes have been
largely studied in the case of heavy-duty engines
[6±8]. However, data in the literature about `swirl
supported’ light-duty CR engines are practically
absent. In this case the main processes leading to soot
and NO evolution in the combustion chamber have
x
not been fully explained. The most important param-
eters used to control the soot oxidation process are
23
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano

the best separation time (dwell time) between the

main injection and the after-injection and the per-
centage of fuel mass distribution between all the
described injections [1, 3, 9].
A number of experiments on these complex phen-
omena and the development of diagnostic tools to
analyse injection systems will allow further engine
optimization. In the present paper the influence of
multiple injection control parameters on the emis-
sions of a 1.9 litre four-cylinder CR engine has been
studied. Engine experiments have been performed
varying some operating conditions (ET, or energiz-
ing time, rail pressure, dwell times and engine
speed).
At the same time, the most interesting operating
conditions have been analysed in the `optical’ engine
experiments which were carried out by adopting
injection parameter values close to those used in the
four-cylinder engine experiments. Furthermore, due
to the strong effect on the CR engine performance of
minute details of the combustion system design
[9, 10, 11], there is an evident need for an in-depth
analysis of combustion and also a pre-optimization
of control parameters using analytical tools. On the
other hand, the availability of detailed data on sprays
and combustion evolution is also useful to improve
the predictivity of computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) codes of diesel combustion which, at their cur-
rent stage of development, can help engine designers
to define the more promising strategies in order to
obtain tailpipe emissions control. For this reason
numerical results obtained using the KIVA3V code
were verified by single-cylinder tests and then
applied to the four-cylinder engine combustion
simulation. In this way, integrating the findings
derived from three-dimensional CFD computations,
visualization techniques of injection and combustion
and field experiments carried out in a real four-
cylinder CR engine, the optimal settings for a
multiple injection strategy have been analysed.
2. Experimental Engines
The tests were carried out on two CR engines. The
first one is derived from the Fiat 1.9 JTD-F3 with four
cylinders and two valves per cylinder. For this exper-
imental activity the compression ratio has been
reduced to 17.5 and a different injector nozzle has
been adopted. Table 1 shows the main engine charac-
teristics. The second engine is a single-cylinder
optically accessible prototype. The optical engine is
characterized by a modular structure including three
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Fiat 1.9 JTD-F3 Diesel DI
Bore×stroke 82× 90.4
(mm)
Displacement 1910
(cm3 )
Compression ratio 17.5 : 1
Valve timing INL: 0/26, EXH: 40/
2
Rated power 77 kW at 4000 r/min
Peak torque 255 N m at 2000 r/min
Swirl ratio 2.7
FIE Multijet common railÐprototype
Nozzle VCO double guideÐ6 hole,
B 0.156 mm, cone angle 145°
Turbocharger Garret GT 15 WASTE-GATE
Intercooler Air±water
EGR Cooled
Table 1 Four-cylinder engine specifications.
modules: crankcase, cylinder±transparent piston and
head and camshaft. Each module can be changed
independently from the other modules, allowing
easy head±cylinder group interchange. A view of the
engine and piston structure is shown in Fig. 1.
The engine design allows the use of different
optical diagnostics. In the upper part of the cylinder
liner three optical windows (B 21 mm×27 mm
height) are placed along the circumference line with
an angle of 60° between them. The cylinder wall
temperature is controlled by a coolant water-
conditioning system.
The transparent piston shows the classical elon-
gated structure and presents two distinct parts:
crown and body. This structure, made of titanium
alloy, allows the implementation of various combus-
tion chamber geometries by replacing different
piston crowns without modifying the piston body.
A `flat’ quartz insert in the piston crown (used as the
bowl bottom) allows the full bowl view avoiding
optical distortions.
The elongated piston accommodates an elliptical
mirror (dimension 50×70 mm, 45° slope) allowing
collection of spray and combustion images. The
elongated piston is fitted with self-lubricating rings
such that the upper cylinder liner runs dry. Three
self-lubricating compression rings and one self-
lubricating ring guide, all in Teflon/bronze, are used.
The connection between the elongated piston and the
piston rod is through a shim. In this way adjusting
shim thickness can change the piston top clearance
and, consequently, the compression ratio. The com-
pression ratio of the first configuration is 17.8. The
piston rod is completed with a compression ring in
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and a classical oil
control ring.
The inlet and exhaust valves as well as the cam

24 Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1

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Fig. 1 Transversal optical engine section and piston structure.
profile were designed to be similar to the multi-
cylinder reference engine. Tests performed on the
steady state flow bench with the impulse wheel
method demonstrated that the intake swirl ratio
(defined as the ratio between swirl angular velocity
and engine angular velocity) of the optical engine
was quite close to that of the production engine,
giving a value of about 3. Also, the injector position
in the combustion chamber was equal to that of the
reference engine, with 4 mm offset with respect to
the cylinder axis. This solution was chosen in order
to avoid changing the intake valve dimensions and
adopting an off-centred combustion chamber.
Clearly the bowl profile design of the reference four-
cylinder engine and the `optical’ one differ as shown
in Fig. 2.
However, this first configuration, chosen for its
Fig. 2 Combustion system design.
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Diesel combustion control in common rail engines
easy realization, does not compromise the study of
the main combustion phenomena, which can be
assumed to be similar to those present in the real
engine. All injector characteristics and engine
specifications are reported in Table 2.
Both engines were equipped with a special elec-
tronics control unit (ECU) coupled with an emulator
memory. In this way all engine parameters are
acquired and can be set in real time by a PC where
the ECU software is stored. The engine’s instrumen-
tation comprises a combustion pressure piezo-quartz
transducer fitted on the engine head. In the middle
point of the injection line between the rail and injec-
tor of the instrumented cylinder a piezo-resistive
transducer allows the recording of line injection
pressure. Needle lift was measured with a Hall effect
sensor while a current sensor controlled the injector
25
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano

rail pressure and with a proper choice of the dwell

Engine Diesel 4T angle between the pilot and main injections. These
Bore (mm) 82.6
Stroke (mm) 90 mechanisms were fully analysed by Beatrice et al.
Single displacement (cm3 ) 482.2 [12] and Konayagi et al. [13].
Compression ratio 17.8 : 1
Stroke±bore ratio 1.089 Multiple injection technology (Multijet System) is
Conrod length (mm) 145.0 very attractive because it overcomes the previously
Stroke±2 conrod length ratio 0.310
Maximum revolution velocity (r/min) 4000 mentioned limitations, with minor modifications of
Electro-injector VCO, 6 holes, the present CR system components and, therefore,
B 0.152 mm,
double guide without a significant cost increase. The graph in
Injector hole length (mm) 1.2 Fig. 3 shows a comparison between the soot±NO
x
trade-off obtained by adopting different strategies,
Table 2 Single-cylinder optical engine specifi-
splitting the main injection and varying the dwell
cations.
time between different injections. In the same Fig. 3
are reported the Euro3 and Euro4 confidence bands
actuation. A shaft encoder with a maximum angular whose values were extrapolated from a 15 mode
resolution of 0.1 crank angle degrees allows steady state test procedure representative of the
synchronization of the various signals. transient ECE15+EUDC tests on an Alfa Romeo
The diagnostic apparatus of the optical engine 156 car.
includes a high-speed charge-coupled device (CCD) Tests are referred to the four-cylinder engine
camera and a copper vapour laser for spray illumi- operating at 1500 r/min and 5 bar of b.m.e.p. (brake
nation. The camera is a Redlake Motion Scope PCI mean effective pressure) and at the same exhaust gas
`solid state type’ with a maximum resolution of recirculation (EGR) rate. The reference condition
480×420 pixels. The maximum speed of the CCD reflecting the `old’ strategy of pilot+main injections
camera acquisition is 8000 f/s, with an image reso- is also shown in the same figure. Noise and b.s.f.c.
lution of 60×68 pixels. In this condition for a cylin- (brake specific fuel consumption) for all conditions
drical combustion chamber diameter of 45 mm, are also reported. It must be noted that the fuel mass
the magnitude ratio is calculated to be about injected during both the pilot injection and pre-
0.57 mm2/pixel. The electronic shutter frequency can injection was selected at about 10 per cent of the total
be set in a variable range from X to X/20, where X injected mass. When using the after-injection, the
is the frame rate. In the present tests, for a high image remaining 90 per cent of the total mass is split
quality, the shutter was imposed to its maximum between the main injection and the after-injection in
frequency, corresponding to an exposure time of the ratio of 70 to 30 (full triangle in Fig. 3).
(1/8000)/20=6.25E-6s=6.25 s. Use of the pre-injection improves the efficiency by
reducing the passive work during the compression
stroke due to the combustion of the pilot mass. As
3. Effect of Injection Strategies on
clearly shown in Fig. 3, the pre-injection also pre-
Emissions
serves or improves the level of combustion noise
It is well known that the standard injection strategy because, as will be discussed later, the premixed
based on the use of a pilot injection before the main combustion peak related to the main injection is quite
injection is only useful in controlling engine noise. similar to that observed when the pilot injection is
This strategy is characterized by the complete pre- used.
mixed combustion of the fuel fraction injected during Therefore, the global engine performance (emis-
the pilot injection (about 10 per cent of the total sions, noise and b.s.f.c.) is strongly dependent on
mass). The resulting increase of cylinder pressure which injection strategy is adopted. Moreover, for
and temperature, as well as the presence of active each strategy, the setting of the injection parameters
radicals, shortens substantially the auto-ignition also influences the performance. For this reason the
delay time of the fuel injected during the subsequent choice of the optimal injection strategy requires an
main injection. In these conditions the mixing of the enormous experimental effort in order to evaluate
main injected fuel deteriorates, promoting the soot- the effect of each single parameter. Therefore, for
formation process. The increased sooting tendency further engine optimization, it is essential to under-
of the main combustion due to the presence of the stand the in-cylinder mechanisms that control engine
pilot combustion can be controlled by increasing the performance. This is particularly important if this
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Fig. 3 Effect of different injection strategies on the four-cylinder engine performance at 1500 r/min and 5 bar of b.m.e.p.
knowledge permits the application of model-based
injection strategies, as discussed by Beatrice et al. [12].
As shown in Fig. 3, the pre+main+after-injection
strategy (from now on called multiple) exhibits the
best global performance. For this reason the first
study focused on the effect of this strategy on com-
bustion and exhaust emissions with respect to the
standard pilot+main injections. In addition, the
effect of dwell time between the main injection and
after-injection was analysed.
4. Combustion Process Management by
Multiple Injection
4.1 Four-cylinder CR engine tests
Figure 4 shows a comparison between pilot+main
and multiple injection strategies in terms of indicat-
ing signals and heat release rates. For all tests, the
start of the main injection was fixed at 1° ATDC (after
top dead centre), while the pilot injection and pre-
injection, when employed, were set at 18 and 3° crank
angle BTDC (before top dead centre) respectively.
The EGR rate, taken on CO2 concentration between
the inlet and exhaust ducts, was increased in the
present tests from a value of 17 per cent for the
pilot+main injection to 19 per cent for the multiple
injection. The higher EGR value with the multiple
injection strategy was chosen in order to approach
the NO Euro4 limit, taking into account the benefits
x
of soot emission reduction deriving from the mul-
tiple injection strategy adoption, as shown in the pre-
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Diesel combustion control in common rail engines
vious section. Finally, the selected values of the dwell
time between the main injection and after-injection,
named `DTAfter’, are also reported in Fig. 4. As men-
tioned above, the effect of pre-injection on the com-
bustion noise reduction is of the same order or better
than pilot injection activation, reducing at the same
time the b.s.f.c. In fact, the premixed combustion rate
peaks are similar when adopting the two different
strategies. In Fig. 4, the peaks ROHR due to combus-
tion of the fuel jets corresponding to the after-
injection at the three selected dwell times (490, 1090
and 1350 s) are also evident.
The diagram of Fig. 5 shows the NO ±soot trade-
x
off relative to the four test conditions investigated.
In the diagram the Euro3 and Euro4 limits are also
reported.
The multiple injection can reduce both NO and
x
soot emissions but the main mechanism that controls
this effect is not yet clearly explained, at least for
swirl-supported light-duty engines. In fact, Han et al.
[8] give a detailed explanation of the reason why the
split of the main injection into two subsequent injec-
tions helps to improve soot oxidation in the case of
heavy-duty engines (quiescent combustion system).
In this paper it was demonstrated that a second injec-
tion (about 25 per cent of the total injected mass)
could significantly reduce the soot production with-
out an appreciable increase in the NO formation
level. As a consequence of the reduced soot pro-
duction, injection timings can be retarded with split
injection to reduce NO emissions. Regarding soot
x
reduction, Han et al. [8] conclude that the reduced
27
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano
Fig. 4 Injection parameters, cylinder pressure and heat release rate for pilot+ main and multiple injection strategies (four-cylinder
engine at 1500 r/min and 5 bar of b.m.e.p.)
soot formation is due to the fact that the soot produc-
ing rich zones at the spray tip are no longer replen-
ished. With a proper choice of the dwell angle
between the two pulses, the mixture therefore
becomes leaner. Since the second injection takes
place in a high-temperature environment due to the
combustion products of the previous injection, the
soot-formation rate is decreased while the soot oxi-
dation efficiency is improved, producing a signifi-
cant reduction in net soot production. Hasse et al.
[14], who investigated the same topic using CFD
computations and experiments on a CR heavy-duty
engine, agree that the main reasons for the soot
reduction when using multiple injection is the mech-
anism detailed above. In conclusion, it is a common
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28
opinion that the two main mechanisms for soot
reduction are the improvement of air utilization due
to the split of the main injection and the higher com-
bustion temperature in the last combustion phase,
which promotes soot oxidation. Different from the
case in the quiescent combustion chamber, in small-
bowl light-duty engines the presence of the swirl
motion promotes interaction between sprays.
Moreover, the free path length of the spray before
impingement on the combustion chamber wall is
limited. In this condition the swirl helps to remove
the combustion products of the first injection from
the spray path of the following injection during the
dwell time. However, too long a dwell time could
permit the transport of the combustion products on
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Fig. 5 NO ±soot trade-off for pilot+ main and multiple injection strategy at different dwell times of the after-injection. Engine test
x
condition: 1500 r/min at 5 bar of b.m.e.p. Euro3 and Euro4 confidence bands are extrapolated from transient ECE15+EUDC
tests on an Alfa Romeo 156 car.
the subsequent spray axis downstream in the swirl
direction. Therefore, for light-duty engines, the swirl
motion seems to be the major factor controlling the
air±fuel mixing improvement and the dwell time
seems to be the main parameter for soot emission
control. In order to evaluate this, appropriate tests
are necessary.
Starting from the minimum dwell time between
the main injection and after-injection of 490 s, and
increasing up to 1350 s, NO emissions decrease
x
while soot emissions increase up to the standard con-
dition (pilot +main). This effect at a DTAfter of
1350 s can be ascribed mainly to the strong
reduction of combustion temperature (see the cylin-
der pressure curve in Fig. 4). On the other hand, in
this condition, the after-injection cannot promote the
oxidation of soot formed both during the main and
the after-injection combustion itself. At 490 s the
combustion temperature during the burning of the
after-injection jets should be higher with respect to
a DTAfter of 1090 s. Conversely, the air penetration
in the spray path between the main injection and
after-injection should be reduced. The previous
analysis leads to the conclusion that a comparison
between emissions levels adopting the two strategies
based on DTAfter of 490 and 1090 s are difficult to
explain without a more detailed investigation.
With this aim, spray and combustion visualiza-
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Diesel combustion control in common rail engines
tions were carried out on the optical engine with the
same injection strategies tested on the four-cylinder
engine (1500 r/min at 5 bar of b.m.e.p.) and at the
same injected fuel mass.
4.2 Combustion events visualization on a single-cylinder
optical engine
In Figs 6 and 7 spray and combustion evolution for
all tested injection parameter sets ( pilot+main and
multiple with DTAfter of 490, 1090 and 1350 s) are
shown. Notwithstanding the high temporal reso-
lution of the CCD camera, the sequences are built
with frames containing only relevant events. Looking
at the sequences it must be noted that the swirl
direction is clockwise.
Pilot and pre-injections show a similar spray pat-
tern. In particular, the six spray plumes are charac-
terized by uniform distribution and, due to the small
fuel quantity injected, by relatively low tip penetra-
tion avoiding wall impingement. Therefore, there is
a high vaporization rate and a long ignition delay,
which leads to a completely premixed combustion
without visible flame (soot).
The main injection characteristics for all test cases
are very similar except for the injection duration due
to the different split of the total fuel mass. In this
case the spray plumes hit the chamber wall. For both
injection strategies, the frames show that soot
29
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano

Fig. 6 Optical engine tests. Spray and combustion evolution with pilot+main and multiple injection strategy (with DTAfter=
490 s) corresponding to a four-cylinder condition of 1500 r/min at 5 bar of b.m.e.p.

Fig. 7 Optical engine tests. Spray and combustion evolution with multiple injection strategy and DTAfter of 1090 and 1350 s
corresponding to a four-cylinder condition of 1500 r/min at 5 bar of b.m.e.p.

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appears generally in zones located at the combustion
chamber centre on the spray plume edge down-
stream of the swirl motion, thus confirming previous
and well-discussed results [12, 13].
After the start of combustion, the flame rapidly
tends to propagate towards the bowl wall, thus
increasing the interaction with swirl motion. This
stage of the combustion process is probably an
important key in controlling exhaust NO ±soot trade-
x
off. In fact, the high-temperature flame region inter-
acts with a high angular velocity charge. With a
pilot+main injection strategy, a high swirl velocity
during late expansion could significantly improve
the soot oxidation process. This consideration can be
deduced by observing the locations of last flame
spots near the bowl periphery (Fig. 6).
When multiple injection is employed, the flame
evolution relative to the main combustion is very
similar to the previous case (pilot+main). With the
presence of the after-injection (Fig. 6, second
sequence, and Fig. 7) an interaction between the
after-injection’s spray plumes and the spot flames of
the main combustion is evident. No, or a very short,
ignition delay seems to characterize the after-
injection. The frames marked as `after’ are relative to
the after-injection event and without laser illumi-
nation. Therefore, soot flames mainly form the visible
plumes of the after-injection. During the first phase
of the after-injection combustion, the flames are
located in the bowl central area where air is still
available. This is the first factor to contribute an
improvement of air±fuel mixing with multiple injec-
tions. Subsequently, the unburned fuel of the after-
injection propagates towards the bowl periphery,
interacting with the flame spots of the previous main
injection. The authors think that this is another criti-
cal factor that controls the local over-rich fuel/air
zone in a swirl-supported combustion system. In
fact, with the adoption of multiple injection, and as
will also be discussed later, when the after-injection
jets meet the spot flames of the previous main injec-
tion the fuel pyrolysis process, and therefore soot
formation, should be enhanced.
By processing the combustion image frames, the
total flame luminosity versus crank angle was
obtained. Figure 8 shows the comparison between
both the pilot+main strategy and the multiple strat-
egy for all DTAfter values. In the figure, cylinder
pressure and heat release rate curves are also
reported. Notwithstanding the inevitable differences
with respect to the four-cylinder engine, the optical
engine is able to reproduce the heat release patterns.
Due to the higher heat loss during the expansion
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Diesel combustion control in common rail engines
stroke, the peak of the heat release rate relative to
the after-injection combustion is smaller with respect
to the four-cylinder engine tests. However, this dif-
ference does not compromise the analysis of the main
combustion phenomena. With multiple injection the
maximum peak flame luminosity is lowered while
the main effect is the strong improvement of the soot
oxidation process.
By increasing the DTAfter from 490 to 1350 s, it
can be seen that there is a progressive prolongation
of the visible flame in the expansion stroke (see the
crank angles of the last frames) coupled with a
reduction of global flame intensity during the com-
bustion cycle. Moreover, it is evident that lowering
the combustion temperature makes the soot oxi-
dation efficiency worse and again reaches the level
of the pilot+main strategy. These results fully agree
with and partly explain the NO ±soot trade-off meas-
x
ured on the four-cylinder engine tests (see Fig. 5).
In effect, as is well known, the flame luminosity
acquired by the CCD camera is a function of soot
concentration and its temperature and the two con-
tributions cannot be discriminated from one another.
Therefore, if it is possible to detect a better air±fuel
mixing and a soot oxidation rate improvement, when
multiple injection is activated, it is not possible to
attribute the peak luminosity reduction to a decrease
in soot concentration (better mixing) or to a lower
flame temperature. Therefore, for a complete and
deeper investigation and in order to develop a poss-
ible fast methodology for the identification of the
optimal injection parameter setting, the multiple
injection strategy has been simulated with the
KIVA3V code.
5. Development of a Methodology for the
After-Injection Optimum Setting
From the previous description it is clear that there is
a dramatic increase in the number of parameters to
be optimized in order to develop a proper engine
map using multiple injection concepts. It is quite
clear, from Fig. 8, that one of the main controlling
factors of soot emission is the setting of the separa-
tion angle between the main injection and the after-
injection. By integrating the findings derived from
three-dimensional CFD computations and visualiz-
ation techniques of injection and combustion, as well
as field experiments on a real engine, some rules can
be drawn up which allow a rational pre-selection of
the dwell time between the various main and after-
31
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano

Fig. 8 Optical engine tests: cylinder pressure, heat release rate and flame luminosity for all tested points.

injections. The following sections of the paper will
address this topic.
5.1 The numerical code
The diesel engine combustion simulations were per-
formed using an improved version of the KIVA3V
code [15]. To simulate the airflow field, the k± RNG
turbulence model in the Han and Reitz form [16] was
used. The atomization process was computed using
the hybrid model developed by Belardini et al. [17]
based on both WAVE [18] break-up and TAB [19]
models. The droplet evaporation model was
improved by removing the hypothesis of `infinite’
Downloaded from jer.sagepub.com by guest on September 6, 2012
fuel thermal conductivity and ensuring that the tem-
perature inside the droplet was uniform and equal
to its surface temperature value [20]. Development
of the ignition model is based on the Hiroyasu
method [21] using the Handerberg and Hase corre-
lation [22]. The NO formation is modelled with the
Zel’dovich mechanism in the form described by
Bowman [23]. Finally, the soot formation and oxi-
dation mechanism is coupled with the combustion
model by a reduced six-step mechanism in the form
developed by Belardini et al. [24]. In a previous paper
[25], the very simple formulation of the ignition
delay model, based on an experimental correlation,

32 Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1

JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE

was introduced and tested in the KIVA code.
Experiments performed in a single-cylinder diesel
engine in a number of test cases confirm the accuracy
of the computations while also changing the fuel
cetane number. Also reported in the same paper
were results obtained using a four-step model as well
as a nine-step model for low-temperature combus-
tion of n-heptane implemented in the code; it was
shown that retuning the model constants is necessary
to obtain more realistic predictions. In the present
case, due to the great number of constants present
in the model, a simple formulation, based on exper-
imental correlation, was adopted in order to reduce
the computational time and to simplify the model
constant calibration process.
Further improvements in the description of the
initial conditions for spray computations were added
in the present set of applications. In particular, an
in-house hydraulic code was set up [26] in order to
calculate, starting from experimental measurements
of the needle lift, the fuel injection rate. Accurate
measurements of pressure in the injection line dem-
onstrate a good predictive capability of the hydraulic
code, as will be shown in the next section. Due to
high-pressure injection, cavitating flows may occur
within the nozzle holes. Therefore, a nozzle flow
model as reported by Kong et al. [27] was used,
allowing the calculation of the KIVA initial spray
conditions (droplet diameter, velocity and discharge
coefficient) from the calculated rate of injection. The
fuel injection routine was also modified to obtain an
on-line control of the mass balance on the fuel mass
split between the various sequential injections, each
described by a different injection duration and veloc-
ity profile. Finally, an off-line pre-processing allows
an easy definition to be made of the initial conditions
in the presence of EGR and turbocharging.
5.2 Numerical results and related experiments
At first, a setting of the spray model constants was
obtained using the spray visualization carried out
in the optical engine tests. By changing rail pressure
in the range of 400±800 bar and engine speed
(1500±2000 r/min), the best tuning of the break-up
hybrid model constants was identified in order to
match spray characteristics in a variety of test points
for the given design of the six-hole double-guided
injector [12]. With these settings, the combustion and
soot formation process can be numerically investi-
gated both in the single cylinder as well as in the
reference engine. It is important to underline that the
four-cylinder reference engine calculations were per-
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Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1
JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE
Diesel combustion control in common rail engines
formed in real conditions, i.e. with EGR active as
necessary to control NO emissions at low loads.
x
Once all model constants are tuned in the experi-
ments, within the intrinsic limitation of this pro-
cedure, the accuracy of the calculations seems
satisfactory in reproducing the main features of com-
bustion behaviour in the presence of multiple injec-
tions. It must be noted that the test case was chosen
with a pilot injection relatively far from the main
injection in order to preserve the development work
in tuning the combustion in these conditions. This is
due to the difficulties in tuning the model constants
of the code in the presence of a pre-injection very
close to the main injection. In fact, the strongly sim-
plified formulation of the ignition delay model
would require a new model constant tuning for the
pre-injection, considering how different are the con-
ditions of pressure and temperature with respect to
those of the pilot injection. Since the present study
is focused mainly on main injection±after-injection
interaction and the previous injection strategy does
not alter this interaction, a pilot+main+after-
injection strategy has been adopted. Obviously,
experimental tests were performed with the same
injection settings.
In Fig. 9 the release rate computed by the exper-
imental in-cylinder pressure is compared with that
obtained by CFD computations. Contrary to the tests
discussed in the previous sections, the engine
operating point is at 2 bar of b.m.e.p. and 1500 r/min.
Fig. 9 Computed and measured heat release rate with the injec-
tion strategy pilot+main+after. The experimental
curve was sustained in a four-cylinder engine at
1500 r/min and 2 bar of b.m.e.p.
33
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano
This new point was selected because it extends the
previous experimental analysis (1500 r/min at 5 bar
of b.m.e.p.) to another point in the engine map,
which is important in describing the engine per-
formance in terms of pollutants emissions on the EU
transient test procedure. Other numerical runs, per-
formed with different loads and injection strategies,
demonstrated that without any retuning of the model
constants the code performance appears acceptable
in describing the experimental findings. Neglecting
the test point with a DTAfter of 1350 s because of
its high exhaust emissions and poor b.s.f.c., the effect
of the two remaining DTAfter values (490 and
1090 s) on in-cylinder soot loadings is shown in
Fig. 10.
Retarding the dwell time between the main injec-
tion and after-injection, even if the peak of soot for-
mation is lowered, leads to an increase of net soot
emitted due to the decrease in the oxidation process.
This also confirms results discussed in the previous
sections of the paper concerning the 1500 r/min at
5 bar of b.m.e.p. tests. For a further investigation on
this relevant topic, joint numerical and experimental
tests were carried out on the transparent engine at
the same test point (1500 r/min at 2 bar of b.m.e.p.)
and with the same injection settings. Figure 11 shows
the visualization of the relative position of the com-
bustion products in the combustion chamber and the
incoming jets of the after-injection for the two pre-
viously chosen DTAfter cases. On the bottom of the
same figure the computed spatial soot distribution
at the same conditions is shown.
The agreement between computations and
Fig. 10 Soot loading during combustion cycle for the two
DTAfter (490 and 1090 s). Four-cylinder engine
simulation at 1500 r/min and 2 bar b.m.e.p.
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34
measurements is surprisingly good. In the case of a
DTAfter of 1090 s, the air utilization for the combus-
tion of the fuel jets deriving from the after-injection
is worse. In fact, in the case of a DTAfter of 490 s,
during the after-injection the flame spots are located
between the spray axes and the spray jets are directed
in the free flame zone. On the contrary, at 1090 s, a
marked interaction between the spray jets and the
spot flame deriving from the main combustion is
evident. This effect, together with the lower flame
temperature, justifies the decrease in efficiency of
the soot oxidation process for this dwell time.
The previous analysis suggests a simple concep-
tual model for pre-setting the DTAfter value. Starting
from knowledge of the in-bowl swirl ratio evolution
during the expansion stroke (Fig. 12), it can be
assumed that the angular velocity of the combustion
products of the main injection is of the same order
of magnitude as the swirl velocity. Therefore the
optimum of the DTAfter value can be easily com-
puted assuming (as suggested from Fig. 11) that, at
the moment that after-injection starts, the combus-
tion products of the main injection are located in the
middle of the angular sectors defined by the spray
jet axes.
Clearly, in order to perform this kind of calcu-
lation, knowledge of the delay times between the
electric energizing times (ET) and the real opening
and closure times of the nozzle needle is required.
In addition, it is noted that the presence of a pressure
wave in the injection line can produce, for some
DTAfter values, engine instability, even if these
values fall in the optimum range from the point of
view of mixing effects. Taking into account the men-
tioned constraints, the simple methodology pro-
posed was tested at different points on the engine
map and gave encouraging results.
6. Conclusions
Multiple injection technology is very attractive
because it allows, without a significant increase in
costs, significant improvements in the emissions
reduction potential of common rail direct injection
diesel engines. However, due to the strong sensitivity
of engine performance to the injection parameters a
good knowledge of some basic phenomena is needed
in order to reduce the large number of experimental
tests necessary for engine optimization. The present
paper addressed the multiple injection and combus-
tion mechanisms by integrating the findings derived
from three-dimensional CFD computations, visualiz-
Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1
JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE
 Diesel combustion control in common rail engines

Fig. 11 Experimental and numerical visualization of the relative position of soot clouds and incoming jets of the after-injection at
DTAfter of 490 (left) and 1090 s (right) at 1500 r/min and 2 bar b.m.e.p.

The main results obtained can be summarized as

follows:

1. The availability of an advanced CR injection

Fig. 12 Computed in-bowl swirl ratio evolution for the four-
cylinder engine.
ation techniques of injection and combustion in a
properly designed transparent engine and, finally,
field experiments carried out on a four-cylinder
engine.
Downloaded from jer.sagepub.com by guest on September 6, 2012
system with a multiple injections capability allows
the adoption of various injection strategies, which
can strongly influence spray characteristics and
combustion evolution.
2. The global engine performance (emissions, noise
and b.s.f.c.) is strongly dependent on the adopted
strategy. Moreover, for each strategy the setting
of the injection parameters also influences the
performance.
3. With proper settings of multiple injection (timing
and duration) the Euro4 emissions limits can be
approached without complex after-treatment
systems, at least for small/medium class cars.
4. An injection strategy based on a pre-injection very
close to the main injection and an after-injection
for oxidizing combustion products during the
expansion stroke is the more useful strategy for
further improvements of diesel emissions.
5. The two main mechanisms involved in soot and
NO control in the presence of multiple injections
x

Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1 35

JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE
C Beatrice, P Belardini, C Bertoli, M G Lisbona and G M Rossi Sebastiano
are the improvement of air utilization due to the
split in the main injection and the higher combus-
tion temperature in the last combustion phase that
promotes soot oxidation.
6. In swirl-supported combustion systems the main
factor controlling soot oxidation efficiency seems
to be the dwell time between the main injection
and the after-injection.
7. A simple mechanism for a proper pre-setting of
dwell time between the main injection and the
after-injection, based on mixing effects, was iden-
tified and tested. Within some intrinsic limitations
of the method, the results obtained were encour-
aging and show a good potential for reducing the
engine map optimization times.
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Int J Engine Research Vol 3 No 1
JER 00402 © 2002 IMechE