Review Plasticity,

Strengthening Mechanism

1
 Flow curve
• Hook’s law no longer valid in Plasticity theory
• Plastic deformation is not reversible like
elastic deformation
• True stress and true strain curve
• Hook’s law followed by some yield stress
• Beyond the material deforms plastically
• Increases in strain require higher stress
True stress curve for a ductile material
• True stress-strain curve called flow curve
because it gives the stress required to cause
the material to flow plastically in any given
strain

K is the stress at
n is the strain hardening coefficient
 Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:

yield  o  k y d 1 / 2

5
Strengthening mechanisms
 Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.

• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional

impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.
7
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

8
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low density
side

9
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation:  y ~ C1 / 2
• Alloying increases y and TS.

10
 Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: y ~
S
11
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocations.
• Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600  +L
--Pt A: solution heat treat q+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 q
q
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small q crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems:
• Cu-Be Temp.
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate q)

Time
Pt B
12
 Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:

• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum

precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.

30
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
400
20
300
149°C 10
200 204°C 149°C
204°C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time

13
 Transformations & Undercooling
• Eutectoid transf. (Fe-C System): g   + Fe3C
• Can make it occur at: 0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
...727ºC (cool it slowly) 0.022 wt% C
...below 727ºC (“undercool” it!)
T(°C)
1600
d
1400 L
g g +L
1200 L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
1148°C
(austenite)
1000
 Eutectoid: g +Fe3C
ferrite 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727°C
DT  +Fe3C
600
Undercooling by DTtransf. < 727C
0.022

0.76

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) Co , wt%C
14
• Interparticle spacing given by:

• When particle are small and/or soft,

dislocations can cut and deform them
• 6 properties of the particles which affect the
ease of shearing (strengthening mecanisms)
• Coherency strain (Mismatch):
– Another estimation:
• Stacking fault:

• Ordered structure:

• Modulus effect:

• Interfacial energy and morphology:

• Lattice friction:
• Overaged non coherent precipitates: Orowan

• Bowing of dislocations around the particles

builds up dislocations loops and creates
dislocation cell structure (Fig 6.28)
 Martensite: Fe-C System
• Martensite:
--g(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(involves single atom jumps)

60 m
x
Fe atom potential
x x
sites x x C atom sites
x (Adapted from Fig.
10.20, Callister, 7e.

• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

800 Austenite (stable) Martensite needles
T(°C) TE Austenite
A
P (Adapted from Fig. 10.21, Callister, 7e.
600 (Fig. 10.21 courtesy United States
Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from
Fig. 10.22,
Callister 7e. 400 A B • g to M transformation..
-- is rapid!
200 M+A
0% -- % transf. depends on T only.
50%
M+A 90%
M+A
10-1 10 103 105 time (s) 19
 Martensite Formation
slow cooling
g (FCC)  (BCC) + Fe3C
quench

tempering
M (BCT)

M = martensite is body centered tetragonal (BCT)

Diffusionless transformation BCT if C > 0.15 wt%

BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle

20
 Tempering Martensite
• reduces brittleness of martensite,
• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.

TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800

1600 TS
Adapted from Adapted from
YS

9 m
Fig. 10.34, 1400 Fig. 10.33,
Callister 7e. Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.34 1200 (Fig. 10.33
adapted from 60 copyright by
Fig. furnished United States
1000 50
courtesy of %RA %RA Steel
Republic Steel 40 Corporation,
Corporation.) 800 30
1971.)

200 400 600

Tempering T (°C)
• produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by .
• decreases TS, YS but increases %RA
21
 Summary: Processing Options
Adapted from
Austenite (g) Fig. 10.36,
Callister 7e.

slow moderate rapid

cool cool quench

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

( + Fe3C layers + a ( + Fe3C plates/needles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation)

Martensite reheat
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
bainite Tempered
fine pearlite Martensite
coarse pearlite ( + very fine
spheroidite Fe3C particles)

General Trends 22
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.

Adapted from Fig.

11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5m
23
 Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:

-Forging force -Rolling

roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao 24
 Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 m University.)

25
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density = unit volume

– Carefully grown single crystal

 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2


• Yield stress increases
as rd increases: y1 large hardening
y0 small hardening

e
26
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

27
 Cold Work
• What is the tensile strength &
Analysis
Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu
100 7%
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

28
 Composite Survey: Fiber-V
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension fiber diameter
f d
fiber length  15 shear strength of
c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, fiber length > 15 mm needed
• Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber: Longer, thinner fiber:
f d f d
fiber length  15 fiber length  15
c c
(x) (x)

Adapted from Fig.

16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

29
 Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite strength for

long continuous fibers in a matrix
• Longitudinal deformation
c = mVm + fVf but ec = em = e f

volume fraction isostrain

 Ece = Em Vm + EfVf longitudinal (extensional)

modulus

Ff E fVf
 f = fiber
m = matrix
Fm E mVm

30
 Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

• In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load -

isostress
c = m = f =  ec= emVm + efVf


1 Vm Vf
  transverse modulus
Ect E m Ef

31
 Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:

-- valid when fiber length  15 f d

c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ec = EmVm + KEfVf

efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e.
(Source for Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel,
Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:
(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf (aligned 1D)
32
 Lecture Notes 4: Recovery,
Recrystallisation and Hotworking

33
 Temperature in Metal Working
• Forming processes are commonly classified into hot working
and cold-working
• Hot working: defined by deformation under conditions of T
and strain rate such that recovery processes take place
simultaneously with deformation
• Cold working: deformation is carried out under conditions
where recovery processes are not effective
• In hot working, the strain hardening and distorted grain
structure produced are rapidly eliminated by the
formation of new strain-free grains as the result of
recrystallization

• Very large deformation are possible because the

processes keep pace with deformation
• Occurs at constant flow stress because the flow stress
decreases with increasing temperature
• The energy required is much less than in cold working
• Since strain hardening is not relieved in cold-working,
the flow stress increases with deformation.
 Deformation that is possible without causing fracture is
less for cold-working than for hot-working, unless the
effect of cold-work are relieved by annealing
• For most alloys, hot-working must be carried out at a
high T in order that a rapid rate of recrystallization be
obtained
 Lead and thin recrystallize rapidly at RT after large
deformations
• Disadvantage of hot working include:
– Problem due to surface reactions between metal and
furnace atmosphere
Example: Reactive materials like Ti must be hot worked
in inert atmosphere or protected by a suitable barrier
- Surface decarburization: extensive surface finishing is
required to remove the decarburized layer
- Dimensional tolerances are greater than in cold work
- Structure and properties are not so uniform over the
cross sectional area as in metal cold worked and
annealed.
 Cold working
• Cold work results in an increase in strength
and a decrease of ductility
• When cold work is excessive fracture before
reaching the desired size and shape
• To avoid that: several steps of cold work with
intermediate annealing to restore ductility
 Cold-work anneal cycle
• Need for annealing increases the cost of forming
specially for metals anneal in vacuum
• But provides a degree of versatility which is not
possible in hot-working
• By suitably adjusting the cold-work-anneal cycle,
the part can be produced with any desired
degree of strain hardening.
• If the finished part must be stronger than the
annealed part, the final step is a cold-working
• Followed by a stress relief to remove residual
stresses
 Warm working
• Below the temp. range for recrystallization and above room
temperature
• Attempts to combine the advantages of both cold-working
and hot-working
• Fewer forging steps, reduced forging loads and energy
savings(elimination of in-process anneal) compared with
cold-working
• Compared with hot-working: improved dimensional
control, higher surface quality and lower energy cost.
• Successfully implementation of warm working depends on
using the proper lubricant and selecting a material and die
design that are optimized for the warm working condition
 Annealing of cold worked metal
• Cold work state is a condition of higher
internal energy
• Cold-work dislocation cell structure is
mechanically stable but thermodynamically
unstable
• With increasing temperature, the cold work
state becomes more unstable

42
 - e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3 . disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

43
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!

annealing temperature (ºC)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500 • 3 Annealing
40 stages to
discuss...
400 30

ductility 20
300

44
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.

• Scenario 1 extra half-plane

of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
of tension atomic
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2

3 . “Climbed” disl. can now R

move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

45
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

46
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

47
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC

• Empirical Relation: coefficient dependent

on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
 don  Kt
Ostwald Ripening
48
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
49
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm) in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross
section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a
ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Further more, the
final diameter must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this
may be accomplished.

50
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what
happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW    x 100  1   x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df2 4    0.30  2 
 1   x 100  1     x 100  43.8%
 Do 4 
2   0.40  
 
51
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.
– y = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
52
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

53
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 Df 2 2  Df 2
2
%CW
%CW  1  
2 
x 100  1  2

 D02  D02
100

Df 2  %CW 
0 .5 Df 2
 1   D02 
  %CW 
0.5
D02  100  1  
 100 
0.5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = Df 1  D02  0.30 1    0.335 m
 100 
54
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 m
 2
 
%CW1  1 
0.335 
x 100  30
  0.4  
 
2. Anneal above D02 = Df1
3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 m
 Fig 7.19  y  340 MPa
  0.3 2 
%CW2  1     x 100  20 
  0.335   TS  400 MPa
 
%EL  24
Therefore, meets all requirements

55