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Chapter 14

Geo-environmental Zoning for Urban


Planning and Design

Ekaterina Buldakova, Vyacheslav Zaikanov, and Tatiana Minakova

Abstract Geo-environmental problems are caused by natural and anthropogenic


factors, especially true for urbanized areas. The modern growing cities, with limited
space, are accompanied by a steady trend of new construction “up and down” and
increase the density of housing and reconstruction of the already developed city
areas, which gives rise to conflict in geo-environment. This predetermines the new
requirements to the planning of urban space. Geo-environmental zoning of the urban
areas is based on geosystemic principle, is reflecting the territorial differentiation of
urban environment condition in dynamics for different scenarios of urban design,
and should be conducted at an early stage of design. This technology will help to
choose the best option and justify the investment. Maps of geo-environmental
zoning of the urban territory should be the basis for justifying design decisions
and the placement of geo-environmental monitoring. Its use in urban design will
contribute to the formation of environment favorable for human life and sustainable
development of the city.

14.1 Introduction

Rapid urbanization and high level of construction with the wide implementation of
investment projects are caused by the necessity to adapt to existing spatial planning
system to modern realities. Urban growth drives to the forced involvement the
uncomfortable land under the construction, accompanied by the construction “up
and down”, with the higher building densities. This increases the pressure on natural
components and activates dangerous natural and man-made processes. Аs a result,
the geo-environmental situation becomes worse in the city. Currently the
geo-environmental problems stand in one row by severity and urgency of their
decisions with social and economic development of the urban space.

E. Buldakova (*) · V. Zaikanov · T. Minakova


IEG RAS, Moscow, Russia

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 179


V. Svalova (ed.), Natural Hazards and Risk Research in Russia,
Innovation and Discovery in Russian Science and Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91833-4_14
180 E. Buldakova et al.

To ensure an enabling human, plant, and animal environment, as a basis for


sustainable development, the geo-environmental situation must require safety in the
cities, where about 75% of the population lives. It depends not only on environmen-
tal indicators and reliability of technical systems, but also on the conditions of
influence the last one on the geological environment, its compensatory possibilities.
The important tool in making managerial decisions of planning and designing
urban space should become a single geo-informational platform with analytical
information unit of geo-environmental assessment of the territory. The main princi-
ples of this assessment are geo-systemic approach and a single criterion for zoning
the city territory according to the degree of danger of geo-environmental constraints.
The geo-environmental constraints are understood as conditions that complicate the
development of the urban area in accordance with current regulations, regulatory
documents, design, urban planning, and environmental management.
The geo-environmental map of the urbanized area should become the basis for the
justification of design decisions, and its practical use will contribute to the formation
of an environment favorable for human life and sustainable development of the city.

14.2 Geo-environmental Constraints and Their


Systematization

An important role is played by the existence of natural and man-made processes and
phenomena that limited the development of the urban area, and their ignoring by
geo-environment assessment leads to a violation of its stability. In this case, it is
absolutely not necessary that the unsuitable urban area presented the “inconve-
nience” (wetland, erosion dissected, etc.) [1]. This can be the territory, for example,
with rare and specially protected species of flora or fauna.
Among the many constraints for the development and exploitation of urban area
were identified separately geo-environmental constraints.
Since the 1960s of the last century in the different countries and Russia too [2],
geologists have intensively studied not only the geological structure of urban areas
but also their natural and man-made hazards. In recent years, the growth of cities
often comes at the expense of developing the areas with weak and man-made soils.
Large areas in 135 Russian cities are exposed to exogenous geological processes,
which the economic damage from them for the last 15 years amounted to 23 billion
rubles [2].
The consequences of development the cities are lead for increasing such a
processes as flood, karst, suffusion, landslides, ravines, etc. Hydrogeological condi-
tions are especially important in the sphere of interaction of buildings with the
geological environment. In many cities are the zones of tension in tectonic disloca-
tions, areas of development of geodynamic processes. About 40% of Russian
territory, with a population of over 20 million people, is seismically active.
14 Geo-environmental Zoning for Urban Planning and Design 181

GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS FOR
DEVELOPMENT
OF URBAN AREA

THE CLASS OF
THE CLASS OF
URBAN-
NATURAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS
CONSTRAINTS

THE GROUP THE GROUP THE GROUP OF THE GROUP OF THE GROUP OF THE GROUP OF
OF THE GEOMORPHO HYDROMETEORO LANDSCAPE- MAN-MADE- URBAN
GEOLOGICAL LOGICAL LOGICAL ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
CONSTRAINTS CONSTRAINTS CONSTRAINS CONSTRAINTS CONSTRAINTS CONSTRAINTS

SUBGROUPS...
TYPES...

Fig. 14.1 The scheme of systematization of geo-environmental constraints

The zones of geological tension are allocated in many cities by overlaying the
zones of geological constraints that are unfavorable for construction, associated with
the presence of specific soils, exogenous and endogenous processes, and
hydrogeological conditions.
Geo-environmental situation of the city also depends on the geomorphological,
hydrometeorological landscape and man-made environmental characteristics of the
urban area, as well as the kind of recipient under the impact of these constraints.
The effect of negative consequences increases dramatically by combining natural
and man-made environmental constraints (pollution depositing environments and
geophysical effects of noise, vibration, electric and magnetic fields, ionizing radia-
tion from technogenic sources, etc.)
Here are some of geo-environmental constraints for the development of the urban
area in urban planning: size (border) of land, environmental requirements (pollution,
etc.), and the protection zones of individual natural objects.
The study of natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena essentially
reflects the interaction of nature and society, allowed to carry out systematization,
with regard to their parameters and distribution [3]. Currently, in the systematization
of the geo-environmental constraints, two classes are allocated: natural and urban
environmental (Fig. 14.1). The first one refers to four groups, while the second are
two groups of constraints. In each group, we can identify several subgroups; among
the subgroups are from one to nine species.

14.3 The Algorithm of Zoning

Zoning of urban area based on geo-environmental constraints is carried out in


several stages (Fig. 14.2) [4, 5].
The first step is gathering of basing information. In accordance with the selected
scale, the source maps are chosen for analysis and visualization of spatial data
182 E. Buldakova et al.

1 STAGE

The collection and analysis of base The creation of maps of natural and
information man-made-environmental constraints

2 STAGE

The creation of Map of geo-


The joint analysis of the first two cards environmental constraints and unified
legend

3 STAGE

The allocation of “urbo-geo-systems” are operating units of


assessment and zoning

4 STAGE

The choice the criterion of assessment-


the degree of danger constraints of The calculation of assessing index
“urbo-geo-system”

5 STAGE

The analysis of spatial differentiation of The creation the Map of zoning urban
assessments area on geo-environmental constraints

DATA BASE

Fig. 14.2 The algorithm for the zoning of the urban area on geo-environmental constraints

(vector and/or raster); designed and maintained the contents of the primary data-
bases, which are presented in a geographic information system (GIS). Each spatial
layer is associated with an attribute table containing qualitative and/or quantitative
data. The scale of the maps depends on the intended target of the rendering and style
14 Geo-environmental Zoning for Urban Planning and Design 183

of the city. As a base map sources can be used map 1:25,000 and 1:10,000. For big
cities, technologically, more convenient maps are specific scale (1:20,000 and
1:5000).
The task of this stage is to identify in the study area the geo-environmental
constraints and to develop original maps: landscape; geological-geomorphological,
hydrometeorological and man-made environmental constraints are characterized by
parameters reflecting the intensity of the event (in physical units). Based on their
analysis a map of “geo-environmental constraints” is created. This is a result, at the
same time, it is the basis for selection of operating units for the next assessment of
spatial differentiation of the city.
Functional zoning is due to restrictions on the development of construction, using
the site for different types of activities, accommodation and recreation, and environ-
mental protection. The presence/absence of natural and man-made environmental
constraints is one of the indicators of the quality of the site, which largely determines
the form of land use.
Various recipients (the subject of the economy, people, green spaces, functional
formation) have unique vulnerability to the effects of the same constraints. The
impact of the recipient on constraints is reflected when combining maps of
geo-environmental constraints and the functional zoning of the urban area. The result
is a map of new smaller sites of “urbo-geo-systems” (UGS) which is a natural
functional unit and the basis of allocation which is the results of interaction of
economic entities with the components of nature that are determined in the process
of consistent differentiation of the territory. In this approach, the boundaries of the
UGS, on the one hand, due to the natural boundaries, on the other, consider the impact
of the city on natural components and are distinguished by set of constraints [6]. UGS
is selected as an operating unit to assess danger and zoning in the urbanized areas.
The next stage is to assess the degree of danger of certain types of
geo-environmental constraints and urbo-geo-system, in general. The calculation
module zoning database includes a definition of the areas of certain types of
constraints in each UGS, the development of a system of indicators, and the
algorithm for calculating the degree of danger of geo-environmental constraints for
a particular territory.
Today is the absence of standards for calculating (per unit area) cost values at
neutralizing certain types of constraints; therefore, for calculating we used specific
cost values for the base scale (estimation of parameters of identified constraints). The
value of the weighting factor of the recipients is determined as a value proportional
to values of the official cadastral valuation of lands for the permitted uses for specific
areas. The feedback coefficients (the expected responses of the recipients to the
constraints) reflect the expected damage, if you are ignoring the boundary condi-
tions. Justification of the commensurability of those indicators is the adoption as a
single basis of assessment value of all the parameters given to this point in time and
normalized to unit area. The attraction of monetary units enables the mapping in the
single dimension of all considered factors.
The calculation can be carried out by software implementing the mathematical
assessment model, for example, in Excel:
184 E. Buldakova et al.

– Columns of table contain the types of geo-environmental constraints which are


adopted in relation to a particular territory, base points.
– The rows contain for each urbo-geo-ecosystem: area distribution of individual
species limits in the UGS and the total area of UGS and the coefficients of the
reverse reaction for each constraint and a single factor of the importance of the
recipient
This approach enables to present spatial differentiation of geo-environmental
constraints and their relative assessment to compare alternative options of the
development of urban areas.
Maps of danger assessment are developed for different scenarios. Changing the
type of the recipient, according to the scenario, changes the coefficients of its
significance and back reaction on the impact of the constraints and sometimes the
boundaries of the UGS. These maps are the basis for the zoning of urban areas,
determining current problematic situations, developing recommendations for urban
design, and assessing of efficiency of investment project for redevelopment of
territory.
According to the basic criterion of division into districts – the same degree of
danger of geo-environmental constraints in urbo-geo-systems – we conducted zon-
ing (current and future state scenarios). Map legend is presented as a table, in which
the final assessment of geo-environmental danger reflects the patterns of their spatial
differentiation. It contains recommendations on necessary actions to neutralize
(warning) dangerous geo-ecological limitations for the development or the reorga-
nization of the territory.
Analysis of landscape-environmental conditions is needed to identify natural
areas’ special status and develop recommendations for the conservation of rare
flora and fauna, developing environmental frameworks and others, and for the
solution of planning and design tasks.
Zoning database is constantly updated and corrected in the process of all stages of
zoning. It contains the data with their spatial reference to a single coordinate system
on the main parameters of and limitations to functional and planning formations
which provide estimates and maps. Each urbo-geo- and ecosystem have their own
set of database attributes.
Geo-environmental zoning aimed at ensuring safe operation of the economic
facilities and favorable for the life of geo-environmental situation due to prevent
and address the adverse environmental and geological factors (geo-environmental
constraints). The zoning map will help in the solution of practical problems of urban
planning and design.
Spatial differentiation of danger geo-environmental constraints reflects the rela-
tionship of urban and geo-environmental zoning, so the proposed algorithm should
be made mandatory in the planning and design of urban space.
So, zoning the urban area on geo-environmental constraints is based on the use of
the following principles:
– Cartographic visualization of spatial data
14 Geo-environmental Zoning for Urban Planning and Design 185

– Sequential mapping in GIS of urban areas for certain types of constraints and
complex geo-environmental assessment
– Functional zoning on different scenarios of land use
– Allocation of urbo-geo-systems and assessment of the degree of their danger to
the use by different scenarios
– Integration of all layers of maps for final zoning
– Creating and maintaining the functional state of the database
Thus, the spatial analysis of the city on geoinformational platform allows you to
identify and determine the location and structure of geo-environmental constraints,
relationships of natural conditions, and economic facilities.

14.4 The Example of Geo-environmental Zoning

Currently, one of the modern trends of urban space is redevelopment – reconstruc-


tion of old industrial and commercial properties. More than 17% of the territory of
“old Moscow” was occupied by industrial zones, of which 70% is proposed to
reorganize [7]. The idea of this renewal is the establishment of integrated urban
development with housing, social facilities, and new jobs.
By 2035, it is planned to make the Moscow River the linear center city. The
concept of renovation of coastal areas covers almost 11,000 ha, considering the
trends of recent years a more active participation of these territories in the structure
of the city.
For the practical implementation of the process of zoning on geo-environmental
constraints, the area of the metropolis was chosen as model area, planning to
reorganization. By natural the chosen site is a part of the valley complex on the
right Bank of the river of Moscow, including areas of high floodplain the
three terraces. The main natural limiting factors are the presence of anthropogenic
soils and exogenic geological processes (flooding, potential of suffusion-karst
hazard).
Map of geological-geomorphological constraints was compiled using a map of
“Engineering-geological conditions of Moscow”, scale 1:10,000 [8], and data from
field surveys of the territory. With a rather complex geological structure, there are
17 contours with different combinations of natural constraints on the map.
This site has a real distribution of geochemical pollution of soil and vegetation,
noise and vibration impacts along the open metro lines and railways, local contam-
ination of sediments, etc. Here were allocated four districts with three types of
man-made environmental constraints. Statutory (environmental standards) urban
planning limits water protection and sanitary protection zones, protected natural
territories.
Functionally planning structure of the territory is not homogeneous. For each
functional purpose (recipient) was installed a set of priority constraints of the
186 E. Buldakova et al.

existing danger: for buildings and facilities, geological and geophysical (vibration),
and for a person, geochemical and geophysical (noise pollution) types of limitations.
As a result of joint analysis of the maps (natural and man-made environmental
constraints), the spatial differentiation of the main types of geo-environmental
constraints is represented by the 29 contours on the new map of
geo-environmental constraints. Based on the analysis of implicative relations
between functional-planning formations and geo-environmental constraints,
52 urbo-geo-systems have been allocated. Each UGS has its own index, reflecting
the sequence of its formation.
UGSs are merged into 16 subareas of the four types of districts that are similar in
value danger degree but due to different reasons. The recommendations are
presented in the legend, reflecting the measure prevention and the negative reaction
of the recipients to the constraints. The ratio of natural and man-made environmental
constraints varies from 0/100 to 71/29 in subareas.
According to the Moscow General Plan, the 20% of area of the territory is
planned to reorganize: industrial enterprises will be driven out, communal-storage
areas will be exempted, and coastal area will be landscaped. The project provides for
the development of these areas for multi-flat residential and mixed-use public area.
The result of a joint analysis of the maps of existing geo-environmental con-
straints and planned functional zoning of the reorganized areas was the allocation of
12 new UGS. In the case of placing objects without accounting the constraints, the
danger for their presence are increased five times. This indicates the need for
significant investment in preparation for the development of the land. The developed
recommendations for the preparation and rehabilitation of the territory, which are
subject to reorganization (reduction in the level of groundwater, the replacement of
man-made soils, reclamation, the use of specific technologies in the areas potentially
dangerous for the existence of karst, etc.).
After the implementation of the recommendations, the degree of danger of
geo-environmental constraints had decreased substantially. Further, on the hazard
assessments, geo-environmental constraints were carried out zoning of the territory
after its reorganization. While maintaining the typology of regionalization (four
types), the number of allocated sub-districts was increased to 22, compared with
the current state of area with the minimum danger.
The area ratio of groups of constraints has changed in the direction of increasing
the role of natural constraints. However, a part of the reorganized areas is still
dominated by man-made constraints due to the negative effects of “neighbors.”
There are saved the necessity of conducting monitoring observations at sites of
potential manifestations of suffusion-karst processes and the elimination of the
effects of the nearby industrial enterprises and transport.
At the reorganization of the urban area, an important role plays the stepping of
submission of geo-environmental information in the maps and efficiency of the
calculations of assessing index, which are made in the GIS. The integrated assess-
ment of geo-environmental constraints in the development phase of the project will
increase the geo-environmental safety of the territory through a more objective
evaluation of alternatives.
14 Geo-environmental Zoning for Urban Planning and Design 187

14.5 Conclusion

Testing of methodology of zoning in practice on this and other cases has proved its
effectiveness. In the future, the types of restrictions can be filled up by a new one
after implementation of the method in practice, but using the application of unified
legend of zoning is already possible for various cities now. To the lack of a common
regulatory framework, methods of danger assessment of environmental constraints
will differ necessity of an individual approach to each territory, not only because of
the differences of the original data but when determining the valuation ratios.
Undoubtedly, the method including identifying, assessing, zoning, and visualiz-
ing the geo-environmental constraints will help to optimize the planning and man-
agement of urban space. Virtually any urban project must be geoecologically safe
when theoretically provided by balance natural resource potential and damage
(accumulated or annual) in the zone of interaction of technical facilities with nature.
The modern concept of safe development of urban areas should be based on the
introduction of “forward” strategy of safe spatial development. The basis of such a
strategy should be urban planning and design with the obligatory accounting of
geo-environmental constraints.
For justification of town planning regulations, optimization of planning, and
prioritizing the territory development, it is necessary to study the
geo-environmental features of the urban space on the principle of geo-system and
GIS technologies. The proposing approach for zoning is based on geological con-
straints and, as a result, can reflect both modern danger geo-environmental con-
straints, promising formulation of master plans of cities, projects of reorganization,
and development of new territories.
The information model of the assessment and mapping of geo-environmental
constraints is made on geographic information platform; can be integrated easily as a
separate unit into the municipal GIS; presents flexible, quickly updating system; has
the function of support of acceptance of administrative decisions on the choice of an
optimum variant of development of urban space; and justifies the investment. This
will contribute to the formation of environment favorable for human life and
sustainable development of the city.

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