Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2017, v.

87, 1075–1099
Research Article
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2017.59

THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION, CRETACEOUS

McMURRAY FORMATION, ALBERTA FORELAND BASIN, CANADA

PAUL R. DURKIN,1 RON L. BOYD,2 STEPHEN M. HUBBARD,1 ALBERT W. SHULTZ,3 AND MICHAEL D. BLUM4
1
Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
2
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
3
P.O. Box 339, Glorieta, New Mexico 87535, U.S.A.
4
Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, U.S.A.
e-mail: Paul.Durkin@umanitoba.ca

ABSTRACT: The three-dimensional reconstruction of meander-belt deposits from ancient strata provides insight into
the formative processes of meander-bend evolution and paleogeographic interpretations. A significant challenge to
such analyses is limited exposures in outcrop belts and widely spaced or sparse subsurface datasets. An unprecedented
dataset consisting of 600 km2 of 3-D seismic data and over 1000 well penetrations from the Cretaceous McMurray
Formation in northeastern Alberta, Canada, provides a unique opportunity to characterize an ancient continental-
scale river system. Paleochannels ranged from 475 to 1180 m wide and from 35 to 50 m deep, with meander-belt
width-to-thickness ratios between 107:1 and 401:1. The data reveal evidence for intra-point-bar erosion and
punctuated rotation, counter-point-bar development, and protracted channel cut-off and meander-loop abandonment.
Observations enable interpretation of morphodynamic processes that are commonly observed in modern systems, yet
rarely described from the rock record.
A 3-D geocellular model and reconstructed paleochannel migration patterns reveal the evolutionary history of
seventeen individual meander belt-elements, including point bars, counter-point bars, and their associated abandoned
channel fills, which have been mapped using core, FMI logs, and seismic data. Results of the study show that intra-
point-bar erosion surfaces bound accretion packages characterized by unique accretion directions, internal
stratigraphic architecture, and lithologic properties. We provide evidence for channel-belt-edge confinement and
development of a counter-point bar, as well as the deposition of side bars and preservation of a mid-channel bar
during meander-bend abandonment. Analysis of changes in meander-belt morphology over time reveal a decrease in
channel-belt width/thickness ratio and sinuosity, which we compare with observations from the lower Mississippi
River and attribute to the landward migration of the paleo-backwater limit due to transgression of the Cretaceous
Boreal Sea into the Alberta foreland basin.

INTRODUCTION
Meander-belt evolution is generally well understood based on planform
analyses of point bars, which are by far the most common and distinctive
forms found in sinuous rivers. (e.g., Fisk 1944; Hickin and Nanson 1975;
Jackson 1976). The evolution and classification of meander loops was
introduced by Brice (1974), following earlier work on meandering-channel
processes and floodplain mapping (Fisk 1944; Leopold and Wolman 1960;
Langbein 1964; Carey 1969; Daniel 1971; Handy 1972). Brice (1974)
classified meander loops into four categories based on symmetry and
complexity, which provided a foundation for describing accretion
processes such as expansion, rotation, and translation by mapping
successive stages of channel migration (Hickin 1974; Jackson 1976;
Lewin 1983; Knighton 1998). Significant contributions to the understand-
ing of flow mechanics and geometric characterization of meander bends
were also made in the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., Bagnold 1960; Leopold and
Wolman 1960; Langbein 1964; Ackers and Charlton 1970; Brice 1974;
Leeder and Bridges 1975). The recognition of flow separation around a
meander bend and its relationship to meander-bend geometry (i.e.,
meander radius and flow width: Leeder and Bridges 1975), is an example
of a fundamental linkage between sedimentary process, geomorphology,
and deposition. In a particularly novel study, Jackson (1976) compared the
hydraulic and geometric variables of a series of modern meander bends to
the vertical sequence of sediments from the associated point bar and
proposed a depositional model for point-bar sedimentation. Early efforts to
link processes and resulting deposits, like those of Jackson (1976), provide
a foundation for the interpretation of depositional processes from the rock
record. However, beyond planform evolution, meander-bend classification,
and grain-size trends, a relative paucity of comprehensive research has
been presented on linkages between morphodynamic processes of
meander-bend evolution observed in modern environments and the three-
dimensional product in the rock record (e.g., Jordan and Pryor 1992; Smith
et al. 2009; Toonen et al. 2012; Ielpi and Ghinassi 2014; Durkin et al.
2015).
Recent studies of modern and ancient meander-belt deposits have
emphasized morphodynamic processes that are commonly understated in
the analysis of stratigraphic products, such as intra-point-bar erosion and

Published Online: October 2017

Copyright Ó 2017, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/17/087-1075/$03.00
1076 P.R. DURKIN ET AL.
rotation, counter-point-bar development, and meander-bend abandonment
(Fig. 1; Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al. 2011; Smith et al. 2011; Micheli
and Larsen 2011; Toonen et al. 2012; Durkin et al. 2015; Ghinassi et al.
2016). Significant changes to meander-bend morphology can result from
erosion along inner banks, often associated with substantial bar rotation. In
the stratigraphic record, intra-point-bar erosion surfaces truncate previously
deposited point-bar strata, across which the direction of accretion may shift
up to 508 (Fig. 1; Durkin et al. 2015). The recognition of these stratigraphic
surfaces reveals that point-bar surfaces are formed through a complex
interplay of erosional and depositional processes. Simplistic facies models
that emphasize cut-bank erosion, lateral accretion, and point-bar
expansion, commonly overlook these additional processes, despite the
potential for honed paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Another commonly
overlooked feature of meander belt deposits are counter-point-bar deposits
(or concave bank benches), which are characterized by concave scroll-bar
patterns, immediately downstream of a convex point bar (Fig. 1; Lewin
1983; Nanson and Page 1983; Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al. 2011;
Ghinassi et al. 2016). Counter-point bars develop in response to channel
confinement or erosion-resistant cut-bank material, which promotes
downstream translation of the concave bank (Smith et al. 2009; Smith et
al. 2011; Ghinassi et al. 2016). The resulting deposits are typically fine-
grained, compared to the upstream-adjacent point-bar deposits. Channel
abandonment processes are commonly simplified into neck or chute cut-
off, followed by channel avulsion (Fisk 1947; Lewis and Lewin 1983;
Gagliano and Howard 1984; Smith et al. 1989; Erskine et al. 1992; Hooke
1995; Stouthamer and Berendsen 2000; Micheli and Larsen 2011);
however, recent research has provided insight into abandonment processes
JSR
FIG. 1.—An example meander belt with key
features identified.
and the ability to deduce paleochannel dynamics from abandoned-channel
fills (e.g., Toonen et al. 2012).
In order to address these understated processes and interpret their
depositional product in the rock record, a comprehensive understanding of
flow structure in a meander bend is required. A significant amount of
research has been presented on the geomorphology (e.g., Leopold and
Wolman 1960; Allen 1965; Nanson and Hickin 1983; Whiting and
Dietrich 1993a, 1993b) and fluid mechanics (e.g., Ikeda et al. 1981; Parker
et al. 1982; Parker et al. 1983; Ferguson et al. 2003; Blanckaert 2010) of
meandering rivers (Camporeale et al. 2007). Generally, flow structure in a
river bend is a helix, where flow velocity is higher near the surface and
flows toward the outer bank, where it is directed downward and along the
bed toward the inner bank (Thomsen 1879; Leopold and Wolman 1960). In
sharply curved bends, a recirculation eddy may form due to flow separation
at the inner bank, restricting the helix to only the outer portion of the
channel (Rozovskii 1957; Leopold et al. 1960; Leeder and Bridges 1975;
Ferguson et al. 2003). Where channels impinge at high angles against the
outer bank, flow separation also results in reverse eddy currents and scour-
pool formation on the upstream side of the impingement point (Carey
1969; Burge and Smith 1999; Smith et al. 2011). The depositional products
of these complex processes are reflected in the rock record, and
understanding the morphodynamics of meander bends allows us to
establish that linkage.
On a larger scale, longitudinal changes in meander-belt morphology and
processes have been a recent focus (e.g., Hudson and Kesel 2000; Li et al.
2006; Nittrouer et al. 2012; Blum et al. 2013). For example, the backwater
zone of a river system is the segment over which sea level influences flow
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION
characteristics. A series of studies on deep, low-gradient rivers
demonstrated that the backwater zone can extend hundreds of kilometers
upstream from the river mouth (Li et al. 2006; Nittrouer et al. 2012; Blum
et al. 2013). Changes in meander-bend migration rate, channel-belt width/
depth ratio, and sinuosity have been observed as rivers enter and flow
through the backwater zone. However, few studies have attempted to
recognize the impact of the backwater zone in the stratigraphic record (e.g.,
Parker et al. 2008).
In an effort to address some of the shortcomings listed above, we
investigate deposits of the Cretaceous McMurray Formation in northeast-
ern Alberta, Canada. We strive to better constrain meander-belt evolution,
with particular emphasis on intra-point-bar erosion and rotation, counter-
point bar development, and channel abandonment processes. We utilize 3D
seismic data integrated with high-density well penetrations to map the
evolution of a series of geomorphic elements through paleochannel
migration analysis. To document the internal stratigraphic architecture and
lithologic characteristics of individual geomorphic elements (e.g., point
bars), a high-resolution geocellular model is created for a portion of the
study area. The robust subsurface data set featured in this study provides
planform perspectives typically associated only with satellite imagery or air
photos, which are calibrated by hundreds of cores. The remarkable data set
enables the first recognition of numerous meander-belt elements in the
rock record; the established facies models have the potential to be used for
more sophisticated interpretations of limited datasets. The objective of this
work is to reconstruct meander-belt evolution, linking widely understood
morphodynamic processes (e.g., bar translation, rotation, and abandon-
ment) to their resulting stratigraphic product. Such linkage is rarely
interpreted from ancient successions because of a lack of complete 3D
data. We also hypothesize that a record of backwater processes can be
elucidated from the ancient meander-belt record by characterizing changes
in meander-belt morphology through time.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Lower Cretaceous McMurray Formation in northeastern Alberta,
Canada (Fig. 2) records a complex nonmarine to marginal-marine
depositional history, influenced by an overall transgression of the Boreal
Sea into the Alberta foreland basin (Mossop and Flach 1983; Ranger and
Pemberton 1997; Hein and Cotterill 2006). Deposition of the formation
took place on the sub-Cretaceous unconformity, the character of which
provided a significant paleotopographic control on sediment distribution;
local accommodation enhancement resulted from dissolution of the
underlying Devonian Prairie Evaporite Formation, as well as differential
erosion across the surface (Christopher 1974; McPhee and Wightman
1991; Ranger and Pemberton 1997; Broughton 2014). The overlying
Wabiskaw Member of the Clearwater Formation is composed of marine
transgressive deposits (Fig. 2B, C).
The McMurray Formation has been subdivided into three informal
lithostratigraphic units: lower continental (fluvial, floodplain, lacustrine)
deposits, middle estuarine to fluvial point-bar-dominated deposits, and
upper marginal marine deposits (Fig. 2B; Carrigy 1959; Hein and Cotterill
2006). These units were deposited under the influence of a complex cut-
and-fill history (Mossop and Flach 1983; Ranger and Pemberton 1997;
Hein et al. 2000; Langenberg et al. 2002; Hein and Langenberg 2003; Hein
and Cotterill 2006; Fustic et al. 2012; Boyd et al. 2012; Boyd et al. 2014;
Jablonski and Dalrymple 2016), such that these lithostratigraphic units are
highly diachronous (particularly the middle and upper members). The
interval of interest for this study is the uppermost part of the middle
McMurray unit, which comprises a wide incised channel belt that trends
north-northwest (Hubbard et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012). Based on 3D
seismic data, scaling relationships, and detrital-zircon geochronology,
Musial et al. (2012), Benyon et al. (2014), and Blum and Pecha (2014)
suggest that the catchment for these fluvial sediments was potentially of
1077
continental scale, comparable to that of the modern Mississippi River (Fig.
2A). Evidence for tidal influence has been interpreted in the fluvial point-
bar-dominated deposits in the study area (e.g., Hubbard et al. 2011;
Labrecque et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012). Recent bed-scale analyses of
brackish-water trace fossils (cf. Gingras et al. 2016) and palynofloral
assemblages (Dolby et al. 2013) have been debated in the context of a
purely fluvial-depositional-setting interpretation (Blum 2017). This study
emphasizes the less contentious meander-belt architecture revealed in high-
quality lithologic and seismic data.
Study Area and Data Set
The deposits of interest are located ~ 70 km southeast of Fort
McMurray, Alberta, Canada, within a 775 km2 study area. Locally, the
McMurray Formation occurs at a depth of 350 to 500 m below the surface,
and is covered by ~ 600 km2 of high-quality 3D seismic reflection data
(Fig. 3A). The bandwidth of the data is 8 to 200 Hz, and the minimum
vertical resolution is considered to be ~ 5 m. Seismic data are augmented
by a dense grid of oil-well penetrations with a common suite of well logs
including gamma ray, resistivity, and density/neutron. Approximately 80%
of the wells have formation micro-resistivity imaging (FMI) data, and 20%
of the wells are continuously cored over the McMurray Formation interval.
Seismic stratal slices of the study area characterize a meander-belt
deposit 32 km long and up to 21 km wide (Fig. 3B). The meander-belt
deposit overlies older McMurray Formation deposits, and has been shown
to have incised into regional marine coarsening-upward packages (Fig. 4;
Ranger and Pemberton 1997; Hein and Cotterill 2006). A single, thin and
regionally extensive marine unit of the Upper McMurray Formation is
preserved above the meander-belt deposit in the study area (Fig. 4, B–B 0 ).
The top of the formation is sharply defined by a marine flooding surface at
the base of the Wabiskaw Member, which is used as a stratigraphic datum
(Fig. 2C). The meander-belt boundary is defined by the lateral truncation
of regionally correlative coarsening-upward packages (Fig. 4 B–B 0 ; Hein
and Cotterill 2006). These coarsening-upward packages are the regional, or
background stratigraphy commonly referred to as the Upper McMurray
Formation (Ranger and Pemberton 1997; Hein and Cotterill 2006). The
plan-form seismic character of the regional stratigraphy is mottled and
lacks obvious scroll patterns that are evident in the meander-belt deposits
(Fig. 3A). The western meander-belt edge is highly irregular and
apparently sculpted by sinuous-channel migration and erosion (Fig. 3B).
The eastern edge is not captured in the study area. This relationship
highlights the limitations of the traditional, lithostratigraphic subdivision of
the McMurray Formation into lower, middle, and upper. In this study, what
has been referred to as Middle McMurray meander-belt deposits, incise
into Upper McMurray coarsening-upward packages; therefore, at this
location, Middle McMurray deposits are younger than Upper McMurray
units.
Although scroll-bar topography is not observed in the subsurface data,
accretion patterns can be deduced from the lithologic contrast between
dipping lateral-accretion layers (cf. Hubbard et al. 2011). The interbedded
lithology is validated by cores, as well as gamma-ray and FMI logs (Fig.
2C). Although point-bar deposits are the most common depositional
elements, counter-point-bar, side-bar and abandoned-channel-fill (oxbow
lake) deposits are common as well (Fig. 1; Smith et al. 2009). In this study,
we refer to side bars as side-attached bars that form during meander-loop
abandonment and filling (e.g., Fig. 1). Abandoned-channel fills range from
475 to 1180 m in width, with an average width of 730 m (Fig. 3B). The
meander-belt deposit thickness ranges from 34 to 50 m, and abandoned-
channel fills are 5 to 40 m thick (Fig. 2C). FMI logs provide measurements
of dip angle and azimuth of lateral-accretion surfaces and trough cross
bedding (Fig. 5A). Trough-cross-bedded sandstones indicate an overall
northward paleoflow direction, and lateral-accretion patterns (e.g., erosion
1078 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR

FIG. 2.—A) Paleogeographic reconstruction of the Early Cretaceous Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), including the location of the ancient meander-belt
deposit of this study. B) Stratigraphic setting of the McMurray Formation in the lower Mannville Group. C) Four typical gamma-ray logs through the interval of interest.
Locations of wells are shown in Figure 3. Well A intersects a typical abandoned-channel-fill deposit ~ 25 m thick. Well B is a typical upward-fining counter-point-bar deposit
~ 45 m thick. Well C is a typical upward-fining point-bar deposit ~ 40 m thick. Well D intersects the sandstone-dominated channel deposit ~ 55 m thick. The interval imaged
in the seismic stratal slice is highlighted.
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1079

FIG. 3.—A) 3D seismic amplitude stratal slice from ~ 10 ms below the top of the McMurray Formation. The interval imaged is highlighted in Figure 2C. The meander-belt
boundary is indicated by the white line. B) A line tracing of the seismic image from Part A that highlights the channel-belt edge, accretion patterns, and abandoned-channel
boundaries. Cross-section locations for Figure 4 and focused study area are indicated. Note that the channel feature in Part A oriented north–south through Bar 2 (beneath the
well C label) is an artifact from the underlying sub-Cretaceous unconformity, thus it is not included in Part B.

at the upstream extent of bars) are consistent with this interpretation (cf.
Hubbard et al. 2011; Fustic et al. 2012; Musial et al. 2012).
METHODS
High-quality 3D seismic data are used to delineate and characterize
depositional elements in meander-belt strata (Fig. 3). FMI logs characterize
dipping surfaces, which constrain migration direction of bars and
paleocurrent trends (Fig. 5A; Fustic 2007; Brekke 2015; Brekke et al.
2017). Conventional well-log suites (gamma-ray, resistivity and density)
were utilized for lithologic characterization in boreholes where FMI data
were not available.
Fisk (1944) mapped the paleochannel evolution of the lower Mississippi
River meander belt using crosscutting relationships, accretion topography,
and known migration rates; we apply an adapted approach to the
subsurface deposits of this study (Fig. 6). We utilize relative ages (deduced
through crosscutting relationships), accretion patterns, bed orientations,
paleocurrent indicators, and abandoned-channel positions to reconstruct
the paleochannel evolution of the meander belt imaged in 3D seismic data
(Durkin et al. 2017). The series of reconstructed channel positions are
typically highly constrained by the aforementioned data; however, in some
instances alternative interpretations are plausible. The highest uncertainty
lies in the correlation between bar deposits that are neither adjacent nor
linked by bar-accretion patterns. These are typically early deposits, which
consist of small discontinuous remnants not removed or reworked by later
channel evolution. The margin of error for channel correlations between
bars is likely within one or two accretion steps (50 m–150 m). A set of
‘‘rules’’ for the reconstruction of paleochannel locations employed in this
study and for use in future studies are illustrated in Figure 6 and described
below. The methods build on general fluvial geomorphology and
sedimentology concepts (i.e., how meander-bends migrate and point bars
are deposited), and are heavily influenced by comparisons with analogous
deposits documented in the lower Mississippi River system (Fisk 1944;
Holbrook et al. 2006).
Step 1) Identify meander-belt edges (if present) and define the meander-
belt deposits to be reconstructed. Determine relative ages of elements using
crosscutting relationships.
Step 2) Determine dip direction of accretion surfaces and paleocurrent
directions for all elements. This can be done using dipmeter and/or FMI
logs, or planform analyses (e.g., bar heads tend to be truncated whereas bar
tails are more conformable).
Step 3) Locate the youngest bar or abandoned channel. In planform,
reconstruct the position of the active channel at the time of abandonment
across the area of interest. This is the final stage of evolution.
Step 4) Using accretion patterns from the youngest bars associated with
the final stage (gray), reconstruct a channel location that is two channel
widths worth of migration before the final stage. This is done by
correlating accretion patterns between adjacent bars, and working
1080 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR

FIG. 4.—Cross sections of key locations in the study area. A–A 0 is a north–south cross section through PBa and AC depositional elements. B–B 0 is an east–west cross
section across the edge of the meander belt and the PBa-to-CPB transition. C–C 0 is a northwest–southeast cross section through PBb and the associated AC depositional
element. Locations of cross sections are indicated in Figure 3. Locations of cross sections are indicated in Figure 3 and depositional elements are labeled in Figure 9.

backwards from the known channel position (i.e., abandoned channel) and
following the orientation of the accretion pattern.
Step 5) Continue working backwards in time from the final stage using a
set migration magnitude in between successive stages (e.g., two channel
widths in Step #4). The migration magnitude can be defined arbitrarily, and
should be at an appropriate scale to answer the research question for the
study. Abandoned-channel locations are high-quality ‘‘tie’’ points that the
channel must occupy at some point during the evolutionary history.
Working backwards, the uncertainty increases and there will be less
constraint on channel location (less shaded gray area). It is recommended
to consult river meander patterns from modern analog settings similar to
those being reconstructed.
Step 6) Follow normal physical processes of channel migration and honor
all crosscutting relationships, accretion patterns, and locations of
abandoned-channel fills. It is recommended to reconstruct only as far
back as the relatively oldest bar preserved (Fig. 6: Step 6). Predictive
equations (e.g., Knighton 1998) and summaries of published examples
(e.g., Gibling 2006; Blum et al. 2013) for morphometric parameters such
as meander wavelength, radius of curvature, meander-belt width, bankfull
channel width, point bar thickness, width-to-depth ratios and sinuosity, can
be consulted to assist in constraining interpretations.
A focused study area was characterized (Fig. 3B) to capture the
stratigraphic architecture of depositional elements and their relationship
with the regional stratigraphy. The meander-belt base, top, and the internal
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1081
1082
boundaries between and within depositional elements are emphasized,
providing a comprehensive 3D stratigraphic framework for the meander-
belt deposit. This framework was used as the basis for a geocellular model
of the deposits, which was constructed in the software Petrel 2014. Each
depositional element is constructed as a separate zone in the model, which
captures the 3D representation of the geobody. Each zone is then internally
layered based on bedding characteristics (e.g., dipping lateral-accretion
surfaces in point-bar deposits). The stratigraphic architectural model is
populated with lithologic properties from over 350 boreholes in the
focused study area. Specifically, vShale (Shale Volume Ratio) is modeled,
which is derived from core-calibrated gamma-ray logs and used as an
inverse proxy for lithology in this clastic system (Fig. 5B: cf. Asquith and
Krygowski 2004).
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Facies Analysis
Five main lithofacies (F1 to F5) comprise the deposits of interest (Table
1). Observations of grain size, bedding characteristics, sedimentary and
biogenic structures, etc., were made from core logging and FMI analysis
(Fig. 7), as well as corroboration with previous studies in the region (e.g.,
Labrecque et al. 2011; Hubbard et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012). Facies 1
(F1) consists mainly of massive and trough cross-stratified upper-fine- to
medium-grained sandstone (Fig. 7A). Surfaces of dipping foresets are
evident, and their dip angle and azimuth are measured from FMI logs (Fig.
7F). F1 is commonly closely associated with F2, which consists of
siltstone-clast breccia with an upper-fine- to medium-grained sandstone
matrix (Fig. 7B). Siltstone clasts are often subangular to angular and
sometimes exhibit weak imbrication. F2 is obvious in FMI logs due to the
contrast in resistivity between the bitumen-saturated sandstone matrix and
the subangular, low-resistivity siltstone clasts (Fig. 7G). Facies 3 (F3) is
composed of upper-fine-grained sandstone with siltstone interbeds, and
Facies 4 (F4) consists of siltstone with fine-grained sandstone interbeds
(Fig. 7C, D). F3 and F4 are characterized by planar dipping beds, ranging
from 2 to 158, which appear as sinusoidal traces in FMI logs (Fig. 7H, I).
Facies 5 (F5) consists primarily of siltstone, with rare fine-grained
sandstone interbeds (Fig. 7E). Horizontal to subhorizontal laminations that
are difficult to resolve in core samples are evident in FMI logs (Fig. 7J).
Biogenic structures are common to rare in F3 to F5 and absent in F1 and
F2.
The range of facies documented in the study area is consistent with a
fluvial environment, including point-bar, counter-point bar, and aban-
doned-channel deposits (Miall 2010; Leeder 2011; Ghinassi et al. 2016).
Cross-stratified sandstone of F1 was deposited by relatively high-energy,
unidirectional, transitional upper–lower-flow-regime currents, at the base
of the channel or lower point bar (Allen 1970; Labrecque et al. 2011). FMI
logs resolve cross-stratification dip, which indicate dominantly northwest-
ward (downstream) paleoflow (e.g., Fig. 5A; Hubbard et al. 2011).
Subangular to angular siltstone clast breccia (F2) is associated with
traction-dominated, upper-flow-regime bed-load transport over relatively
short distances (Smith 1972). The often deformed nature and large size of
the clasts suggests a slump origin, likely from adjacent point-bar surfaces
and channel cut-bank collapse (Flach and Mossop 1985; Sisulak and
Dashtgard 2012; Durkin et al. 2015; Brekke et al. 2017). Interbedded
FIG. 5.—A) FMI well log with a 6-pad static FMI image, interpreted surfaces represented as tadpoles, and rose diagrams every 5 m. Key surfaces and facies are
recognizable, which are vital to interpretation of paleoflow direction (trough-cross stratification) and point-bar migration (lateral accretion). This FMI log supports the
interpretation of a mid-channel bar from Figure 13, where PBa is truncated by a sandstone-dominated deposit with uniquely oriented cross stratification overlain by the thinly
laminated mudstones of the abandoned channel (AC) fill. B) A gamma-ray and vShale well log from the same well as Part A where zones of low-gamma radiation are
correlatable to high resistivity values in the FMI log. This shows the utility of the FMI logs for enhanced interpretations, specifically for facies such as breccia that appear fine-
grained on the gamma-ray log but are clearly mudstone-dominated breccia (F2; Fig. 7) deposits on the FMI log. The vShale log provides context to the facies maps of Figure
14.
P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR
sandstone and siltstone of Facies 3 and 4 records sedimentation under
fluctuating current energy, where Facies 3 is dominated by higher energy,
compared to Facies 4. The inclined nature of the bedding and the
perpendicular relationship to the dip direction of trough cross stratification
suggest a lateral-accretion origin, likely on the mid- to upper-point-bar
surface (Thomas et al. 1987; Labrecque et al. 2011; La Croix and
Dashtgard 2015). Siltstone of F5 records sedimentation from suspension in
a quiescent setting. Previous workers have attributed similar facies to
channel abandonment (Labrecque et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012). A series
of observations are suggestive of marine influence on the deposits,
including mudstone drapes, rare dinoflagellates, and an overall low-
diversity and diminutive trace-fossil assemblage (Hubbard et al. 2011;
Musial et al. 2012; Dolby et al. 2013). These observations are consistent
with an environment influenced by suppressed, or fluctuating, salinity
levels (Pemberton et al. 1982; Gingras et al. 1999; Hauck et al. 2009;
Dashtgard et al. 2010; Musial et al. 2012; Dolby et al. 2013). Previous
workers have speculated on the origin of fluvial stratigraphic architecture
overprinted with evidence for marine processes in the McMurray
Formation, considering a system with highly variable seasonal river
discharge (e.g., Hubbard et al. 2011; Jablonski and Dalrymple 2016).
Characterization of Depositional Elements
A total of seventeen individual bar deposits are identified through
seismic mapping and accretion-pattern analysis. Bar deposits are
characterized by concave, or concave-to-convex, accretion patterns, relative
to down-dip (northward) (Fig. 3B). Abandoned-channel (oxbow lake) fills
surround eight of the bar deposits, and one relatively straight channel fill
trends from south to north across the study area.
Bar deposits characterized by convex accretion patterns are the most
common depositional element, with twelve identified in the study area
(Bars 1, 3, 4, 6 to 9, 12 to 14, 16, and 17; Fig. 3B). In plan view, accretion
patterns defined by the lithologic contrast between dipping lateral-
accretion layers are curved, and oriented convex relative to downstream.
These bars are 3.5 to 9.5 km long, 2.1 to 5.0 km wide, and 34 to 50 m thick
(Figs. 3, 4; Table 2). A typical vertical succession through a convex bar
fines upward, from F1 and F2 near the base passing upward into varying
proportions of F3/F4 and locally F5 at the top (Well C; Fig. 2C).
Bar deposits with convex accretion patterns are interpreted as point-bar
deposits, typically associated with lateral accretion, and sometimes
downstream translation (Labrecque et al. 2011; Fustic et al. 2012). Many
studies of modern meander-belt floodplains have recognized similar
features and attributed their deposition to lateral channel migration (e.g.,
Fisk 1944; Hickin and Nanson 1975; Jackson 1976). Interbedded
sandstone and siltstone layers (F3, F4) represent inclined heterolithic
stratification (IHS) that dips roughly perpendicular to paleoflow trends,
supporting the lateral-accretion interpretation (Thomas et al. 1987).
Previous studies of the McMurray Formation have identified point-bar
deposits as the most common depositional element in both the subsurface
and outcrop data sets (e.g., Mossop and Flach 1983; Strobl et al. 1997;
Wightman and Pemberton 1997; Hein et al. 2000; Fustic 2007; Hubbard et
al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012; Nardin et al. 2013).
A total of five bar deposits are characterized by concave-to-convex
accretion patterns (Bars 2, 5, 10, 11, and 15; Fig. 3B). In plan view, convex
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1083

FIG. 6.—A set of ‘‘rules’’ for the reconstruction of paleochannel locations employed in this study and for use in future studies are illustrated as a series of steps, using a
hypothetical meander-belt deposit. Step 1) Identify meander-belt edges and use cross cutting relationships to determine relative ages of elements. Step 2) Determine dip and
paleocurrent directions. Step 3) Reconstruct position of channels at abandonment. Step 4) Reconstruct a channel two channel widths earlier than abandonment position.
Correlate accretion patterns between adjacent bars, working backwards from the youngest known channel position. Step 5) Continue working backwards in the manner
described in Step 4. Step 6) Continue working backwards until as far back as the relatively oldest bar preserved (Step 6: Bar 1).
1084 P.R. DURKIN ET AL.
accretion patterns transition to concave across inflection points (dashed
lines in Fig. 3B). A sharp discordant boundary separates the concave
portion of the bar deposit from older, adjacent deposits. These concave bar
deposits are less common but similar in size and thickness to purely convex
bar deposits. Vertical facies successions are unique to accretion pattern
type. The area of the bar with a convex scroll pattern is associated with a
typical upward-fining succession similar to that of convex bars (Well C;
Fig. 2C). However, the downstream, concave-scroll-pattern portion of bar
deposits is often associated with reduced proportions of F1/F3 and
increased F4 and F5, defining an overall finer-grained upward-fining
profile (Well B: Fig. 2C).
Bar deposits with convex-to-concave accretion patterns are typically
associated with downstream accretion and/or translation; the convex
portion is interpreted as a point bar and the concave portion is interpreted
as a counter-point bar (cf. Smith et al. 2009). Downstream translation of a
meander bend has been observed in modern floodplains, and the associated
deposits are characterized by convex and concave accretion patterns (Brice
1974; Hickin 1979, 1986; Lewin 1983; Nanson and Page 1983; Ghinassi et
al. 2016). In the McMurray Formation, previous studies have documented
the significant proportion of point-bar strata that dip northward (paleo-
basinward), and these trends have been attributed to down-dip translation
of meander bends (Hubbard et al. 2011; Fustic et al. 2012). Counter-point
bar (concave-bank-bench) deposits have been identified in studies of
modern meander-belt floodplains (e.g., Hickin 1979; Lewis 1983; Nanson
and Page 1983; Hickin 1986; Smith et al. 2009). Grain-size fining along
the transition from point bar to counter-point bar is characteristic in the
examples studied (e.g., Smith et al. 2009). The first example of an ancient
counter-point bar deposit was documented in the McMurray Formation,
and its characteristics are consistent with the counter-point-bar deposits of
this study (e.g., Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al. 2011).
Abandoned-channel fills are characterized by a relatively homogeneous,
moderate seismic-amplitude response that results from heterolithic to fine-
grained fill (F4–F5; Well A; Figs. 2C, 3). They occur in sharply defined
curvilinear-trending bodies with a sinuosity index of 2.3 to 3.8.
Abandoned-channel fills are 475 to 1180 m wide (average of 720 m)
and are up to 40 m thick. In cross section, abandoned-channel fills are
typically asymmetric around bend apices, and they transition to more
symmetric fills at inflection points between channel bends.
The channel elements are particularly informative since they record a
mold of the active channel present at the time of abandonment. The siltstone-
filled abandoned-channel fills are interpreted as meander-bend cut-offs that
record the filling of an oxbow lake by suspension settling of fine-grained
sediment (Nielsen 2008). Modern meander belts are typically characterized
by several abandoned-channel fills that record previous channel locations
(e.g., Fisk 1947; Piet 1992; Camporeale et al. 2008; Toonen et al. 2012).
An anomalous late-stage straight channel is unique in that it is
characterized by low sinuosity and a dominantly sandstone fill (filled in
stipple pattern; Fig. 3B). Crosscutting relationships demonstrate that this
channel is the youngest depositional element in the study area. The late-
stage straight, sandstone-filled channel is interpreted as the final channel
location of the depositional system before the deposition of an overlying
coarsening-upward package (Well D; Fig. 2C). Similar sand-dominated
channel fills have been recognized in modern delta plains, at the basinward
end of large meandering-river systems (e.g., Blum et al. 2013). Hubbard et
al., (2011) observed a similar sandstone-dominated channel fill in the
McMurray Formation, yet the origin remained enigmatic.
Paleochannel Evolution
The paleochannel evolution of the meander-belt deposits was recon-
structed from the detailed architectural-element analysis described above
(Fig. 8). Twelve stages of evolution are identified, where Stage 1 is the
oldest and Stage 12 is the youngest (Fig. 8). The magnitude of channel
JSR
migration between stages was chosen to match the intervals from similarly
scaled lower Mississippi River paleochannels mapped by Fisk (1944).
Each stage interpretation is characterized by a sinuosity value and an
active-channel-belt width (Fig. 8). Important evolution events are
documented and described herein. (1) Increasing channel sinuosity from
1.68 at Stage 1 to 2.52 at Stage 5, which results from continued lateral
migration of active bars 2, 3, and 4 (Figs. 3, 8). (2) Development of a
counter-point bar downstream of Bar 2 from Stage 2 to Stage 3, which is
coincident with the cut-off of Bar 1 (Fig. 8). (3) Neck cut-off of Bar 3 at
Stage 6, resulting in a significant decrease in sinuosity from 2.52 at Stage 5
to 1.94 at Stage 6 (Fig. 8); (4) Bars 1, 5, 10, and 11 are characterized by
some degree of reoccupation of previous bar locations, in an overall
eastward direction (Fig. 8). (5) Continued overall decrease in sinuosity
from 2.61 at Stage 10 to 1.11 at Stage 12 is caused by meander cut-offs and
a relative dominance of downstream migration in active bars (Fig. 8).
Meander-Bend Evolution
To consider the processes associated with the evolution of a single
meander bend, we selected a subset area of the data set to perform a
detailed analysis (Fig. 9). This area includes point bar a (PBa), point bar b
(PBb), counter-point bar (CPB), side bar a (SBa), side bar b (SBb), side bar
c (SBc), mid-channel bar (MCB), and abandoned channel (AC) (Figs. 8,
9). Meander-bend evolution is considered in a series of stages.
Stage 1 is characterized by a low-sinuosity (sinuosity index ¼ 1.19)
channel that flowed northward (Fig. 10C). At this stage, the meander bend
was of low amplitude and symmetrical, and the accretion pattern was
consistent with lateral migration. From Stage 1 to Stage 2, the channel
increased in sinuosity (sinuosity index ¼ 1.78) and the meander-bend
amplitude increased. Deposition of PBb was associated with expansion and
downstream translation, as evident in the rotation of the accretion pattern
and erosion at the upstream end of the bar (Fig. 10D). At this stage, the cut
bank eroded previously deposited meander-belt strata (Fig. 10D). From
Stage 2 to Stage 3, the channel increased in sinuosity (sinuosity index ¼
2.55) and the meander-bend amplitude increased while the wavelength
decreased. Lateral accretion was dominant due to bend expansion and
reduced downstream translation. Significant erosion of the upstream
portion of PBb created accommodation for downstream migration of the
preceding meander bend associated with the deposition of PBa (Fig. 10E).
At Stage 3, the meander-bend cut bank reached the paleo-meander-belt
edge and began to erode the more resistant regional deposits (Fig. 10E).
The likely increase in resistance to erosion of the cut bank promoted
downstream translation and the development of a counter-point bar
(concave bank bench) from Stage 3 to Stage 4 (Fig. 10F). Recirculation
eddies formed along the concave bank and resulted in fine-grained
sedimentation (e.g., Smith et al. 2011). As recognized in previous studies
of counter-point-bar deposits, a significant shift in facies from sandstone-
dominated to siltstone-dominated successions is recognized from upstream
to downstream, respectively (Fig. 10B; e.g., Lewin 1983; Smith et al.
2009). In plan view, the facies transition is consistent with the inflection
point between convex and concave scroll patterns (Fig. 10F). The increase
in channel sinuosity (sinuosity index ¼ 3.24) is associated with expansion
of the upstream and downstream meander bends.
In the accretion packages deposited from Stage 3 to Stage 4, a
significant discordance between accretion trajectories is evident within
PBb (Fig. 11A, B). In seismic cross section, a discordant surface truncates
previously deposited point-bar strata and is onlapped by subsequent units
(Fig. 11B). Eight such discordances between accretion packages are
identified in PBb and are associated with the changes in the accretion
direction (Fig. 11B). The discordant truncation surfaces are interpreted as
intra-point-bar erosion surfaces that reshape the point bar and result in
accretion in a different direction. Similar features have been recognized in
outcropping point-bar deposits of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, south-

Lithofacies Grain Size/Sorting
F1: Massive and cross- fL to mL; well-sorted
stratified sandstone
F2: Siltstone- clast fL to mL sand: silt clasts
breccia , 1 cm to . 30 cm
blocks; subangular to
angular
F3: Sandstone with fL to fU sand; silt to clay;
siltstone interbeds sand well sorted
F4: Siltstone with vfU to fU sand; clay to
sandstone interbeds silt; moderately to well-
sorted sand
F5: Siltstone Clay to silt
JSR
TABLE 1.—Summary of facies from the McMurray Formation in the study area.
Sedimentary Structures Biogenic Structures FMI Character Upper/Lower Contacts Process Interpretation
Trough cross-stratification; Absent High-amplitude sinusoidal Sharp, erosional base; Moderate to high-energy
planar lamination; ripple surfaces; bands of high sharp and gradational unidirectional current
cross-laminae; normal and low resistivity; upper flow; traction dominated
grading; thin siltstone dipping at 20–408
laminae
Imbrication of siltstone Absent High-resistivity sandstone, Sharp base; gradation Traction dominated;
clasts; massive sand low-resistivity siltstone upper contact, typically unidirectional current
clasts; high-amplitude from F2 to F1 flow; erosion of
erosional surfaces at previously deposited silt
base beds, short transport
distance
Planar lamination; cross Abundant Cylindrichnus Decimeter-scale alterations Gradational lower; sharp Moderate- to low-energy
stratification; ripple and Planolites, rare of high and low and gradational upper unidirectional current
cross- laminae; wavy Gyrolithes, Rosselia, resistivity; Mottled high- flow; fluctuations in
and discontinuous silt and Skolithos resistivity sandstones; discharge
laminations and beds dipping at 6–158
Ripple cross-laminae and Abundant Cylindrichnus, Centimeter-scale alterations Gradational and sharp Low-energy unidirectional
low-angle cross- Planolites, Gyrolithes of high and low current flow;
stratification in and Paleophycus, rare resistivity; dipping at 6– fluctuations in discharge
sandstone interbeds; Skolithos and 158
laminated and massive Teichichnus
RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION
siltstone
Planar lamination, rare Chondrites, Planolites, Regular thin alterations of Sharp or gradational at Low-energy deposition
discontinuous sandstone and Paleophycus high and low resistivity base; sharp upper from suspension
interlaminations; massive
silt; fissile
1085
1086 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1087

central Alberta (Durkin et al. 2015, see Fig. 11C, D). Point-bar erosion can TABLE 2.—Characteristics of meander-belt depositional elements.
result from high-energy flood events, changes in upstream or downstream
channel geometry (meander cut-offs or channel avulsions), or differential
Depositional Width Length Thickness Thickness
erodibility of the cut-bank material (Ackers and Charlton 1970; Hickin and Element (km) (km) Average (m) Range (m)
Nanson 1975; Brizga and Finlayson 1990; Jones and Harper 1998).
The Durkin et al. (2015) outcrop study lacked a planform perspective to Bar 1 4.48 2.76 44.3 43–48
confirm the presence of discordances between accretion-package scroll Bar 2 þ 5 7.05 8.51 46.3 43.48
patterns; however, examples of intra-point-bar erosion documented in this Bar 3 2.42 9.51 43.2 40–46
study of the McMurray Formation reveal the planform expression and Bar 4* 3.09 7.63 43.8 41–46
Bar 6 4.95 3.51 42.4 40–46
provide evidence for the cause of major shifts in meander-bend evolution
Bar 7* 5.26 4.65 40 38–42
(Fig. 11). Reconstruction of paleochannel history suggests that major shifts Bar 8 3.58 6.44 44.5 44–45
in accretion direction are related to significant morphologic changes Bar 9 3.14 8.61 44.2 42–47
upstream, specifically meander-bend cut-off. For example, from Stage 2 to Bar 10 3.74 9.26 44 40–48
Stage 3 of channel development, the neck cut-off of Bar 1 is coincident Bar 11 3.59 5.41 46.3 43–50
with a change in the accretion pattern of bars 2 and 3 from lateral Bar 12 2.13 5.4 40.4 35–45
expansion to downstream translation (Fig. 8). The neck cut-off of Bar 6 Bar 13* 2.45 1.23 No Data No Data
(Stage 5) also impacts the geometry of Bar 2, and occurs just before the Bar 14 4.98 8.27 43.8 39–50
Bar 15 2.6 6.31 45.7 44–48
cut-off of Bar 3 (Fig. 8). At Stage 4 the meander bend began the initial
Bar 16* 3.03 6.95 42.8 41–45
stages of channel filling and abandonment. The abandoned-channel fill is Bar 17* 6.7 4.61 47.8 46–50
characterized by a variable width and depth around the meander bend (Fig. Average 3.88 6.73 44.1 N/A
12A). At the meander-bend apex, the channel fill is ~ 25 m thick (Fig.
12B, C). Along the channel limbs, the channel is broader, shallower, and * minimum; incomplete bar remnant or extends beyond seismic data
more symmetrical. Locally, the mudstone-dominated portion of the
abandoned-channel fill is as thin as 5 m, whereas the adjacent and
genetically related point-bar deposits are up to 45 m thick (Fig. 13B). focused study area (Figs. 3, 9) and populated with lithologic properties.
Below the abandoned-channel deposit, the MCB depositional element is a The geological model is similar to geocellular models that have been
sandstone-dominated elongate bar deposit up to 20 m thick that follows the constructed and used for reservoir engineering and production simulation
trend of the abandoned channel (Fig. 9). SBa, SBb, and SBc are bar (e.g., Enge et al. 2007; Pranter et al. 2007; Su et al. 2013; Deschamps et al.
deposits adjacent to the abandoned channel fill that are characterized by 2013). The geological model covers an area of approximately 130 km2 and
sandstone-dominated to heterolithic deposits (Figs. 4A, 8). consists of 5 m by 5 m cells populated with vShale values (derived from
The abandoned-channel depositional element is interpreted as an gamma-radiation borehole logs), which are used as a proxy for lithology.
abandoned meander loop formed through chute cut-off (e.g., Toonen et 3D seismic mapping combined with detailed well-log analysis was used to
al. 2012). The example presented here is characterized by a complex delineate a series of zones that constitute the framework of the geocellular
internal stratigraphic architecture and the presence of previously model (Fig. 14A). Accretion packages are constructed as individual zones,
understated depositional elements that are related to the abandonment which allows for each zone to be layered separately so that internal
process (Fig. 13). Stage 4 was characterized by an ~ 45-m-deep active stratigraphic architecture can be represented (Pranter et al. 2007; Sech et al.
channel that migrated to the north, eroded the PBb deposit, and deposited 2009; Graham et al. 2015). Other depositional elements, including side bar,
PBa (Fig. 13C). As the meander loop became more sinuous (Stage 4B) and mid-channel bar, and the abandoned channel, are also modeled as discrete
the cut bank eroded into regional deposits to the west, the channel became zones (Fig. 14A, B). A series of facies maps show the distribution of the
broader and began to vertically aggrade at the meander-bend inflection vShale property for every 5 ms below the top McMurray Formation
point (Fig. 13D). We propose that the highly sinuous nature of the meander surface, to a depth of 30 ms (Fig. 14C, I).
bend and the erosion-resistant cut bank inhibited further lateral migration The observed lithologic trends are consistent with those observed in
and accommodation creation through cut-bank erosion (Smith et al. 2009; numerous studies of ancient and modern meander belts (Jackson 1976;
Smith et al. 2011). This resulted in deposition of side bars as the channel Jordan and Pryor 1992; Willis and Tang 2010; Labrecque et al. 2011;
limbs attempted to migrate north and then south, while the meander bend Musial et al. 2012; Nardin et al. 2013; Deschamps et al. 2013); however,
largely remained stagnant (Stage 4C, 5; Fig. 13E, F). At Stage 5b, a lack of the results from this study reveal unprecedented three-dimensional
cut-bank erosion and accommodation creation resulted in formation of a perspectives. Four main trends are observed (Fig. 14B): (1) an overall
mid-channel bar (Fig. 13G). This deposition is coincident with channel variable increase in vShale from the base of the meander belt to the top; (2)
broadening and a dual thalweg geometry around the mid-channel bar (Fig. an increase in vShale from older to younger deposits across an entire bar;
12D). Finally, chute-cut-off of the meander bend initiated fine-grained (3) an increase in vShale from upstream to downstream, and from point bar
suspension sedimentation and filling of the channel at Stage 6 (Fig. 13H). to counter-point bar; (4) an increase in vShale in individual accretion
packages in both the upstream-to-downstream direction, and from older to
Facies Mapping younger deposits (e.g., Fig. 14F, G).
The decrease in vShale from the top of the meander belt to the base is
To better characterize 3D meander-belt stratigraphic architecture and consistent with an overall upward-fining in point-bar and counter-point-bar
sediment distribution patterns, a geological model was constructed in a deposits as a result of across-channel grain-size sorting and lateral-

FIG. 7.—Core and FMI examples of lithofacies F1–F5 from Table 1. Cores are 75 cm long; sandstones are saturated with bitumen and appear black. FMI logs are 200 cm
long and 3608 around a borehole. Sinusoid picks for accretion surfaces (red), bedding (green), trough cross-stratification (blue), scour surfaces (yellow), and erosional surfaces
(black) are shown. The facies in this area have been extensively documented in previous studies (Labrecque et al. 2011; Hubbard et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012), and for
brevity we refer to their descriptions for further detail.
1088 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR

FIG. 8.—Stages of paleochannel evolution for the meander-belt deposits of the McMurray Formation. Stage 1 is the oldest, and Stage 12 is the final stage, and represents
the seismic-amplitude stratal slice from Figure 3A. Sinuosity (Sin.), active channel-belt width (CBW), and channel-belt width/thickness ratio (CBW/T) values are indicated for
each stage.

accretion processes (e.g., Allen 1970; Jackson 1976; Smith et al. 2009;
Willis and Tang 2010; Labrecque et al. 2011). The abandoned channel fill
also exhibits this same trend, where the uppermost part of the fill is
predominantly fine-grained (Figs. 7E, 14C, D), and the mid-channel-bar
and basal-channel deposits are sandstone prone (Fig. 7A, 14E, F).
The bar-scale trends of increased fine-grained deposition through time
may be explained by channel-sinuosity and flow-separation processes
(Leeder and Bridges 1975; Willis and Tang 2010). During the initial stages
of point-bar migration, the active channel is characterized by low sinuosity
(Stages 1 to 3: Fig. 8) with little to no interpreted flow separation from the
inner bank (Leeder and Bridges 1975). As sinuosity increases, channel
gradient decreases and flow separation becomes more pronounced,
resulting in fine-grained deposition in slack-water zones along the inner
bank (Leeder and Bridges 1975; Willis and Tang 2010). This pattern is
widely observed in the stratigraphic record (e.g., Thomas et al. 1987;
Pemberton and Wightman 1997; Durkin et al. 2015; Ghinassi et al. 2016).
Of note, siltstone-clast breccia may be represented by high vShale values
(e.g., Fig. 5D) depending on clast content, which may explain the presence
of high vShale values in the basal point-bar deposits of maps G and H.
Siltstone-clast-breccia deposits are associated with high energy and erosion
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION
FIG. 9.—A) 3D seismic-amplitude stratal slice of the focused study area. 3D Seismic data courtesy of ConocoPhillips Canada. B) Line tracing of Part A and depositional
elements mapped from scroll pattern and seismic analysis in the focused study area.
of previously deposited point-bar strata and/or cut banks, and are often
concentrated in the channel-base to lower-point-bar environments (e.g.,
Labrecque et al. 2011; Sisulak and Dashtgard 2012; Durkin et al. 2015;
Brekke et al. 2017).
On the accretion-package scale, a trend from sandstone-dominated (Fig.
7A) to IHS-dominated (Fig. 7C, D) deposits is evident, from older to
younger strata and in the downstream direction along elements (Fig. 14B).
Each accretion package is bounded by an intra-point bar erosion surface
that often coincides with a shift in accretion direction. High-energy events
and significant channel adjustments often result in coarse-grained
deposition directly above intra-point-bar erosion surfaces (Durkin et al.
2015). Continued migration and more modest flood events deposit
relatively fine-grained point-bar strata in the new accretion direction
(Durkin et al. 2015). The downstream increase in fine-grained deposition is
caused by flow separation from the inner bank and recirculation eddies that
promote suspension settling of fine sediment (Leeder and Bridges 1975;
Lewin 1983; Ferguson et al. 2003; Willis and Tang 2010; Smith et al.
2011). Downstream fining along a point bar has been widely described
from the rock record (e.g., Leeder and Bridges 1975; Lewin 1983; Wood
1989; Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al. 2011; Labrecque et al. 2011;
Musial et al. 2012; Deschamps et al. 2013; Ghinassi et al. 2016).
DISCUSSION
Meander-Bend Morphodynamics
At the meander-bend scale, evidence for fine- and intermediate-scale
processes is recognized and the relationship to the resulting stratigraphic
product allows enhanced paleoenvironmental interpretations. Recent
studies of modern and ancient meandering-river deposits have focused
on morphodynamic processes to account for deposits that were previously
understated (Smith et al. 2009; Smith et al. 2011; Toonen et al. 2012;
Ghinassi et al. 2013; Ielpi and Ghinassi 2014; Ghinassi and Ielpi 2015;
Durkin et al. 2015). We address the prevalence and formation of counter-
FIG. 10.—Counter-point-bar development. A) Seismic cross section and planform image of the meander-belt edge and counter-point-bar deposits. B) Stratigraphic cross
section of the meander-belt edge and incision into regional deposits and a line tracing of Part A. C–H) Stages of evolution in cross section and planform of the counter-point-
bar deposit.
1089
point-bar deposits and interpretations of intra-point-bar erosion surfaces.
Accretion patterns that are oblique to the bend apex of the surrounding
abandoned channel, such as those from the convex-to-concave bars of this
study (e.g., Fig. 3B), were dominated by meander-bend translation in the
downstream or down-dip direction (cf. Fustic et al. 2012; Ghinassi et al.
2016). Downstream translation is often controlled by lateral confinement
of the channel, which inhibits further lateral accretion and expansion.
Smith et al. (2009) proposed that confinement was a requirement for
counter-point-bar development, and the results of this study are a positive
test of this hypothesis. From the examples presented in this study, two
types of confinement are recognized: channel-belt-edge and intra-meander-
belt. Channel-belt-edge confinement results from interaction of the active
channel cut bank with older, erosion-resistant deposits of the regional
marine parasequences at the meander-belt boundary to the west (Fig. 3B).
The regional deposits inhibit further lateral migration of meander bends
and promote downstream translation along the channel-belt edge; in some
cases a counterpoint bar (concave bank bench) was deposited (e.g., Fig
10). Intra-meander-belt confinement results from interaction between the
active channel and an older, erosion-resistant meander-belt element, such
as an abandoned-channel fill or a counter-point-bar deposit (cf. Smith et al.
2009). The heterolithic or siltstone-dominated nature of the meander-belt
element acts as a resistant substrate, which inhibits further lateral
expansion of the cut bank and results in downstream translation (Ghinassi
et al. 2016). In this study, both counter-point bars and downstream-
translated point bars result from this process (e.g., Bars 11, 12; Fig. 3B).
The presence of several intra-meander-belt-confined bars may indicate the
maturity of the meander belt, where mature belts contain more abandoned-
channel oxbow-lake fills and counter-point-bar deposits that can restrict
bar expansion and induce translation (cf. Smith et al. 2009).
Intra-point-bar erosion surfaces bound lateral-accretion packages, across
which the direction of accretion has rotated (cf. Durkin et al. 2015).
Evidence for punctuated rotation is common in many modern meander
belts, but absent in others. Also, within the same meander belt it is
!
1090 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1091

FIG. 11.—A) Seismic time cross section through PBb and AC depositional elements and 3D seismic stratal slice showing the context of the cross section. B) Line trace
interpretation of Part A with an intra-point-bar erosion surface identified (red) and the vector accretion directions of accretion packages (blue). C) Outcrop photo from Durkin
et al. (2015) of point-bar deposits in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, Alberta. D) Line trace interpretation of Part C with the intra-point-bar erosion surfaces highlighted
(red).

common to observe bars that are dominated by punctuated rotation, while
others are characterized by gradual rotation or simple consistent expansion.
The results of this study do not offer an explanation for why some meander
belts or bars are characterized by intra-point-bar erosion and punctuated
rotation; however, the examples presented here are linked to changes in
upstream channel geometry, which may explain their erratic preservation.
For example, the neck cut-off of Bar 1 resulted in a shift in the accretion
direction of bars 2 and 3 (Figs. 3B, 7). Therefore, the change in gradient
and flow hydraulics associated with the upstream meander-bend cut-off
may impact the accretion direction of the adjacent downstream point bar
(e.g., Camporeale et al. 2008). Many other controls on meandering
dynamics can also result in punctuated bar rotation, which may explain the
presence or absence of erosion surfaces in other meander belts; these
controls include migration rates, meander-bend geometry (radius of
curvature), high-magnitude changes in stage or discharge, and changing
erodibility of the cut bank (Ackers and Charlton 1970; Hickin and Nanson
1975; Brizga and Finlayson 1990; Diaz-Molina 1993; Jones and Harper
1998; Durkin et al. 2015).
Meander-Belt Morphodynamics
At the meander-belt scale, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the
impact of climate, sediment supply, or tectonics on fluvial meander-belt
evolution; however, the impact of base level and resulting backwater
influences can be inferred. The backwater segment of a river is defined as
the zone over which the effects of the receiving basin influence flow (Fig.
15A; Chow 1959; Paola and Mohrig 1996; Li et al. 2006; Nittrouer et al.
2012; Blum et al. 2013). The backwater limit is defined as the upstream
point at which the channel-bed elevation is at or below sea level (Li et al.
2006; Blum et al. 2013). The backwater length (Lb) is defined as Lb ¼ HS–1,
1092 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION
where H is the bankfull channel depth and S is the channel slope (Fig. 15A:
Paola and Mohrig 1996). In the lower Mississippi River, downstream
changes in cross-sectional area of flow, water velocity, and sediment
transport are attributed to backwater effects (Nittrouer et al. 2012). These
changes are correlated to variations in meander migration rates, channel-belt
width, and sinuosity (Nittrouer et al. 2012; Blum et al. 2013).
In a process-response approach to the influence of backwater limits, we
first consider the changes in flow velocity and sediment transport
recognized along a river system. During low-flow conditions, the cross-
sectional area of flow increases downstream into the backwater zone, due
to an increase in flow depth. This leads to a downstream decrease in flow
velocity and therefore a reduction in sediment transport, and overall net
deposition (Nittrouer et al. 2012). In the lower Mississippi River, the
backwater limit is between 600 and 750 km upstream of the mouth, and the
zone of decreased sediment transport occurs between 600 and 150 km
upstream of the mouth (Fig. 15; Nittrouer et al. 2012). At high flow
conditions, the trend is reversed and the cross-sectional area of flow
decreases downstream, due to a decrease in channel width and marginal
stage increases. This results in an increase in flow velocity and sediment
transport between the mouth and 300 km upstream. Ultimately, the result is
net channel-bed aggradation over a significant segment of the backwater
zone (from 150 to 600 km upstream) and net channel-bed erosion over the
downstream 150 km (Nittrouer et al. 2012).
Zones of net aggradation and net erosion coincide with significant
morphologic changes in channel planform and kinematics (Fig. 15). For
example, on the lower Mississippi River, elevated meander-bend migration
rate correlates to where the river enters the backwater zone (800–400 km
upstream of the mouth; Fig. 15B). This segment is also characterized by a high
channel-belt width/thickness ratio (Fig. 15B). Downstream of this segment,
meander-bend migration rates and channel-belt width/thickness ratios
decrease significantly. These observations agree with theoretical models that
indicate that channel-bed deposition forces cut-bank erosion and lateral
migration (Ikeda,1989; Nelson and Smith 1989; Hasegawa 1989). Other rivers
exhibit similar morphologic changes through the backwater zone, including
the Teshio River, Japan (Ikeda 1989) and the Rhine River, Netherlands
(Fernandes et al 2016). Parker et al. (2008) also investigated the river response
to rising sea level on the Fly River in Papua New Guinea. Blum et al. (2013)
proposed that the relationship between spatially divergent sediment flux and
channel-belt morphology should be recognizable in the rock record.
Comparisons of the McMurray Formation meander-belt deposits and the
lower Mississippi River have been made previously (Musial et al. 2012;
Hubbard and Dashtgard 2015; Blum 2017). Musial et al. (2012) calculated
the mean discharge of the McMurray Formation to be approximately
15,000 m3s–1 at bankfull discharge, which they compared to the discharge
of the Mississippi River (18,000 m3s–1, SAGE database). Calculated
meander-bend migration rates from McMurray Formation point-bar
deposits are also consistent with the lower Mississippi River; 30 to 65
m/year and an average of 45.2 m/year, respectively (Hudson and Kesel
2000; Musial et al. 2012). The meander-belt width/thickness ratio of the
entire meander-belt deposit studied herein is . 400 (Table 3); similar
width/thickness ratios for the lower Mississippi River fall between 500 and
900 km upstream from the river mouth.
Implications for Interpretations of the McMurray Formation
Previous work on the meander-belt deposits of the McMurray Formation
featured in this study have recognized a marine influence on sedimentation,
due to the presence of a brackish-water trace-fossil assemblage, marine
FIG. 12.—A) Time-structure map of the base of the abandoned-channel siltstone fill. B) Seismic-time cross section of the abandoned-channel fill immediately downstream
of the bend apex. C) Line trace of Part B showing the depth of the channel fill. D) Seismic-time cross section of the abandoned channel above the mid-channel bar. E) Line
trace of Part D highlighting the dual-thalweg abandoned-channel geometry and mid-channel bar deposit.
1093
palynomorphs, and sedimentary structures attributed to tidal modulation
(Hubbard et al. 2011; Labrecque et al. 2011; Musial et al. 2012; Dolby et
al. 2013). However, many of the stratigraphic-architecture features
documented in this study are explained by fluvial processes, and
meander-belt metrics are not consistent with close proximity to a shoreline.
Recent advances in the understanding of the relationship between flow
dynamics and geomorphologic expression of meander-belt deposits along
the fluvial-to-marine transition zone from the lower Mississippi River
(Nittrouer et al. 2012; Blum et al. 2013) and the Rhine River (Fernandes et
al. 2016) inspire re-evaluation of the paleoenvironment of McMurray
Formation meander-belt deposits. Since the downstream deposits of the
depositional system in the McMurray Formation have been eradicated by
glacial processes (Hayes et al. 1994; Fenton and Nielsen 1994), analyses of
meander-belt characteristics provide a means to estimate important
paleogeographic features, including shoreline positions. It is important to
note, however, that key parameters, such as the tidal range of the Boreal
Sea at the mouth of the paleoriver, are not known, which should be kept in
mind as comparisons with the lower Mississippi River are considered.
From the paleochannel-evolution analysis of the McMurray Formation
meander-belt deposits in this study, the average sinuosity of reconstructed
channel locations is 2.08, the average active channel-belt width is 13.1 km, and
the range of channel-belt width/thickness ratios is 1071:1 to 401:1 (Fig. 8;
Table 3). Throughout the evolution, the overall channel morphology is
consistent, except for Stages 11 and 12. Stages 1to 10 are characterized by a
relatively high-sinuosity channel, with common meander bend cut-offs (i.e.,
oxbow lakes; Fig. 8). The active channel-belt width is relatively consistent
between 10.9 and 18 km, and the channel-belt width/thickness ratios are high,
between 243:1 and 401:1. However, Stages 11 and 12 are characterized by a
significant decrease in sinuosity (1.44 and 1.11; Fig. 8) and channel-belt
width/thickness (151:1 and 107:1; Fig. 8). The final channel location (Stage
12) is preserved as a nearly straight, deep (~ 55 m), sandstone-dominated
channel fill that has previously been described as enigmatic (Fig. 2C; Hubbard
et al. 2011). We propose that the change in channel morphology and final-
stage channel filling could be related to the landward migration of the paleo-
backwater zone during overall transgression of the Boreal Sea. The
transgression of the Boreal Sea, and resulting deposition of the marine
Wabiskaw Member of the Clearwater Formation, is well documented (Carrigy
1971; Keith et al. 1988; Wightman et al. 1991; Hein and Cotterill 2006).
The temporal changes in channel morphology through time are similar
in character to the present-day spatial morphologic variability of the
modern lower Mississippi River from the backwater limit to the Gulf of
Mexico. We consider that Stages 1 to 10 of McMurray Formation evolution
occurred in the upper reaches of the backwater limit where meander-bend
migration rate, sinuosity, and channel-belt width/thickness ratio is high
(Fig. 15F). This interpretation is problematic however, in that it does not
explain the presence of trace fossils attributed to saline-water intrusion into
the meander-belt deposits studied (cf. Pemberton et al. 1982; Hubbard et
al. 2011; Gingras et al. 2016). In the Mississippi River example, meander-
belt deposits comparable to those studied are hundreds of kilometers
upstream of the limit of saline water intrusion (Fig. 15B, C, F). In response
to the overall transgression of the Boreal Sea, the backwater zone migrated
landward and Stages 11 and 12 are deposited in the net channel-bed
erosion zone, where channels are more deeply incised and lateral migration
and sinuosity are inhibited (e.g., Nittrouer et al. 2012; Fig. 15G). Although
such an interpretation is supported by the observations of stratigraphic
architecture presented in this study, more regional mapping is necessary to
test this hypothesis and explain the evidence for apparent marine influence
on the fluvial depositional architecture.
1094 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR

FIG. 13.—Meander-bend abandonment. A) Seismic cross section and planform image of the abandoned-channel fill and associated depositional elements. B) Interpretation
of Part A highlighting the preserved stratigraphic architecture. C–H) Stages of abandonment in cross section and planform perspectives.
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1095

FIG. 14.—Facies maps. A) Zone model of the focused study area. B) Meander-belt elements labelled and general fining trends observed from the following vShale maps.
C– I) Series of maps through the vShale property model from the top McMurray Fm. surface C to near the base of the meander belt I.

CONCLUSIONS rotation in the subsurface, with an emphasis on the planform discordance

The linkage of morphodynamic processes to products in the rock record
is a key to enhanced stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental interpretations.
In the case of the Cretaceous McMurray Formation, a high-quality, three-
dimensional seismic volume combined with hundreds of well bores
provides one of the best-constrained meander belts in the world. A
complete reconstruction of paleochannel evolution is proposed, which has
not been previously attempted on ancient deposits. We provide a set of
‘‘rules’’ for paleochannel reconstruction employed in this study and for use
in future studies, and highlight the improved paleoenvironmental
interpretations that result from this analysis. We provide recognition
criteria for counter-point-bar development, and direct evidence that
confinement of the channel-belt-edge resulted in downstream translation.
We document one of the first examples of intra-point-bar erosion and
of accretion packages. The stratigraphic product is directly related to
morphological changes in upstream channel evolution as demonstrated
through the paleochannel reconstruction analysis. We document the
formation of side bars as a result of meander-bend limb migration, and
within-channel deposition in the form of a mid-channel bar. This mid-
channel bar formed in response to the lack of accommodation during
protracted meander-bend abandonment. The identification and interpreta-
tion of these previously understated depositional elements has significant
implications for reservoir prediction and delineation.
A total of 12 stages of channel evolution are interpreted for the
Cretaceous McMurray Formation in the study area. The mapped
paleochannel locations provide information on active-channel-belt width
and sinuosity over time. We recognize a significant decrease in channel
1096 P.R. DURKIN ET AL. JSR

FIG. 15.—Backwater-zone characteristics of a fluvial system (modified from Li et al. (2006). A) Generic fluvial profile and location of zones related to the backwater
length. B) Graph of meander-bend migration rate and channel-belt width/thickness ratio compared to normalize distance upstream represented as a percentage of the
backwater length (modified from Blum et al. 2013; Bentley et al. 2016). C) Graph of channel-belt width/channel width compared to backwater length (modified from
Fernandes et al. 2016). D) Graph of sinuosity and channel-belt width/thickness over stage (time) from the McMurray Formation (Fig. 8). E) Channel-belt width/channel width
over stage (time) for stages with an associated abandoned channel (Fig. 8). F) Fisk (1944) map of the lower Mississippi River south of Greenville, Mississippi. G) Fisk (1944)
map of the lower Mississippi River from south of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Both maps are at the same scale. Note the differences in channel-belt width and meander migration
history over the same time period. Locations of maps are noted relative to the backwater length in Part B.
JSR RECONSTRUCTION OF MEANDER-BELT EVOLUTION 1097

TABLE 3.—Statistics quantified from 3-D seismic data and paleochannel reconstruction.

Stage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Average Channel Width (m) N/A N/A 646.1 N/A 823.6 N/A 785.7 482.8 605.6 582.2 N/A 1202
Channel Belt Width (km) 10.9 13 16.5 15.6 18 12.8 16.4 10.6 11.9 12.6 6.8 5.9
Average Thickness (m) 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 55
CBW/Thickness 243:1 288:1 367:1 347:1 401:1 285:1 364:1 235:1 263:1 280:1 151:1 107:1
CBW/Channel Width N/A N/A 26:1 N/A 22:1 N/A 21:1 22:1 20:1 22:1 N/A 5:1

sinuosity and active channel-belt width/thickness ratio over the last two
stages of evolution, and posit that it is a result of the landward-migrating
paleo-backwater reach, developed in response to transgression of the
Boreal Sea into the Western Interior Seaway during the Aptian. This is, to
our best knowledge, one of the few known interpretations of a migrating
paleo-backwater zone in the stratigraphic record.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank ConocoPhillips for allowing this data to be
published. Funding for this project was provided by the University of Calgary as
well as a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
Discovery Grant to SMH. Discussions with Dale Leckie, Fran Hein, Ian Gates,
Darren Sjogren, and John Holbrook helped shape the ideas presented. This
manuscript was improved by JSR Associate Editor Janok Bhattacharya and
reviewers A. Ielpi and B. Willis, and Technical Editor John Southard, whose
efforts are greatly appreciated. We would also like to thank Schlumberger
(Petrel 2014) for software access.
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Received 3 February 2017; accepted 12 July 2017.