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Pastoral societies in the southern Balkan Peninsula: The evidence from caves
occupied during the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic era,Phenomena of Cultural
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U n i v e r s i t a s Ty r n a v i e n s i s Facultas Philosophica
ANODOS
Studies of the Ancient World
10/2010
T R N A V A 2011
ANODOS
Studies of the Ancient World
10/2010
Redakčná rada/Editors:
Prof. PhDr. Mária Novotná, DrSc., Prof. Dr. Werner Jobst, doc. PhDr. Marie Dufková, CSc., prof. PhDr. Klára Kuzmová, CSc.
Redakcia/Editorial Staff:
prof. PhDr. Klára Kuzmová, CSc.
Počítačová sadzba/Layout:
Zuzana Turzová
Publikované s finančnou podporou Ministerstva školstva SR (Projekt VEGA č. 1/0408/09) a Pro Archaeologia
Classica.
Published with financial support of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (Project VEGA No. 1/0408/09)
and the Pro Archaeologia Classica.
Žiadna časť tejto publikácie nesmie byť reprodukovaná alebo rozširovaná v žiadnej forme - elektronicky či
mechanicky, vrátane fotokópií, nahrávania alebo iným použitím informačného systému vrátane webových stránok,
bez predbežného písomného súhlasu vlastníka vydavateľských práv.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form - electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, including web pages, without the prior
written permission from the copyright owner.
ISBN 978-80-8082-500-3
ISSN 1338-5410
Obálka/Cover:
Motív „Zázračného dažďa“ zo stĺpa Marka Aurélia v Ríme. V okienku: Detail osthotechu z Keseciku, Turecko (Foto: A.
Baldiran).
Motif of the „Miracle rain“ from the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. In the window: Detail of the osthotech from Kesecik,
Turkey (Photo: A. Baldiran).
Grafické spracovanie/Graphic elaboration: Mgr. Pavol Šima-Juríček
Počítačové spracovanie/Computer elaboration: PhDr. Ivan Kuzma
Proceedings of the International Conference
PREFACE
BALDIRAN, A.
An Osthotech with Hunting Scene in Çumra – Sırçalı Höyük . ............................................................................................ 9
BARTUS, D.
Roman Figural Bronzes From Brigetio: Preliminary Notes . ............................................................................................... 17
BLAKOLMER, F.
Ethnizität und Identität in der minoisch-mykenischen Ikonographie ..........................................................................................29
BOUZEK, J.
Frontiers in Pre-Roman Thrace ................................................................................................................................................ 41
CHALUPA, A.
Mithraism in Ancient Syria: Persian Cult on the Borders of the Roman Empire.............................................................. 57
DAŞBACAK, C.
An Essay on the Heating Costs of Roman Baths ................................................................................................................... 67
DIMITROVA, Y.
Rodopi Mountain Between Thrace and Aegea Region:
Some Elements of a Border Culture of Early Iron Age in Southern Bulgaria ................................................................... 71
DOKSANALTI, E. M. - MIMIROĞLU, İ. M.
Giresun/Aretias - Kalkeritis Island . ........................................................................................................................................ 85
DUBCOVÁ, V.
Götter ohne Grenzen? Transfer der religiösen Ikonographie in der Bronzezeit
– Alter Orient und die frühe Ägäis . ...................................................................................................................................... 103
GOLUBOVIĆ, S. – MRĐIĆ, N.
Territory of Roman Viminacium - From Celtic to Slavic Tribes ........................................................................................ 117
HLAVÁČOVÁ, S.
Greek Heroes on the Borders of the Historical Periods ..................................................................................................... 127
KLONTZA-JAKLOVÁ, V.
The Meaning of Time in Late Bronze Age Europe and its Reflection in Material Culture ........................................... 133
KOVÁCS, P.
Sarmatian Campaigns During the First Tetrarchy .............................................................................................................. 143
KOVÁLIK, L.
The Gate Wall and the Doors of Greek Propyla .................................................................................................................. 155
KUČERÁKOVÁ, K.
The Upland Settlements of the Púchov Culture and Germanic Tribes Beyond the North-Pannonian
Frontier, in the Mountainous Part of Central Slovakia . ..................................................................................................... 163
LAZAR, I.
The Inhabitants of Roman Celeia - An Insight into Intercultural
Contacts and Impacts Trough Centuries .............................................................................................................................. 175
MUSILOVÁ, M.
Bratislavaer Burg - Arx Boiorum im Lichte der neuesten archäologischen Funde
Archäologische Forschung - Winterreithalle .................................................................................................................................187
NÁMEROVÁ, A.
Relations Between Greeks and Scythians in Black Sea Area .....................................................................................................207
NOVÁKOVÁ, L.
Funeral Rites and Cultural Diversity in Hellenistic Caria
Based on Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence ........................................................................................................... 213
ONDERKA, P. – DUFKOVÁ, M.
Die meroitische Stätte in Wad Ben Naga, Republik Sudan . .............................................................................................. 223
PAPOUŠEK, D.
Centrality and Cosmopolitism in the Lukan Imagination of Paul of Tarsus:
A Case of Jerusalem ................................................................................................................................................................. 247
POBEŽIN, G.
Sources and History: Crossing From Archives to Historiography and Back
The Development of Historiographical Method and Episteme
in Respect of Using Archival Sources ................................................................................................................................... 255
POPOV, H. – JOCKENHÖVEL, A.
At the Northern Borders of the Mycenaean World: Thracian Gold Mining from the Late Bronze
and the Early Iron Age at Ada Tepe in the Eastern Rhodopes .......................................................................................... 265
ŠVAŇA, K.
The influence of Roman provincial pottery manufacture
on the production of the Suebic wheel-made pottery ........................................................................................................ 283
VERČÍK, M.
Die griechischen Bewaffnung im Lichte des kulturellen Austausches ............................................................................ 321
ZIMMERMANN, Th.
Legal Aliens on Hattian Grounds? – Tracing the Presence of ‚Foreigners‘
in 3rd Millennium Central Anatolia ....................................................................................................................................... 335
Preface
The publication of ANODOS 10/2010 contains 27 articles in English and German which
were presented in the form of papers and posters at the international conference “The
Phenomena of Cultural Borders and Border Cultures Across the Passage of Time (From the
Bronze Age to Late Antiquity)” which was held in Trnava on the 22th - 24th of October 2010.
The participants consisted of scholars from eleven countries (Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia,
Slovenia, Hungary, Austria, Germany, the Czech Republic, the USA and the Slovak Republic).
Graduate and post-graduate students from Trnava participated in both the organization of the
conference and the actual programme. The conference was organized on the occasion of the
375th anniversary of Universitas Tyrnaviensis (1635-1777), the first university in the territory
of the Kingdom of Hungary, which then included the historical town of Trnava. The current
renewed Trnava University in Trnava (1992), situated in the Slovak Republic, follows the ideas
and academic identity of the original university.
At the same time, in 2010 it had been ten years since the Department of Classical Archaeo‑
logy at Trnava University had established the tradition of organizing international scientific
conferences on specific themes in chronological sequence – from the Late Bronze Age to Late
Antiquity. The idea came from Prof. Dr. Mária Novotná, the founder of the Department and of
the Classical Archaeology study programme in Slovakia. The conferences have been held every
two-three years so far (in 2000, 2003, 2005 and 2007) and they have had the following themes:
Contacts between Middle Europe and the Mediterranean, Jewellery and Costume, Arms
and Armour, and Cult and Sanctuary through the Ages. Contributions have been published
in four volumes of Anodos - Studies of the Ancient World (1/2001, 3/2003, 4-5/2004-2005 and
6-7/2006‑2007). Another conference of this kind was organized under the title “Trade and
Production through the Ages” at Selcuk University in Konya (Turkey) in 2008, in co-operation
with Selcuk University (our partner institution).
The conference in 2010 and the publication of its proceedings have been financially
supported by the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (Project VEGA No. 1/0408/09)
and by the voluntary association Pro Archaeologia Classica.
Editors
Keywords: Caves, Pastoral Use, Spatial Arrangements, Southern Balkan Peninsula, Neolithic,
Historical Periods
Abstract: The article provides data from 22 well documented limestone, usually horizontal cavities
located in the sonthern part of the Haimos Peninsula which present a “less disturbed” stratigraphy and
a diachronic occupation during the current warm period, the Holocene. The peak period of caves inhabited
by human communities is the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic, a period characterized also by hamlet expansion,
often through colonization of marginal lands. Caves that were primarily used as cult or funerary places,
oven if those activities are not simultaneous with the pastoral use, as well as small rock-shelters that can
protect up to five animals, depressions or sinkholes have been excluded. Human use of caves through time
could be evident in terms of physical geography, spatial arrangements and refuse deposits. The aim of this
contribution is to illustrate the cave pattern variability in a plurality of societies.
Introduction
Extensive geological and archaeological investigations, conducted in the past, have located
hundreds of limestone cavities. The human use of the caves has been assumed based on several
kinds of artifacts2. From the years 1980-90, emphasis is placed on the natural or the anthropogenic
formation process of the cave deposits as well as the factors influencing occupation and
abandonment of sites. All accumulated, modified, reworked materials are studied through
different scientific and comparative approaches to understand human activity3. Features such
as density of living floors, pavements of cobblestones, charcoal and ash indications, number
and types (e.g. roasting pits or ovens) of hearths, site furniture and tools, variety of faunal or
plant4 remains etc. provide assemblages that illustrate the complexity and the diversity of caves
as living sites5.
N. Andreasen, is studying the lithic material of the Piges Koromilias cave. He produced the paragraphs concerning
1
the chipped stone industry in this text. El. Belegrinou has worked fully during the excavation of the same cave
both in the field and the recording of the pottery. She quantified the pottery and contributed in this paper with
figures 7-9. K. Trantalidou was responsible for the excavations at Piges (Springs of) Ang(h)iti, and at Piges (Springs
of) Koromilias. She provided the following lines and tables. The excavation at Piges Anghiti was funded by the
Prefecture of Drama and the excavation at Piges Koromilias by the Greek Ministry of Culture. The archaeologist
E. Stavopodi (MSc) kindly read and correct the text.
Stables for livestock, community store-houses, seasonal base camps for small groups of herders, hunters, and
2
gatherers, cult places etc: Wilkens 1986, 61-237, on cave use in Attica; Bonsall and Tolan-Smith 1997.
Since the historian’s and the archaeologist’s permanent effort is to outline the image of societies that had disappeared,
3
of plants (fibers, reeds for mats and constructions, basketry etc) and for fuels and seasonality of the inhabited caves.
The detailed study of morphological and mineralogical properties of ligneous angiosperm leaf allow researchers
to document leaf-foddering, at humid places: Boschier 1996.
Galanidou 2000, 243-75.
5
295
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 1. Map of the Southern Balkans area focusing in mainland Greece and the Aegean Sea with the locations of caves used in the
analysis (Map prepared by the designer L. Boloti).
Methodology
In order to illustrate the use of caves through time (temporal dimension) as the shelter of
herders, this article provides 22 documented cavities presenting the following two features:
a “less disturbed” stratigraphy6 and a diachronic occupation during the current warm period.
Contemporary sites are also evaluated: In the southern Balkan area, the peak period of caves
inhabited by human communities is the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic7, a period characterized
6
In our opinion, indications of stratigraphy can be used with caution. The water circulation, responsible for the cave
formation itself, the inundations, the wind, the occupants, people or animals, are determinant factors for the spatial
configuration and the stratigraphy, which seems to be never very secure. Mechanical, chemical and biological factors
always transform the human remnants and the underground space. In some caves, there is evidence of large scale
displacement of the sediments.
7
Diamant and Traill 1986 on Neolithic settlements in Attica; Ζάχος 1998, he discusses mainly the inhabited caves in
the Peloponnese; Halstead 2000. The Late Neolithic sees a significant increase in the number of sites represented
and the number of plant species cultivated: Megaloudi 2006, 81, she brings insights on the archaeobotanical data.
Late Neolithic conventionally covers the period between 5400/5300 and 4700/4500 years BC. The Final Neolithic or
Chalcolithic spans between 4700/4500 and 3300/3100 BC: Andreou et al. 1996, 538. On the subject, see also: Anthony
2010, 32; Τσιρτσώνη 2010, 93-103.
For the Aegean sites the terminology adopted the last two decades is: Late Neolithic I (5300/5200-4300/4200 BC) and
Late Neolithic II (4300/4200-3300/3200 BC) subdivided in LNIa (ca 5300/5200- 4800), LNIb (4800-4300/4200), LNIIa
(4200-3800) and LNIIb (3800-3300). A transitional period to the Early Bronze Age (3500-2900 BC) is also recognized:
Sampson 2006, 144, 244-6; 2007, 473-7. In this review, especially on tables 1 to 5, the terminology adopted by excavators
has been respected.
296
Τable 1. Evidence concerning the use of space and the functions of caves in Northern Greece during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, mainly. Ceremonial caves, e.g. those dedicated to
Nymphs and Pan during the Classical-Imperial period, are not included. The thicker deposits in bold.
Piges (Springs of) Koromilias 1. recent stone hearths. 1. seasonal habitat-pen (habitat-bergerie) 5606-5379BC, Τρανταλίδου, Καρκάνας,
cave (Megalo spilaio Koromilias), 2. four clay floors & >30 post-holes on the, chronologically, for moving pastorals & their livestock, 5364-5081BC, Μπελεγρίνου &
9 km west of Kastoria, W. last floor (different structures: wooden frames and/or huts from the plain of Kastoria or the Grammos 1662-1499BC, Χατζηθεοδώρου 2007;
Macedonia, northern bank of river preserving individuals from the continuous water drops and mt to Korçë and Pogradets area crossing 1297-1408AD, Interview of Trantalidou with
Livadopotamos, altitude: 850 m, forming probably sleeping areas for up to two persons), the Livadopotamos gorge (Kastoria- 1290-1460AD, Greek & Albanian shepherds,
main & secondary small chamber one palisade- hole on the first floor, three on the second, Korytsa: 9 hours on foot); Floors and 1466-1641AD, practicing transhumance
(max. dimensions: 27x8,5m). where the excavation was restricted on a trial square 1x1-. constructions were used by different 1445-1631AD, before the 2nd WW, on
Burnt clay fragments bearing imprints of reeds. groups & for diverse purposes. 1666-1953AD. routes & herding strategies.
3. widespread lenses of ash, burnt coprolites, sherds. 2. temporary shelter.
4. layers of rough stones have been placed horizontally
disposed in circle or in more or less quatrilateral order
to produce stable dry levels underneath the floors.
5. stairs curved on the limestone outside the cave.
Piges (Springs of) Angitis, 25 km 1. two small successive terraces have been formed on 1. occasionally use by hunters or moving Final Neolithic/ Τρανταλίδου, Σκαράκη, Καρά
west of Drama, E. Macedonia, the sloping bank. pastorals. Chalcolithic, Early & Ντίνου 2007; Τρανταλίδου,
eastern bank of river Angitis, 2. four hearths, two on each flat area, made from rough 2. reusing the existing hearths by different Bronze Age (2900- Σκαράκη, Καρά 2007, with
altitude: 129 m, first chamber stones fashioned a circle. Ash & charcoal were found in or social groups is not excluded. 2210BC), 1011-935BC/ previous bibliography.
(occupation area: 100 m² ). around the hearths (cleaning of the structures) as well as 3. storage place. 1041-924BC, 974-
storage pots, vases transporting liquids and fragments of 903BC/ 999-858BC,
cooking vessels. 1516-1657AD.
Orpheas, near Alistrati, Serres, E 1. floor covering an excavated area of 16m². 1. storage place. Late Neolithic, Early Κονταξή, Γιαννόπουλοs &
Macedonia, gorge of river Angitis, 2. 12 post-holes limiting a domestic area. The excavation is 2. mortuary practices. Bronze Age I-II, (3085- Καζνέζη 2006.
where 9 other caves and smaller still in progress. 3. domestic activities. 2775BC).
cavities, most of them used for
animal pens, have been recorded.
(max dimensions: 300x30m).
Katarractes rockshelter, 2km 1. three clay floors (3 phases), 1. storage place. Chalcolithic, (3340- Πουλάκη-Παντερμαλή,
NW of Siderokastron, Serres, 2. 16 post-holes on the latest floor, four of them (d.: ~ 10 2. domestic activities. 3020BC, 3330-2920BC), Βαξεβανόπουλος, Κουλίδου
Kroussovitis stream valley, cm) are found on the axe N-S, as a kind of frame. Early Bronze Age II. & Σύρος 2006; Πέννος et al.
altitude: ~300 m., total surface: 3. fragments of burnt clay bearing imprints of reeds & 2011.
650 m². branches. The excavation is still in progress.
Cave B’, Loutra, 3,5 km NW Fire remnants, sherds. Its use was disturbed because an 5220-5050BC, 4920- Καμπούρογλου, Μπούζας &
of the village Loutraki, Aridaia, earthquake blocked its entrance. 4720BC Χατζηθεοδώρου 2008, with
central Macedonia, northern bank previous bibliography.
of Ag. Nikolaos gorge, altitude:
540 m.
Polyphimos cave, 2,5 km NW The excavation is still going on. The cave is under 1. dwelling, Neolithic, Early Bronze Παντή & Μυτελέτσης 2008,
of the village Maroneia, Thrace, development for tourist purposes (Χρηστάρας et al.) 2. pen for sheep & goats (near the Age II, Late Archac, 7th with previous bibliography;
eastern of Platanitis stream, entrance: personal observation) c. AD, 12-13th c. AD. Χρηστάρας et al. 2004,
Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
297
Τable 2. Evidence concerning the use of space and the functions of caves in Sterea Hellas and Euboea island (Central Greece) during the Neolithic & the Bronze Age. Ceremonial caves used
298
only during the historical period are not included in the sample. The thicker deposits in bold.
Tharrounia, Euboea island, C). 2. use for burials probably when the cave was not LHIII)- , geometric, classical-imperial with previous
(central part), above the 1. ash hearths occupied. period, present, although scanty. bibliography;
deep narrow gorge of the 2. LNI: several floors in close succession (intensive 3. LN: storage of food as a systematic practice (more 5294-5208BC, Kotjabopoulou &
stream Hondros, altitude: use for a short period). At trench C 12 floors were than 700 pithoi). 5217-5062BC, Trantalidou 1993.
450 m, semi mountainous uncovered. 4. LHIII, classical period: cult indications. 4776-4628BC,
site, (max. dimensions: No clear archaeological evidence about systematic 4711-4529BC,
80x40 m). The largest cave cult practice in the LN period although ritual 3675-3528BC
on the island. ceremonies (invocation for fertility and surplus) are (more regular occupation occurred
not excluded. Figurines could have had a variety during 2000 years in LN).
of uses (sort of religion, sort of sympathetic magic,
talismans etc).
5. final use of the cave is that of domestic animal
pen. Seasonal pasturage is not excluded. There is
plenty of evidence for seasonal transhumance in
recent times.
Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Τable 3. Evidence concerning the use of space and the functions of caves in Attica during the Late Neolithic period, mainly.
Caves dedicated to Nymphs and Pan are excluded. The thicker deposits in bold.
CAVE, REGION & SPATIAL PERIODS OF
USE OF THE CAVE/ FUNCTION SOURCE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ARRANGEMENTS OCCUPATION
Kitsos, eastern slope of total depth of Prehistory: it was occupied by hunters (Palaeolithic), Lambert 1981;
Mikro Ripari, 5 km east of deposits: 1,5 m; fine & herders seasonally. Neolithic MN, LN (4900- Wilkens 1986,
Laurion, altitude: 288m., Neolithic deposits. period, base of 25 humans dealing 4220BC), FN. II, 13.
(2 chambers max. dim: with husbandry and hunting (Lambert EBA, LBA,
35x12 m). 1981, 689). Mycenaean/ Classical, historical times.
Hellenistic-Imperial period: visitors,
cult practices. Recent years: the
bandit Kitsos with 6 persons dwelling.
Leontari(on), 1. successive 1. LNIb: the excavators detect rather scanty Middle Kαραλή, Μαυρίδης
Korakovouni(on), mt. hearths. social & symbolic use (presence of Neolithic, LNI, & Κορμαζοπούλου
Hymettus, altitude: 550 m, 2. five floors made figurines, limited presence of shells especially Late 2007.
(max. dimensions: 50x20 m). of debris, residues, etc) than economic (related to the Neolithic Ib
horizontal rough exploitation of the secondary animal (4800-4200BC),
stones in alternance products, transhumance patterns of EBA, Geometric
with silt. seasonal movements in the landscape period, second
3. hearth made from & climate parameters. half of 5th c.
rough stone. 2. mortuary practices. BC-Imperial
3. Classical period: possible use as times, Recent
a cult cave dedicated to Pan. occupation.
4. recent years: pen for domestic
animals.
Anonymous cave, Schistos, 1. strong inclination, 1. Personal hypothesis: from Neolithic (transition from Trantalidou,
Keratsini, altitude: 259 m division in terraces, onwards the front part of the cave, final Palaeolithic personal
(max. dimensions of the main stairs carved on the at least, was used as pen by herders to Mesolithic: observation;
chamber: 70x15 m). limestone. moving from Parnitha mountain and 10010-7829BC), Μαυρίδης &
2. successive layers the plain of Eleusis to the Mesogaia Neolithic, Κορμαζοπούλου
of open hearths. plain, during the winter, and vice- Geometric - 2009, 13-23.
The excavation has versa. Classical period. Information from
just started. 2. cult place in Classical period. local herders.
also by hamlet expansion, often through colonization of marginal lands8. That emerging picture
of caves is comparable between regions in order to understand the synchronic dimension. The
most probable scenario proposed for the simultaneous occurrence of tells, extensive sites and
the intense use of caves are: the population increase, the socio-economic organization of the
settlements such as the exploitation of both wild and cultivated plant resources (diversification,
specialization or intensification of agricultural production or simply lack of arable land due
to erosion and a much drier climate9), as well as the reliance on husbandry rather than on the
hunting activities.
In this review, caves that were primarily used as cult10 or funerary places and small rock-
shelters that can protect up to five animals11, depressions or sinkholes have been excluded.
Lower settlement density is observed in previous periods due probably to restrict population and different settlement
8
patterns. Environmental factors and recent geomorphologic changes or simply lack of adequate research should also
be taken into account. During the Early Bronze Age discontinuity and decline in the number of sites or settlement
expansion on other regions could simultaneous be observed (Andreou et al. 1996; Valamoti 2004 on aspects of
Neolithic and Early Bronze Age crop in northern Greece).
Diamant 1974, 405; Ασλάνης 1994, on Neolithic period in Macedonia; Sampson 1997, 321-56, on Neolithic in the
9
Peloponnese.
10
Faure 1964, on Cretan caves; Demoule and Perlès 1993, 405; Tomkins 2009, on Neolithic caves in the Aegean;
Κατσαρού 2006, 135 on Middle Neolithic ceramic and the use of Cyclops cave on Youra during that period; Mari
2001, 37, 181-6, on one of the most recent cave excavations: Euripides cave (two cavities with I-X rooms, at Peristeria
bay, in the southern part of Salamis island at 115 m alt.) offers both types of use. It could be a cult place during
the Late (I & II) and Final Neolithic (5300-4300 BC), since no bone tools were found and very few storage vases
plus several miniature objects, among pottery vessels, have been uncovered. It is also the area where Euripides
lived in retirement, so a place frequented during the historical period. The cave could offer accommodation up to
10 persons.
11
In recent times, small caves and rock shelters were always used to pen animals, at least in wintertime: Sampson
1997, 357-413, fig. 98 discussing the recent pastoral activities and transhumance roads in NW Peloponnese; personal
observations during surveys in different Greek landscapes.
299
Τable 4. Evidence concerning the use of space and the functions of caves in the Peloponnese during the Neolithic period, mainly. Cult caves used mainly during the historical
300
ages are not included.The thicker deposits in bold.
CAVE, REGION & PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY SPATIAL ARRANGEMENTS USE OF THE CAVE/ FUNCTION PERIODS OF OCCUPATION SOURCE
Franchthi, on the promontory of the same 1. depth of the deposits: + 11 m. EN, MN: permanent & continuous habitation (Palaeolithic), L. Mesolithic Jacobsen 1987-1993;
name, gulf of Koilada, southern part of the 2. the habitation was extended to LN: gradual decline in habitation, perhaps as (9800-9300BC, 8300- Hatzipouliou 1996, with
Argolis, alt.: 12 m, max. dimensions: 150 m Paralia (seashore) indicating permanent a result of a natural disaster as well as of the 8000BC), Neolithic: EN previous bibliography.
long, a great part of the roof has collapsed. installations. changes presaging the end of the Neolithic (6000-5000BC), Middle
Age. Neolithic (5000-4500BC),
Late Neolithic (4500-
3000BC).
Cave of Lakes, west side of Helmos 1. outside the cave foundations of 1. the cave was used only during dry periods. EN-LH (Late Bronze Age, Σάμψων 1997, 328-51.
mountain, Kastria, Kalavryta, alt.: 800m. buildings. During the LNIb the climate was warm & dry. historical periods. MN
Length of the cave: 2100 m, ancient river 2. (blank) few ash hearths/ living floors. 2. it was used mainly for storage purposes (5700-5500BC), LNIb (4600-
bed, only first hall occupied & excavated 3. abundance of pithoid vases. 3. mortuary practices during the Bronze Age 4200BC).
(ch. 1: length: 80 m). 4. Pen for animal in the 19e c. AD.
Alepotrypa, gulf of Diros in the Mani, alt.: 1. small lateral niches, as living quarters, 1. storage of goods (vases could be for Late & Final Neolithic (5300- Papathanassopoulos
16 m., 50 m from the seaside, numerous containing also vases. individual and pits for communal use). 3200BC). 1996, 80-4, 175-7;
chambers, 280 m long, in the largest 2. the floor of the niches was sometimes 2. mortuary practices. Papathanassiou 2001.
chamber a lake of fresh drinking water. paved with stones. 3. craft activities,maritime trade economy.
3. pits-silos, large & deep, lined with clay & 4. place of worship.
encircled by stones.
4. large roundish hearths ringed by stones
for communal use.
5. three small ovens.
6. niches in the sides were also chosen
for cremations & secondary burials. end of
the FN: earthquake: skeletons of unburied
dead.
7. huts outside the cave
“Kouveleiki caves, between the villages 1. “the front chamber of Cave A is 1. ”Cave A was used as a small seasonal “Kouveleiki A: 4947-3362 Karkanas 2006; ib. 2007,
of Alepochori and Geraki, overlooking the dominated by dry, almost totally burnt pen and, probably, as a place for rudimentary for the inner chamber and 778. Trantalidou, personal
Vrontamas plain, south-western part of coprolites resulting from stabling, most activities”. 4922-4360 for the outer one. observations on animal
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Parnon mt., southern Peloponnese, alt: 350m likely of sheep and/or goats”. 2. Cave B was probably used as a B: LN-FN (5300-4600, 4600- bones.
Cave A (two chambers 50m² & 150m² 2. “the dark back chamber of Cave A was complementary activity area (The findings 3900 BC)“.
divided by large fallen rocks, entrance the main habitation area, where plastered consist of utility ware (not so fine as in A’
oriented southeast) &, 50m far from the A, floors were constructed by a mixture of Kouveleiki), lithic tools of obsidian (mostly
Cave B (one chamber: 15X7X5 m.).“ burnt dung (derived from the seasonal pen) flakes), a burial in situ of a pre-adolescent and
and red clay (to be found in the plain in highly fragmented archaeozoological material
front of the cave)”. supposing marrow extraction; all those
indicate a consistent use of the cave during
the Late Neolithic period).“
Τable 5. Evidence concerning the use of space and the functions of caves on the Ionian & the Aegean Sea islands during the Neolithic & Bronze Age period, mainly. Caves in Crete, caves
used for initiation rites, others used as sanctuaries during the historical periods, e.g. Chrissospilia on Pholegandros, Ellinokamara on Kasos and others whose stratigraphy was totally
disturbed (Antiparos, Ag. Galas on Chios etc), are not included. The thicker deposits in bold.
Drakaina cave, on the SE coast 1. four whitish lime plastered floors on a surface of 1. place for communal activities such as food 5500-4800BC, 4800-3700BC, Στρατούλη 2007,
of Cephalonia (Ionian islands), 25-30 m² (LN) / 50-55 m² (FN-Chalcolithic) covering preparation, tools and ornaments making, use 3500-2350BC, 6th-first half of the with previous
Poros gorge, altitude: 70 m, sherds, tools, other artefacts and food residues. of ochre etc. The excavator detects uses for 5th c.BC, 3rd-early 2nd c. BC. bibliography;
surface occupied: 80 m², surface 2. hearths made from rough stones. ceremonial purposes. Karkanas 2007,
excavated: 55 m². 2.during the Classical era: cave dedicated to 778; Karkanas &
Nymphs (sacred place). Stratouli 2009.
Cave of Cyclops on the 1. 12 habitation strata (7 of them belonged to the 1. Mesolithic: seasonal dwelling for fishermen & “9th-7th millennium (8600- Σάμψων 2001; Ib.
desert island of Youra, north of Mesolithic period). bird-hunters. 8300BC, 7500-7420BC, 7265- 2006, 27-35, 137-9;
Alonessos, Northern Sporades, 2. huge organic residues have been covered by 2. Mesolithic: storage place, maybe, for smoked 7199BC, 6660-6530BC), Early ib. 2007, 376-403,
altitude: 150 m (max. dimensions clay floors, mainly observed at the lower levels (e.g. fish; LNIb: important concentration of storage jars. Neolithic II (6220-6124BC), 458, with previous
of the main chamber: 50x40 m). during the Upper Mesolithic period two floors & one No storage during the earlier Neolithic phases. Middle Neolithic (5703-5630BC), bibliography.
hearth have been recognized). Seven floors are 3. around 2nd-3rd century AD: sanctuary. Late Aegean Neolithic Ib (4800-
discerned in the published stratigraphy of trench-C. 4. goat penning is not excluded (pers. obs. on 4200BC), 3643-3540BC, Early &
3. several open hearths the stratigraphy & discussion with Dr. Karkanas, Late Bronze Age.
4. two basins and clay pipes constructed probably geologist). Classical (5th c. BC), Hellenistic,
after the Imperial times. 5. the deepest part of the cave has been used for imperial periods (23-312AD) .”
the collection of water.
Koumelo, SE of village 1. depth of sediments: 2,60m: 4 living floors (post- 1. earlier phase: temporary storage use. middle to the end of Late Aegean Σάμψων 1987, 66-
Archagellos, Rhodes, hole on the second floor) and several hearths. 2. Final Late Neolithic: scanty temporary human Neolithic (4500-3200BC), Late 95; Sampson 1988,
Dodecanese islands, precipitous 2. Thin layers of rain-wash ash separated the shelter. Bronze Age (briefly), Hellenistic 10-6.
location, on the east coast of Neolithic living floors, from which it appears that 3. probably 10 caves and rock shelters in the period.
Rhodes, alt: 140 m, (3 chambers, the cave was used periodically. Archagellos area have been used as pen for
ca 43x 28 m). 3. Above the Neolithic levels the cave was filled animals. The actual entrance of Koumelo do not
with a thick deposit of volcanic ash from the Santorin allow a similar supposition; we should re-examine
volcano. The tephra clearly came into the cave the burnt layers.
through the entrance and some holes of the roof
as a result of a sudden violent downpour. “
Cave of Ag. Georgios, 2 km s. of “3,5 m of “”undisturbed”” stratigraphy: two living 1. storage or preservation of the surplus (cereals end of Early Neolithic- end of Late Σάμψων 1987,21-
Kalythies, Rhodes, top of Psalidi floors has been recognised, several layers with & legumes), practicing by a small community. Aegean Neolithic (5700/ 5600- 65; Sampson 1988,
hill. ash remains mixed with small quantities of earth; 2. domestic activities like cereal procession. 3300BC).Three Neolithic phases 10-6.
seasonal habitation by herders. Near the cave 3. mortuary practices. could be distinguished. (Classical,
there are two sites with Neolithic remains inhabited, 4. temporary dwelling (one or more individuals). Hellenistic, Imperial period only
according to the excavator, by pastoral communities on the surface).
because the area was not suitable for cultivation.“
Cave of Za (Zeus), Naxos, above EBA, LN: hearths. No architectural remains in any 1. year-round habitation, even during winter, Late & Final Neolithic, Early to Zachos 1996,
the Aria valley, Cyclades, alt: period. though it may occasionally have been deserted. Late Cycladic, Archaic, Classical, with previous
Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
628 m (max. dim. of the main 2. use perhaps for cult & mortuary practices. Hellenistic periods. bibliography.
chamber: 100x50 m).
301
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 2. Map of the Southern Balkans area focusing in the territory from Thessaly to the Danube river valley. The Evros/Maritsa
and Strymon rivers, discussed in the text, are also highlighted.
Human use of caves through time could be evident in terms of physical geography12, spatial
arrangements and refuse deposits (Tables 1-5; Fig. 1). The aim of this paper is to illustrate the
cave pattern variability in a plurality of Late Neolithic - Bronze Age societies.
12
No investigation has been done on the different types of limestone and the geological period they were deposited.
The surface features of the limestone and the speleogenesis, even if they are correlated to the human use are not
taken into account. Only the internal space left is examined.
13
Chang 1999, 133-44; Wace and Thomson. 1914, ch. II.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Haliakmon, with a total length of 322 km rises in the northern Pindus Range Mountains and the Vernon- Koresteia
14
of the Middle Neolithic up to the Final Neolithic (c. 5600-5000 up to 3000 BC): Χουρμουζιάδης 2002.
The extent of the site is estimated up to 5 ha. The period of occupation seems to be of at least 1 millennium from
16
the Middle Neolithic (c. 5650- 5300) to Late Neolithic I and II (5300-4500 BC) separated into two distinct habitation
phases: Στρατούλη 2007b, 595-606; Στρατούλη and Μπεκιάρης in press.
The presence of cavities parallel to the length of the small canyons is a typical feature in the whole peninsula and
17
the islands.
Tρανταλίδου et al. 2007: The steep defile of Livadopotamos (Zelova in the 19th c.) is the axon route between the basin
18
of Kastoria and the area of western Thessaly; the successive basins of Florina and Amyntaion–Eordaia; Florina and
Pelagonia, Prespa lakes and the area of the four northwestern lakes (Malik included); Korytsa and Malik drainage
basin.
Such a way is regarded as the segment chosen by the infantry as travelers, engineers or historians involved in
19
military missions and the real war events (mainly those of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th c. AD)
allow us to understand:
1. Travelers’ account and documents: Pouqueville 1820, 85; Leak 1835, I, 5, 332; Σχοινάς 1886-7, 217-9, 239-41;
Weigand 2001/1895, 164-5 (he passes through the ravine on 1889); Admiral War Staff Intelligence Division 1916,
Route 53, 208; Naval Intelligence Division, Geographical Handbook Series, Greece III, 1947, 80-2; Armée de Terre de
France, dossier nº 20N 192, QGA, 18/04/1916 (report of Armée d’ Orient).
2. Hammond 1972, I, map 6; Hammond and Griffith, 1979; See also: Kravari, 1989, 35-8; fig. 2 with the relevant
bibliography and the comments on the Byzantine historians of 11th-13th c. AD, which referred to this line of
passage.
3. Additionally, on the same mule track, 3.5 km west of the village of Pisoderi there are remnants of a paved road
(whose width is 3.60-3.90 m and the preserved length is ca 5.50m), which could belonged to the Roman period and
of a fortified hill (Zoodohos Pigi, right bank of Livadopotamos, alt. 953 m) near the village Vatochori which could
related to the Byzantine period as many fortress of the Prespa lakes area : Schinas 1886, 248; Keramopoulos A. 1934,
94; Trantalidou 1993, 300-2.
Additionally, sherds from the Chalcolithic and the Late Bronze Age period were uncovered.
20
We choose the expression from the Naval Intelligence Division, Geographical Handbook Series, Greece III, 1947, 80-2.
22
303
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 3. Plan of Piges Koromilias cave. The locations of post-holes, the dry wall and the stalagmite column are distinguished.
Topographical work and realization: Th. Hatzitheodorou, Surveyor-engineer, Ephoreia for Palaeoanthropology and Speleology of
Southern Greece with help from Y. Tsetsekidis, surveyor in the town of Kastoria.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Makrychori)23. Resemblances could even be seen to the pottery found at Gouves rock shelter
on mount Tomarus (1.500 m alt.), in an area which is covered in snow several months a year.
The shelter could have been used only as a summer pasture for stock breeders, according to
excavators 24.
Regarding the pottery (technological achievement and shapes) there is no doubt that
large areas share a cultural Neolithic ‛koinon’, due to various interactions between the
communities25.
During the excavation, using the oral questionnaire method26, we confirm that the seasonal
movements of sheepherders and flocks until recently (1950) covered distances up to 100 km or
more, e.g. from Grammos and the eastern Pindos Mountain range to the examined cave area27,
or from Thessaly to Prespa or the Malik lake basins28. Certainly, in restricted territories small
distances were covered, e.g. on the Euboea island29.
In the eastern part of Macedonia, alike, pots and sherds encountered at Springs of Angitis,
a cave located at the southern part of Phalakron Mountain (Table 1), testified population
movements and/or exchanges during the 4th millennium. Examination of the pottery found in
the small (in terms of its size and the thickness of the deposits) seasonal, though fully excavated,
installation inside the first chamber of the cave, reveal shapes that cover a wide geographical
area (Fig. 2) from the lower Danube flow to the north (e.g. Sǎlcuţa IIc-III group, Cernavodǎ I,
Cǎsciorele, Olteniţa Renie I30), the course of the Maritsa/Evros river (e.g. Karanovo V-VI), the
Aegean Thrace (Paradimi, Strymi cave, Maroneia cave, Sitagroi, Dikili Tash, Doxat Tepe31) to the
south east, the Strymon river valley (Kolarovo32, Dimitra) to the west, as far as eastern coastal
Thessaly (e.g. Pefkakia tell) to the south33.
The results of the previous approach recall the data available on populations involved in
transhumant adaptations in the pre-World War II period (or even later), when pastoralism was
an essential part of the economy of traditional communities (Pomaks, Yürüks, Sarakatsans and
Vlachs) for hundred years. They use to move north to south and east to west in the Rhodopes
mountain range34.
Trantalidou et al. 2005 with references for each site mentioned above.
23
Douzougli 1996, 46-8; She also discusses the probably contacts of the coastal zone in Epirus (e.g. Sideri cave) and the
24
Ionian Islands. For her the communication by sea between the islands (e.g. Choirospilia cave on Leukas Island) and
the cultures of both coasts from Dalmatia to southern Greece were quite active. The same remarks were valuable
between Central Greece and the Peloponnese. For Gouves see also: Douzougli and Zachos 2002.
Those relations are to be seen in historical times also: The decorative motifs and shapes of the late Byzantine lead-
25
glazed pottery show affinities with the central Macedonian workshops (Thessaloniki, Beroia).
Data collected by K. Trantalidou.
26
The distance between the mountainous Vlach village Grammos (alt.: 1.380 m) and the cave is 80 km. A young
27
inhabitant of the village Koromilia affirmed to K. Trantalidou that his grandfather used to pen the flocks 4-5 months
during the winter in the area. Then, the animals were conducted, via the village of Nestorio, to Grammos, using the
Haliakmon valley route.
For the highland pastoral communities on Pindos see: Νισιάκος 1991, 38-42.
28
It seems that similar shapes were produced at sites as Cernavoda I, but also, IIIA2, Căscioarele, Hărşova, Olteniţa
30
-Renie I, Ulmeni-Tăuşanca, Dealul Sofia- Graeca, Sălcuţa II, III, and Cetate, all situated in the actual southern Romania
state.
Some of the sites with analogous shapes and decoration in pottery are: Dimitra (ΙΙ, mainly ΙΙΙ), Sitagroi (ΙΙΙ but
31
also ΙΙ-VB), Dikili Tas (ΙΙA), Doxat Τepe, Paradimi, Μakri (Ι, ΙΙ), Caves of Stryme and Maroneia, Κriaritsi Sykias
(Chalcidiki).
Some locations in the upper Strymon/Strumna valley which have manufacture resembling pottery are: Drenovitsa,
32
area see: Τρανταλίδου, Σκαράκη, Καρά and Ντίνου 2007; Τρανταλίδου, Σκαράκη and Καρά 2007, with bibliography
for each site mentioned above.
Cousinéry 1831; Wace and Thompson 1914, ch. III; Χατζημιχάλη 2007/1957; Efstratiou 1999, 145-58.
34
305
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 4. Stratigraphy of the central belt at the Piges Koromilias cave (Section 16-17G).
Fig. 5. Temporary use of a cave as a living site: Reconstruction Fig. 6. Koutrouzos cave at Spiliovouno, Fiskardo, Cephalonia
of a hospital in use during the Greek Civil War that followed island. Rocky cavities have been used as human and animal
the end of WWII (after the film Deep (courageous) soul, 2009, shelter. They used to pen animals until the 1970 decay (Photo:
directed by P. Voulgaris). The cave used for the necessities of K. Trantalidou).
the film is on the lakeside of Kastoria (Photo: K. Trantalidou).
However, there is still little known about land use and domestic animal management in
Balkans during the Neolithic. Both potentials, mixed farming and specialized pastoralism,
have been explored35. It is highly probable that, as elsewhere in the Mediterranean territories,
35
For some researchers the occupation of caves is related to changes in animal husbandry: Diamant 1974;
Halstead 1981, 325-7; Cherry 1988, 22-3; Johnson 1996, 267-95; Sampson 1997.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Greenfield 1986, on Danube-Morava area sites; Comşa 1999, 37-46, on Danube-Dnieper river territory sites. The data
37
from those Central Balkan sites were correlated to the intensification of milk exploitation: Chapman 1982, 107-22;
Sherratt 1983, 90-104; Greenfield 1988; 1999, 15-36.
However, investigations on harvest profiles from mandibular teeth and eruption data, combined with post-cranial
material of sheep and goats as well as bovids, resulted a minimal of evidence movement. They fitted only for
Vinča and Livade: Arnold and Greenfield 2006, 243-52. Those zoological approaches could be compatible with the
supposition that pastoral movements were interconnected with historical periods: Halstead 1990; Lewthwaite, 1981,
57-66.
Those considerations, if they proved to be right, call in questions the alternative hypotheses conforming to which
transhumance was a structural transformation of the Palaeolithic-Mesolithic hunting activity: Barker 1975, 85-104;
Geddes 1983, 51-66 (Mediterranean Pyrenees); Mlekuž 2003, 139-51. The latter suggests seasonal movements of
eastern Adriatic herders to optimize conditions for pastoral production during the Neolithic.
Greenfield 1999, 17; Halstead 1987, 77-87.
38
The recording system used was based upon a grid of 1 X 1 m squares. 110 squares were excavated, scraped
39
307
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 8. Piges Koromilias Cave. Neolithic pottery wares and finishing techniques. There are three categories of Neo-
lithic ware very fine, medium thick and coarse.
Obviously shepherds have set fire to the whole internal space43 for sanitary purposes
(protection of animals from parasites, disinfection of the cave44). The same image is to be
In Sicily the old practice of burning dung seem to take part at the end of the summer: Boschier, Vila, and Giacomarra
43
1992, 63.
We can not confuse those intense burnings with the use of fire that has been recorded in Late Neolithic - Chalcolithic
deliberated selected fully equipped dwellings (early Halaf, Gumelniţa, Vinča or Cucuteni cultures) in the east
Mediterranean areas. It is assumed that the latest, intentionally burned houses were linked with purification rituals
(e,g. after the death of important people): Popovici 2010, 99-100.
44
The idea to reduce the volume of sediments has also been discussed: Mlekuž 2009, 221. Nowadays, sheepherders
used to sell dung as soil fertilization. In Sicily, where cave dung was used as field fertilizer, only caves of easy access
have been affected: Boschier, Vila and Giacomarra 1992.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
seen at Kouveleiki A and B45 in Laconia, Leontari cave in Attica or Polyphimos cave in
Maroneia46 where burnt dung is more dispersed (Tables 4, 1). The thin white powdery
layered lenses, discerned in many caves, suggest that the process was repeated cyclically,
over a long period47.
2b. Mixed layers, by both the geological and archaeological approach. In fact, two or three
lenses had 100% sherds of historical periods. All the others had either a mixed material
or only Neolithic sherds48. Excavating deeper in the stratigraphical sequence, we realised
that the ratio of Neolithic sherds to those of the following periods was progressively:
2.9: 1 (layers 1, 2); 8.75: 1 (layer 3); 10.75: 1 (layer 8) until we get clear, pastoral Neolithic
deposits.
3. Yellow-brown water-lain sediments, cultural sterile layers, are situated mainly towards the
entrance of the cave, underneath the superficial strata.
Personal observation.
46
Boschian and Miracle 2007, 173-80 on Pupićina Cave in Istria; Calcified lenticular ash horizon, is to be seen at
47
stratum 4 (Late Neolithic), central chamber of the Konispol Cave, Pävel River: Schuldenrein 1998, fig. 7; Mlekuž
2009, 219-25 on caves in the Adriatic coast. The last researcher underlines that the couple of black and white layers
and lenses, sometimes discontinuous, compressed, are components that occur at all Mediterranean caves. These
facies indicate that the caves were frequented by domestic herbivores.
The digital record of the material has been produced by D. Bouliou, then student at the University of Athens.
48
309
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
The texture and the quality of clay resembles very much on the red argillaceous earth visible at the west entrance of
49
the gorge, the clay used for the mud bricks of the ancient houses of the near by village Koromilia and the deserted
village Gabros.
Floors have more or less similar thickness: e.g. At Skoteini cave a LN I floor is thick up to 1.2 cm and at Sarakenos
a LN II floor has a thickness of 3 cm, another one related to the Middle Helladic has a thickness estimated between
1.2 and 1.4 cm (Sampson 1993, 31; 2008, 28, 38).
50
For instance: 1. at Dispilio clay floors have a thickness of 3-7 cm. Clay was laid on perbbles or on successive layers
of pebbles and sand (Χουρμουζιάδη 2000, 121); 2. in Pieria (central Macedonia) similar clay floors with pebble
substratum have been found at Baltos; 3. in Leptokarya and at Krania A1: Ε. Πουλάκη Παντερμαλή, Ε. Κλινάκη,
Σ. Κουλίδου and Ε. Παπαδοπούλου 2007; Έ. Πουλάκη - Παντερμαλή 2007: www.olympusarchaeology.gr. In fact
quantities of domestic rubbish (at Cyclops cave on Youra there is plenty of shells and fish vertebra together with
other bones) are incorporated in between floors. It is kind of recycling former occupation debris. See also Karkanas
and Efstratiou 2009, 963.
51
Karkanas and Efstratiou 2009; Popovici 2010, 97-9.
Wooden frames maintained largely the Neolithic domestic architecture, but up to know few examples have been
52
brought in light inside the caves (Tables 1-5). Post–holes were also uncovered on the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age
deposits at the coastal cave at Himara (alt.: 3.6 m, length: 30 m): Francis et al. 2010, 16.
The diameter of the post-holes seems to be very much alike in huts in the open air and in caves. For instance,
a hut of the 6th millennium BC in Attica (Merenta) had post-holes of 0.13-0.20 m in diameter and 0.08-0.20 m in
depth (Kακαβογιάννη et al. 2009, 146). At the lakeside Dispilio several hundreds of post-holes were dug up (2088
postholes just before 2000). Their diameter deviated from 3 to 40 cm, but the commonest fluctuation was 8 to 18 cm
with a mean of 0.12cm (Χουρμουζιάδη 2000, 117). At the Piges Koromilias cave the diameter post-holes is usually
0.08 to 0.10m, though the range is 0.06 to 0.20 m.
53
It is also possible that the wooden frame of those structures created a kind of vault towards the rocky walls of the
cave.
Wooden livestock enclosures are still visible in front of rock shelters and the outer part of caves where penning
54
practices were exercised e.g. Anonymous cave at Spiliobouno, alt. 140 m, Fiskardo area on Cephalonia Island (survey
K. Trantalidou and V. Letsios, archaeologist at the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology- Speleology of S. Greece).
Dry walls were used to structure the space in the southern Aegean Islands caves. At Lardos area, on Rhodes Island, the
dry wall in front of the shelters and small caves, which were exploited for penning goats, is preserved up to a height
of 1.5 to 2 m. Sometimes the upper part of the stone wall or of the wooden framework is covered with branches
of thorny bushes. At the cave Zatas (20 x 20 m) in the ravine Phonias, Lindos area, the dry walls in the entrance
keep safe the flocks and the wooden framework inside divided the area in two compartments. Beneath the layer
of the recent herbivore coprolites there is a floor made of beaten earth (survey: K. Trantalidou and A. Athanassiou,
geologist-palaeontologist at the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of S. Greece).
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Burnt clay fragments bearing imprints of reeds (wattle-impressions) were identified. Walls
of rammed earth where branches and reeds were used as a frame could have been shaped
in order to reduce needs for heating and separating areas inside the cave.
4. The cave, towards its northern end, bears a natural division, a low rocky vault and
a stalagmite. The reminding opening has been fulfilled by the construction of a wall of
dry stones whose dimensions are: 3.10 x 0.87-0.94 m. The aperture was quite close forming
another rest area.
Obviously, the use of cave was convenient for human rest and for animal shelter.
5. Outside the cave, rocky stairs are carved on the cliff, an architectural characteristic known
from other caves also e.g. Housti on Kythera Island55 or Schistos cave on Mount Aegaleo in
Attica.
The smaller cavities, on the right of Piges Koromilias’ cave reveal floors of beaten earth and
post holes, mainly for timber doors. In conjunction with depictions traced in charcoal56 on the
NW rocks nearby and the small, single-aisled church with barrel-vaulted roof, built in a cavity
of the rock, those cavities should been used as hermitages57.
To preserve the discoveries and to prevent accidents, at Piges Koromilias trenches, clay
floors and post-holes have been stabilized with Primal diluted in water58, covered with geotextile
and then filled with the earth from the excavation in order to have a horizontal plan again.
Three wall-paintings decorated with Christian subjects are barely visible on the cliffs in between the cavities.
56
In the area of Lake Megali Prespa, the hermitage of Analipsi dates of the 14th c.
57
P. Gkioni, conservator at the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology – Speleology of Southern Greece worked together
58
layer with Neolithic and later sherds (ratio 11.6: 1) was identified by Dr. G. Kotzamani, archaeologist-archaeobotanist,
Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology – Speleology of Southern Greece.
The general resemblances of the pottery in between the two periods could not lead to any assumption about the
60
small communities they used to visit the cave. Detection and identification of molecular signatures in ceramic
vessels (an attempt to apply analytical and spectrometric techniques to archaeological material) could give more
details in the variability of organic residues absorbed within the ceramic matrix. It will be endeavored to clarify
issues related to the use of the ceramics and the processing of food resources and thus possibly the function of the
caves. Organic residues analysis can be used in a complementary way to archaeobotanical and archaeozoological
studies performed, as an alternate means of information.
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Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
The most important functional aspect of the assemblage is that it is based on blades and
blade segments that could be flexibly arranged in composite tools or used individually when
necessary. The presence of sickle gloss and blunting of several lateral edges indicates a concern
with cutting plant material, probably either domesticated cereals or plants for animal fodder.
Several separate activities are indicated by the toolkit (e.g. cutting, piercing, and scraping).
While these tasks did not necessarily take place within the cave, the tools associated with the
tasks accompanied the cave users. Although the lithics are too few to provide further detail of
how the cave was used, the dominance of material from the end stage in the knapping process
is an indication that the activities carried out at Piges Koromilias were planned in advance.
Animal bones have been recorded by D. Bouliou, mainly, V. Argiti, who have participated at the excavation and
61
never older than 2 years old when they were slaughtered during either the Neolithic or the historical periods.
Can we suppose the presence of a garment made of the fur of a bear? In the family of the carnivores, we can add the
63
presence of a mustelid, represent here by a distal fragment of an unfused humerus. Carnivore bones bear no marks,
apart a slightly burnt mandible of a dog in the upper strata. Both young dogs (a puppy in the Neolithic strata) and
adult are present.
They are: Humerus, p, d; Tibia (2); Tibia, d; and Metatarsus, all from adult hares. Leporidae family in the upper
64
strata totalize 14 fragments: 1 Thoracic vr.; 1 Lumbar vr.; 2 Ribs; 1 Humerus; 2 Innominate; 2 Femur, p; 1 Tibia, p;
1 Tibia, 2 Tibia, d; 1 Metapodium (p: proximal, d: distal part of the Element, vr: vertebra). However, we can hardly
estimate that two hares were slaughtered (a younger and an adult one). No important traces, apart a cut mark on
a tibia shaft and a proximal femur slightly burnt.
Kotzabopoulou and Trantalidou 1993.
65
Lambing season in the Aegean area, if ewes are separated from rams, could start in October, the earliest births, and
66
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Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
Fig. 12. Piges Koromilias. Economic anatomy (body part relative abundance) of the Caprinae sub-family. The total NISP (shaft
fragments are included) for the Neolithic lithostratigraphics units is 339 fragments. The total number of specimens for the over-
lying layers with sherds of Neolithic and historical periods is 667 bones. It appears that the lower front and hind limbs as well as
the extremities are poorly preserved. Ribs, the Upper Hind and the Upper Front Limb are the most frequent parts. The remains
of sheep and goats display a pattern where mainly the highly utility parts are found at the site. The ratio sheep: goat during the
LNIa period is 2.3: 1. The ratio of the same ungulates for the mixed strata is 1: 5.
Fig. 13. Sus scrofa d. body part relative abundance for Neolithic and Mixed strata. The total number of specimens is 36 and 94
for the Neolithic and mixed strata respectively. Vertebrae and extremities are depressed.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
Fig. 14. Piges Koromilias cave. Relative anatomical frequency of Bos taurus component. 39 and 91 bovid elements have been
registered for the Neolithic and the Mixed faunal assemblages respectively.
Fig. 15. Piges Koromilias. Relative Frequency of Cervus elaphus anatomical elements. The remains pose a serious impediment
for interpretation. However, we can recognize that the number of animal hunted were at least two: an individual with deciduous
teeth and a young adult.
315
Katerina Trantalidou, Eleana Belegrinou and Niels Andreasen
67
Certainly, due to the small sample of caves all conclusions are tentative. We can maybe have more arguments if
we arrive to match the strontium isotope ratios in bones and teeth to those in the specific geographic regions we
suppose flocks were moving to.
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Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula: The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Era
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