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By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao
for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard.
Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970
Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or "optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of
carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information carried
by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away.
Corning Glass developed an SMF with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium into
the fiber core. By June of 1972, multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss
of 4 dB per kilometer and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber. Prof. Kao was
awarded half of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics for "groundbreaking achievements
concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication". In April 1977,
General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live telephone traffic
through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They were soon
followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system installed in
the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-
fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit.
Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over
optical-fiber cables.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their
nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service
between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or
individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms
need secure, reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to
the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable television
companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services. The high bandwidth
provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as
high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart
highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs,
also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.
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Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems
are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images.
Other applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial
sector.
• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other
nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.
Fig. 1
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5.0 Principle of Operation - Theory
• Total Internal Reflection - The Reflection that Occurs when a Ligh Ray Travelling
in One Material Hits a Different Material and Reflects Back into the Original
Material without any Loss of Light.
Fig. 2
The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one is
bent towards the normal. But light going from a higher index to a lower one refracting away
from the normal, as shown in the figures.
A n gle of inciden ce
A n gle of
ø1 ø1 reflection
ø1 ø2
n1 n1 n1
n2 n2 n2
ø2 ø2
Fig. 3
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90o to the
normal. The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 90o is the critical angle. If
the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally reflected back
into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle of incidence and
reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.
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6.0 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE
The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner
core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive
index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the cladding is
less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive index
of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain
desired optical fibre characteristics. Most fibres have an additional coating around the
cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the
propagation of light within the fibre. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fibre.
Light injected into the fibre and striking core to cladding interface at grater than the critical
angle, reflects back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected
light will again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fibre.
Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost
over distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding
becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through fibre is governed by the indices of the
core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical fibre.
This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through the fibre axis each time,
they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fibre without passing through
the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically helical wrapping around and around the central
axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
Jacket Jacket
Cladding
Core
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7.0 Geometry of Fiber
A hair-thin fiber consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core
and the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. 5. Light rays
modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along the core
without penetrating the cladding.
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index—
a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development
of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions
of bits of data per second.
Core (µ m) Cladding (µ m)
8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140
C o re C lad d in g
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Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding
size. Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50µ m and a cladding diameter of 125µ m.
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a
sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-
uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches with
that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding.
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Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically
because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher
speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but
straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.
8.3 SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of
refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers.
Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable
television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.
(I) Wavelength.
(II) Frequency.
(III) Window.
(IV) Attenuation.
(V) Dispersion.
(VI) Bandwidth.
9.1 WAVELENGTH
It is a characterstic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the
light.
For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for
fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
9.2 FREQUENCY
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in
units of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.
9.3 WINDOW
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates.
Typical windows are given below :
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Window Operational Wavelength
9.4 ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre with lower
attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre with higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.
It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as
Light
Ray
(2) Scattering - Light Rays Travelling in the Core Reflect from small Imperfections into a
New Pathway that may be Lost through the cladding.
Light is lost
Light
Ray
Fig. 10 Scattering
(I) Macrobending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
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Fig. 11 Micro and Macro bending
9.5 BANDWIDTH
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse
of light is distinguishable by the receiver.
System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say that a system
has bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 million pulses of light per second will travel down
the fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fibre. Light injected into
the fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated. The material NA relates to
the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
NA = n12 - n22
NA is unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays will be
propagated by the fibre. These angles form a cone called the acceptance cone, which gives the
maximum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance cone is related to the NA
NA = sin ∅
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The NA of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre accepts
and propagates light. A fibre with a large NA accepts light well, a fibre with a low NA requires
highly directional light.
In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. They thus allow fewer
modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large NA promotes more modal
dispersion, since more paths for the rays are provided NA, although it can be defined for a
single mode fibre, is essentially meaningless as a practical characteristic. NA in a multimode
fibre is important to system performance and to calculate anticipated performance.
* Light Ray B : Entered Acceptance Cone - Transmitted through the Core by Total
Internal Reflection.
9.7 DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an optical
fibre as shown in figure 13. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of
a fibre. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and therefore
the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
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Fig. 13 Dispersion
A bandwidth of 400 MHz -km means that a 400 MHz-signal can be transmitted for 1
km. It means that the product of frequency and the length must be 400 or less. We can send a
lower frequency for a longer distance, i.e. 200 MHz for 2 km or 100 MHz for 4 km. Multimode
fibres are specified by the bandwidth-length product or simply bandwidth.
Single mode fibres on the other hand are specified by dispersion, expressed in
ps/km/nm. In other words for any given single mode fibre dispersion is most affected by the
source's spectral width. The wider the source spectral width, the greater the dispersion.
0.187
BW = --------------------------
So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the performance of a
single mode fibre.
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zero-dispersion region of 1300 nm and the third window is the 1550 nm region as shown in
figure 14.
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the
fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal
equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Single-fiber tight-
buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube cables
directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and passive components.
Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for
alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings.The tight-buffered
design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing
and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber.
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Fig. 15 Tight Buffer Tube Cable
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even
more than 400 fibers per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally
armored. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibers in
the system.
In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect
optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length
(relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and environmental
loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central member, which serves
as an anti-buckling element.
The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member.
The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a corrugated
steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket extruded over the
armor.
Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and
direct-buried applications.
Here are some common fiber cables types are given below:
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Fig. 16 Distribution Cable
Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture
conditions. The fibers are loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water.
Recommended for use between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements. Loose
tube cable is restricted from inside building use.
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time and cost. Figure 8 cable
can easily be separated between the fiber and the messenger. Temperature range (-55ºC to
+85ºC)
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10.2.4 Hybrid & Composite Cable
Hybrid cables offer the same great benefits as our standard indoor/outdoor cables, with
the convenience of installing multimode and single mode fibers all in one pull. Our
composite cables offer optical fiber along with solid 14 gauge wires suitable for a variety of
uses including power, grounding and other electronic controls
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial if required. This cable is
non-gel filled and can also be used in aerial applications. The armor can be removed leaving
the inner cable suitable for any indoor/outdoor use. (Temperature rating -40ºC to +85ºC)
Fibre Optic Cables (Loose Buffer Tube) have the following parts in common ;
(II) Buffer
(IV) Jacket
Temperature Stability
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Anti-Buckling
Primary Strength
Tensile Strength Aramid Yarn, Steel
Member
Abrasion Resistance
Rodent Protection
Armoring Steel Tape
Crush Resistance
Splicing Methods
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.
This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end preparation,
it is axially aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or another kind of reference
surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end, a small amount of
adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between and around the
fibre ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent.
The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing
technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.
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12.2 Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing.
This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking
various measurements.
(ii) A retainer
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical performance as
good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fibre, this type of
splice cannot have stability of loss.
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very
low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas
flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micro–positioners on the
fusion splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either manually or automatically core
aligning (in case of S.M. fibre) process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve
withdrawal of the fibres to a specified distance, preheating of the fibre ends through electric
arc and bringing together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature
fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the splicing loss
can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint should be
provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy resins
protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint.
Now–a–days, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are fixed on the
joints by the fusion tools.
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very
low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fibre for use in long haul network
brought with it fibre construction and cable design different from those of multimode fibres.
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The splicing machines imported by BSNL begins to the core profile alignment
system, the main functions of which are :
The two fibres ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in accurately
machined vee–grooves. When the optimum alignment is achieved, the fibres are fused under
the microprocessor contorl, the machine then measures the radial and angular off–sets of the
fibres and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss. The operation of the machine observes
the alignment and fusion processes on a video screens showing horizontal and vertical
projection of the fibres and then decides the quality of the splice.
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a final value
as it is only an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the splice loss measurement
is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer). The manual part of the
splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibres. For cleaning the fibres, Dichlorine Methyl or
Acetone or Alcohol is used to remove primary coating.
With the special fibre cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fibre is cut. The cut has to be so
precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 degree on a prepared fibre. If the cut is
bad, the splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for splicing. The shape of the
cut can be monitored on the video screen, some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed
below :
It is also desirable to limit the average splice loss to be less than 0.1 dB.
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OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS & THEIR FEATURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications networks
were gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years. To cope with the
demand for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the plesiochronous digital
hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the basic multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with
further stages of 8, 34 and 140 Mbit/s. In North America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5
Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of 6 and 44 Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very
different developments, gateways between one network and another were very difficult and
expensive to realize. PCM allows multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-
domain multiplexing. The analog telephone signal is sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz,
quantized and encoded and then transmitted at a bit rate of 64 kbit/s. A transmission rate of
2048 kbit/s results when 30 such coded channels are collected together into a frame along
with the necessary signaling information. This so-called primary rate is used throughout the
world. Only the USA, Canada and Japan use a primary rate of 1544 kbit/s, formed by
combining 24 channels instead of 30. The growing demand for more bandwidth meant that
more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world. A practically synchronous
(or, to give it its proper name: plesiochronous) digital hierarchy is the result. Slight
differences in timing signals mean that justification or stuffing is necessary when forming the
multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping an individual 64 kbit/s channel to or from a higher
digital hierarchy requires a considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.
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interworking; for example, between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and
Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s system. To recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140
Mbit/s PDH signal, it’s necessary to demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s
level before the location of the 64 kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires “steps”
(140-34, 34-8, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or add an individual
speech or data channel (see Figure 1).
1. Homogeneity of equipment
7. There’s no standardized definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mb/s.
8. There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized interface
equipment is required to interwork the two hierarchies.
SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a synchronous
digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and flexible telecom
infrastructure. The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous
multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.
Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and insert low-bit
rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is no longer necessary to
demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure.
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1.3 High availability and capacity matching
With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements of their
customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes. The network
provider can use standardized network elements that can be controlled and monitored from a
central location by means of a telecommunications network management (TMN) system.
1.4 Reliability
Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair mechanisms to
cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does not lead to failure of the
entire network which could be a financial disaster for the network provider. These back-up
circuits are also monitored by a management system.
Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging from POTS, ISDN and
mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to handle the
very latest services, such as video on demand and digital video broadcasting via ATM that
are gradually becoming established.
1.6 Interconnection
SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network providers
and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it possible to
combine network elements from different manufacturers into a network. The result is a
reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.
Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of network
element. The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the requirements of the
network provider.
2.1 Regenerators
Regenerators as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and
amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted
by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream. Messages are
received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service channels E1, F1) in the RSOH
(regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be output using these channels.
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Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks
Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals
can be extracted from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This
feature makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that automatic
back-up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
Digital cross-connects (DXC) This network element has the widest range of functions.
It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of
various containers up to and including VC-4.
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STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous.
Two basic types of protection architecture are distinguished in APS. One is the linear
protection mechanism used for point-to-point connections. The other basic form is the so-called
ring protection mechanism which can take on many different forms. Both mechanisms use
spare circuits or components to provide the back-up path. Switching is controlled by the
overhead bytes K1 and K2.
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most cost-effective way of linking a number of network elements. Various protection
mechanisms are available for this type of network architecture, only some of which have been
standardized in ITU-T Recommendation G.841. A basic distinction must be made between ring
structures with unidirectional and bi-directional connections.
Figure 4 shows the basic principle of APS for unidirectional rings. Let us assume that
there is an interruption in the circuit between the network elements A and B. Direction y is
unaffected by this fault. An alternative path must, however, be found for direction x.
The connection is therefore switched to the alternative path in network elements A and
B. The other network elements (C and D) switch through the back-up path. This switching
process is referred to as line switched. A simpler method is to use the so-called path switched
ring (see figure 4). Traffic is transmitted simultaneously over both the working line and the
protection line. If there is an interruption, the receiver (in this case A) switches to the protection
line and immediately takes up the connection.
Even greater protection is provided by bi-directional rings with 4 fibers. Each pair of
fibers transports working and protection channels. This results in 1:1 protection, i.e. 100 %
redundancy. This improved protection is coupled with relatively high costs.
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Figure 5: Two fiber bi-directional line-switched ring (BLSR)
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