Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Mechanical characterization of high performance concrete prepared

with recycled aggregates and silica fume from precast industry
D. Pedro a, J. de Brito a, *, L. Evangelista b
a
CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior T

ecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
b
CERIS-ICIST, University of Stavanger, Postboks 8600, 4036, Stavanger, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The growth of the precast industry has led to the emergence of waste with enormous potential for
Received 1 February 2017 recycling, given the strict quality control of these companies and the need of construction/demolition of
Received in revised form structures with increasing strength capacities. In this investigation, an analysis of the mechanical
29 June 2017
behaviour of high-performance concrete (HPC) incorporating fine and coarse recycled aggregates (FRA
Accepted 30 June 2017
Available online 3 July 2017
and CRA) was made. The recycled aggregates (RA) originated from rejected precast elements with
compressive strengths of 75 MPa and were used to replace natural aggregates (NA) in concrete mixes.
The experimental campaign also included three families of concrete with proportions of densified silica
Keywords:
Precast
fume (SF) of 0%, 5% and 10% (relative and in addition to cement). Each family comprised a reference
Recycled aggregates concrete (RC) and three recycled aggregate concretes (RAC) with replacement ratios (FRA/CRA%) of 50/50,
Silica fume 0/100 and 100/100. The results obtained in the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus
High performance concrete of elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity and bond strength tests showed that it is possible to produce high-
Mechanical performance performance concrete without NA. The silica fume led to a performance increase in the properties
analysed with the creation of a new concrete mixing method that considered the specificities of RA and
the difficulties of dispersing SF particles.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in chemical mixing and increased availability of mineral additions

Concrete is one of the most common and useful materials in the
construction industry. Its development has been associated with
attempts of optimizing its performance, which is typically achieved
by changing its characteristics. These changes, in a first stage,
resulted from the adjustment of the proportions of the materials
and, later, from the incorporation of new constituents (fly ash, silica
fume, superplasticizers, among others). In the history of the evo-
lution of concrete, the first concerns in terms of performance were
related to strength increase. Subsequently, technological advances
Acronyms: C, cement; CNA, coarse natural aggregates; CRA, coarse recycled
aggregates; FA, fly ash; FNA, fine natural aggregates; FRA, fine recycled aggregates;
HPC, high performance concrete; NA, natural aggregates; PC, precast concrete
(source concrete); RA, recycled aggregates; RAC, recycled aggregates concrete; RC,
reference concrete; SC, source concrete; SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy; SF,
silica fume; SP, superplasticizer; UPV, ultrasonic pulse velocity; w/c ratio, water/
cement ratio; w/b ratio, water/binder ratio.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: diogo.pedro@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (D. Pedro), jb@civil.ist.utl.pt
(J. de Brito), luis.m.evangelista@uis.no (L. Evangelista).
led to the development of high-performance concrete (HPC). HPC
can be seen as conventional concretes modified/optimized to meet
special requirements. Therefore, the incorporation of recycled ag-
gregates (RA) is expected to cause a decrease in their performance.
Limbachiya et al. (2000) sought to understand this phenomenon
by conducting an experimental campaign where coarse recycled
aggregates (CRA) from precast waste (PC) were incorporated in
high strength concrete. The mixes were produced without mineral
additions, using only superplasticizers (SP). The CRA were incor-
porated considering substitution ratios of 0%, 20%, 50% and 100%,
with the w/c ratio being slightly adjusted so that all the blends
reached target strengths of 50 MPa, 60 MPa and 70 MPa. The results
showed that it was possible for recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)
to achieve compressive strengths identical to those of the reference
concrete. The authors noted similar trends in flexural strength and
modulus of elasticity, registering maximum variations of 4% with
the introduction of 100% CRA. Regarding the abrasion resistance,
they also found that, for the different target strengths, RAC ach-
ieved a similar value to that of concrete with natural aggregates,
regardless of the replacement ratio used in the mix. The

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.249
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
940 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949
performance variations did not exceed 6%.
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002) studied the effects of the
incorporation of fine and coarse recycled aggregates (FRA and CRA)
from demolished concrete with medium/high strength
(35e70 MPa) on the performance of HPC. The composition of the
mixes with RA was very similar to that of those with natural ag-
gregates (NA), and only slight corrections in the amount of water to
obtain an adequate workability were made. The results showed
that the properties of the source concrete (SC) decisively condi-
tioned the mechanical properties of RAC. At 28 days, RAC incor-
porating 100% recycled aggregates of different origins showed
decreases in compressive strength and modulus of elasticity, rela-
tive to the corresponding RC, of 5e20% and 20e30%, respectively.
However, not replacing the 0e2 mm fraction improved the prop-
erties of RAC, with four of these mixes presenting better
compressive strengths than the corresponding RC mixes. The
splitting tensile strength followed an identical trend. At 28 days, the
authors observed a decrease in this property of 12e20% due to the
incorporation of 100% RA and that, when the fraction 0e2 mm was
not replaced, the performance improved.
Tu et al. (2006) also evaluated the consequences of the intro-
duction of FRA and CRA in the production of HPC. The authors
considered two groups of mixes: the DR group in which only
recycled aggregates were used and the DN group in which coarse
recycled aggregates and natural sand were used. However, no
reference concrete was produced. For each group, three w/c ratios
(0.32, 0.36 and 0.40) were considered. The mixes were designed
using a methodology developed by Hwang that has been used in
several projects in Taiwan, namely in the construction of the Taipei
101 skyscraper (Hwang et al., 1996; Hwang, 1999). This methodol-
ogy is characterized by the use of algorithms and the use of fly ash
as an extra material in the mix, not as cement replacement. At 28
days, and for 0.32, 0.36 and 0.40 w/b ratios, the DR group showed a
decrease in mechanical strength of approximately 15%, 11% and 5%,
respectively, when compared to the DN group. The authors
compared the results of these two groups with high-performance
concrete mixes produced with natural aggregates using similar
compositions (Hwang et al., 1996; Hwang, 1999), and found a
strength reduction of 20e30%. In view of these results, they sug-
gested that it was necessary to increase the design strength when
RA were used in the production of HPC.
Gonzalez and Etxeberria (2014) incorporated CRA from three
distinct SC mixes (with 40 MPa, 60 MPa and 100 MPa) in high-
performance concrete. The mixes were produced with replace-
ment ratios of 20%, 50% and 100%. The authors observed that, at 28
days, the RAC and RC exhibited similar compressive strengths
(approximately 100 MPa). The highest variations (about 10%) were
registered in the mixes produced with 50% and 100% CRA from the
40 MPa SC. This result was justified by the poor quality of mortar
adhered to these recycled aggregates. The authors concluded that
the low w/c ratios and the more adequate binding strength of RA
allowed RAC to exhibit the same behaviour as RC. The values of
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) decreased with the increase of the
substitution ratio and with the decrease of the SC quality. At 28
days, for the 20%, 50% and 100% substitution ratios, RAC with CRA
from the 100 MPa SC exhibited reductions of UPV, when compared
to RC, of about 2.5%, 2% and 9%, respectively. In the case of RAC with
CRA from the 40 MPa SC, the reductions were of 4%, 8% and 14%. In
the splitting tensile strength test RAC presented a performance
identical or even superior to that of RC. Again, the only exception
was RAC with 100% CRA from the 40 MPa SC. This mix showed a
tensile strength approximately 20% lower than that of the RC.
Finally, and considering the modulus of elasticity, the authors
observed a greater sensitivity of the mixes to the incorporation of
RAC. The worst performances were obtained for RAC that used
recycled aggregates from the lowest resistance SC. At 28 days, the
RAC with 100% CRA from the 40 MPa SC exhibited a performance
loss of about 27% when compared to RC. However, the reduction
was only 8.5% when CRA from the 100 MPa SC was used.
More recently, Gonzalez et al. (2016) evaluated the influence of
steam curing on the pore structure and on the mechanical prop-
erties of HPC produced with the same coarse recycled aggregates
from the previous investigation (SC with 40 MPa, 60 MPa and
100 MPa). However, they only considered a 100% CRA replacement
percentage. The results showed that, when compared to the
reference concrete, the use of high quality CRA (100 MPa SC) leads
to similar results in terms of pore structure and mechanical prop-
erties (compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity). On the other hand, the physical and me-
chanical properties of the HPC decreased with the reduction and
quality of the CRA, and it was found that the recycled concrete
subjected to steam curing obtained (with respect to the reference
concrete) greater porosity reductions up until 90 days.
Following the same line of research, Gonzalez and Etxeberria
(2016) tried to evaluate the effects of three types of CRA on the
shrinkage of HPC. For replacements of 20%, 50% and 100%, these
authors observed that both the plastic and drying shrinkage
increased with the decrease of CRA quality and increase of the
replacement percentage. However, they found that it was possible
to reduce the autogenous shrinkage through the use of CRA, justi-
fying this fact with the performance of these aggregates as internal
curing agents. This phenomenon also served to explain the similar
results between RAC and RC concerning the compressive strength.
Concerning the introduction of silica fume (SF), its influence on
concrete can vary significantly, depending on the manner in which
it is used. It should be noted that, in many countries, silica fume is
only marketed in the form of agglomerates of small particles
(densified dry SF) because of the ease of transport, handling and
storage. However, despite these operational advantages, the char-
acteristics of silica fume in that form can be different from those
expected, namely, they can be a much less reactive pozzolanic
material.
In the research carried out by St. John (1994) it was shown that,
even after the application of ultrasonic scattering techniques, sig-
nificant proportions of densified silica fume particles were between
10 mm and 100 mm, and that larger agglomerates (between 100 mm
and 1000 mm) still existed. The high level of agglomeration of SF
particles is reported in some research works on cementitious ma-
terials and may be the basis of the variations in efficacy of this
product (Bonen and Diamond, 1992; Lei et al., 2016; Zhang et al.,
2016). The existence of densified grains that, in comparison to the
individual particles, exhibit a larger diameter and a smaller specific
surface area, may thus lead to lower pozzolanic reactivity. Indeed,
in the research conducted by Bonen and Diamond (1992), it was
observed that the pozzolanic reaction can take place only around
the surface of the agglomerates. Nevertheless, in the literature most
works either continue to refer to unprocessed silica or do not
mention the type of SF used (Diamond and Sahu, 2006).
More recently, the effects of the incorporation of SF in concrete
with recycled aggregates have also been studied, and variations in
its efficacy still exist. For example, in the work carried out by
Gonza
lez-Fonteboa and Martínez-Abella (2008), where SF was
considered as an additional material, its presence was found to
have led to residual compressive strength increases in both RC and
RAC. In the same sense, small differences in the properties of tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity were observed. In contrast, in
the investigation developed by Corinaldesi and Moriconi (2009), in
which mixes were produced with RA only, the compressive
strength of the RAC mixes (in cubes, at 28 days), increased from
29 MPa to 42 MPa, with the use of silica.
 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949
On the other hand, in the work carried out by Çakır and Sofyanlı
(2014), SF was used as a cement substitute and the results showed
that the compressive strength, at young ages, decreased with its
presence. However, at 28 and 90 days, the situation changed, with
the mixes with SF showing greater strengths than the reference
mix (without SF). In turn, Fallah and Nematzadeh (2017) concluded
that the use of nano-silica and silica fume was responsible for
increasing the compressive strength by 14.0% and 41.1%, for
replacement percentages of 2% and 12%, respectively. Concerning
the splitting tensile strength, the use of 3% nano-silica and 10%
silica fume resulted in a performance increase of 16.1% and 28.4%,
respectively.
In this context, this work intends to promote the use of recycled
concrete aggregates as an alternative to natural aggregates and also
evaluate the use of a densified silica fume, in the production of HPC.
Hence, one of its main objectives is the creation of a more sus-
tainable high-performance concrete, minimizing the consumption
of natural resources and thus significantly decreasing the envi-
ronmental impacts. Estimates of the world’s consumption of nat-
ural aggregates for concrete production, point to values of
37.4
103 million tons in 2010 and 48
103 million tons in 2015,
showing a growing consumption of this material and, conse-
quently, the need for a solution with a lower environmental impact
(Freedonia, 2012). On the other hand, in 2012, concerning the total
production of waste in the European Union, the construction and
demolition sector contributed with 33% of this value (with 821
million tons, almost two tons per capita), followed by the extraction
industry sector (29% or 734 million tons), manufacturing industry
(11% or 270 million tons), households (8% or 213 million tons) and
energy sector (4% or 96 million tons); the remaining 15% were
wastes generated by other economic activities (Eurostat, 2016).
Therefore, an experimental campaign was developed to evaluate
the feasibility of introducing recycled aggregates from pre-existent
concrete into HPC. RA are usually associated with low-grade ap-
plications, but the investigations abovementioned show that this
type of aggregates may exhibit a greater potential. Therefore, this
research intends to contribute to increase the existing knowledge,
by evaluating the mechanical behaviour of HPC with simultaneous
incorporation of fine and coarse recycled aggregates (thus reducing
the complexity of its industrial application). It should be high-
lighted that most investigations only analyse the recycled coarse
fraction (Limbachiya et al., 2000; Gonzalez and Etxeberria, 2014,
2016; Gonzalez et al., 2016; Gonzalez and Etxeberria, 2016). How-
ever, important conclusions obtained on those works, related to the
importance of the original concrete, will be taken into account for
the maximization of the HPC potential produced with both FRA and
CRA, fully replacing their natural counterparts. Its effective imple-
mentation may, in addition to the environmental advantages
(Blengini and Garbarino, 2010), contribute to open new market
opportunities (Coelho and de Brito, 2013a, b). At the same time, the
paper tries to evaluate the effects of the introduction of a densified
silica fume on the behaviour of HPC. Considering the dispersion
difficulties of densified SF particles and the specificities of the use of
RA, a mixing process was developed by the authors, on which a
patent application was made (Pedro et al., 2016), will also be used.
2. Experimental programme
2.1. Materials
In the experimental campaign carried out the following mate-
rials were used: fine and coarse natural aggregates (FNA and CNA),
fine and coarse recycled aggregates (FRA and CRA), cement (C), fly
ash (FA), densified silica fume (SF), superplasticizer (SP) and water.
The natural aggregates came from certified commercial
941
products complying with EN 12620 (2002). Siliceous sands and
crushed limestone aggregates were used respectively, as FNA and
CNA. In turn, the recycled aggregates came from precast concrete
(PC) waste, with a mean compressive strength of 74.5 MPa. The RA
were subjected to primary and secondary crushing, which occurred
as a continuous process in a jaw crusher (primary crushing) and
then passed through a hammer mill (secondary crushing). The
crushing process occurred in a quarry, simulating the production
conditions of NA.
The aggregates (natural and recycled) were subjected to density
and water absorption tests (EN 1097-6, 2003). The shape index (EN
933-4, 2002) and the resistance of coarse aggregates to fragmen-
tation through the Los Angeles test (EN 1097-2, 2011) were also
determined. In the case of FRA, and since EN 1097-6 does not
consider the particularities of these aggregates, namely their
cohesive and binding capacity (Rodrigues et al., 2013a; Evangelista
and de Brito, 2014), it was necessary to determine their water ab-
sorption by the method defined in Rodrigues et al. (2013b).
The results presented in Table 1 show that the recycled aggre-
gates exhibited worse performances than the natural aggregates
due to the presence of adhered mortar, which is responsible for
decreasing the bulk density and increasing the absorption of the RA
(Evangelista and de Brito, 2014).
This result seems to be heightened by the use of the recycled
fine fraction. For example, FRA reached absorption values of 6.1%,
well above the 0.2e0.3% evidenced by FNA. However, recycled ag-
gregates (fine and coarse) met the requirements of the LNEC
standard E-471 (2009), for density and water absorption proper-
ties. The referred LNEC standard stipulates that the CRA (single
fraction considered) must have a density higher than 2200 kg/m3
and a water absorption lower than 7%. In the Los Angeles test, the
RA were also able to meet the requirements of the LNEC standard E-
373 (1993) for natural aggregates.
The cement, fly ash, densified silica fume and superplasticizer
used were all commercial products, complying with standards EN
197-1 (2011), EN 450-1 (2012), EN 13263-1 (2005) and EN 934
(2009), respectively. Table 2 shows that the amount of SF
retained in the 45 mm sieve (96.4%) obtained by laser diffraction
(not requested by EN 13263) is much higher than was expected
(Neville, 1981). This situation demonstrates the actual dispersion
difficulties associated with densified silica fume. On the other hand,
the specific surface values measured by the nitrogen adsorption
method (BET) remain within those usually considered, about
20 m2/g (Neville, 1981). Similar conclusions were obtained by Yajun
and Cahyadi (2003).
The authors justified the results by stating that laser diffraction
measures the size of the agglomeration while nitrogen is able to
measure the original size of the particles.
2.2. Composition of the concrete mixes
The composition of the mixes was initially defined for the
reference concretes and only afterwards adapted for the mixes with
recycled aggregates (Table 3). The determination of the aggregates’
content was made based on Faury (1958) particle size reference
curve, which was the same, in each family, for the various concrete
Table 1
Properties of the aggregates.
Physical tests FNA CNA FRA CRA
Oven-dried density (g/cm3) 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.4
Water absorption (%) 0.2 1.3 6.1 3.9
Shape index (%) e 14.5 e 13.9
Los Angeles wear (%) e 28.4 e 33.0
942 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949

Table 2
Properties of the fly ash and densified silica fume.

Parameter FA SF

Density (g/cm3) 2.3 2.0

Specific surface area (m2/g) e 20
Sieve residue, 45 mm (%) <15 96.4
SiO2 (%) 54.7 94.3
Al2O3 (%) 24.7 e
Fe2O3 (%) 5.4 0.03 Fig. 1. Diagram of the mixing process.

mixes. The natural and recycled aggregates were separated using
mechanical sieving, allowing the replacement of NA with RA to be
made in volume, sieve by sieve. The adoption of this methodology
allowed, on the one hand, the particle size distribution of the ag-
gregates (natural and recycled) to remain unknown and also, on the
other hand, the production of concrete mixes with optimized and
similar compositions. Given the fact that RA possess lower density
than NA, unsurprisingly, adjustments in the mass contents of RAC
(Table 3) were needed. The Dmax value considered was 16 mm.
In the case of the RAC mixes, the water compensation method
was also considered (Ferreira et al., 2011). In this sense, it is
important to distinguish two w/b ratios: effective w/b ratio (w/bef)
and total w/b ratio. The w/bef ratio only considers the amount of
water available for the hydration of the cement at the time of
mixing the materials. In other words, when calculating the w/bef
ratio, contrary to what happens in the assessment of the total w/b
ratio, the water that will be absorbed by the aggregates during the
concrete production process is not taken into consideration. The
ratio w/bef was also determined, to achieve slumps within the
190 ± 20 mm range. The two adaptations made were due to the
significant water absorption of RA and the increase of internal
friction of the RAC.
As for the binder, cement (CEM I 52.5R) was used at a constant
content of 550 kg/m3. Silica fume and fly ash were then introduced
as supplementary materials (relative to the mass of cement). Three
SF contents (0%, 5% and 10% SF) and a fixed amount of 10% FA were
used.
The superplasticizer, which is based on a combination of
modified polycarboxylates, was added at 2% of the mass of cement
and fly ash.
In total, the performance of 12 types of concrete mixes was
evaluated. In the recycled aggregate mixes, the following replace-
ment contents (FRA/CRA%) were considered: 50/50, 0/100 and 100/
100%. The reference concrete mixes with 0%, 5% and 10% SF and
using NA were designated: RC-SF0; RC-SF5 and RC-SF10. The RAC
mixes without SF and made with RA from PC were nominated:
C50F50C-SF0; C100C-SF0; C100F100C-SF0. For families with 5 and
10% SF, the same terminology was used.
2.3. Mixing process
The mixing process used for standard concrete appears to be
inefficient in the elimination of densified silica fume agglomerates.
This situation has been justified by the existence of high interpar-
ticle forces (Baweja et al., 2003; Diamond and Sahu, 2006). In fact,
we also found that their production process of recycled aggregate
concrete was not suitable for this type of supplementary cemen-
titious materials (Pedro et al., 2017). In summary, the procedure
that had been used by the research team consisted in initially
placing the natural and recycled aggregates with a mixing water
amount corresponding to 2/3 of the total water amount predicted
plus the extra water to be absorbed by the RA (determined prior to
mixing). After 6 min, the cement (with fly ash and silica fume) and
the remaining 1/3 of the water with the superplasticizer would be
added to the mix.
For the mixes studied in this work, and due to the problems
encountered regarding silica fume dispersion, a new production
process was adopted, considering new mixing times and different
orders of addition of the constituents into the mixer (Fig. 1).
Through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analyses, the new
procedure proved to be more effective than the previous one. The
images collected of the concrete (Fig. 2) show that the modifica-
tions made improved the quality of the cement matrix, making it
much more homogeneous.
2.4. Tests
After production, the specimens were cured in a climatic
chamber under humid conditions, following the procedures of EN
12390-2 (2009). Tests on the fresh state, namely the slump
measured with the Abrams cone and density, were performed ac-
cording to EN 12350-2 (2009) and EN 12350-6 (2009), respectively.
In the hardened state, compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity and bond
strength were determined according to the standards EN 12390-3
(2011), EN 12390-6 (2011), LNEC E-397 (1993), EN 12504-4
(2004) and RILEM 7.11.128 (1970), respectively.

Table 3
Composition of the concrete mixes tested (/m3).

Concrete mix FNA (kg) CNA (kg) FRA (kg) CRA (kg) Cement (kg) FA(kg) SF (kg) w/bef ratio SP (kg)

SF0 RC-SF0 690 889 0 0 550 55 0 0.28 12.1

C50F50C-SF0 342 440 348 453 550 55 0 0.29 12.1
C100F100C-SF0 0 0 659 829 550 55 0 0.31 12.1
C100C-SF0 683 0 0 847 550 55 0 0.29 12.1
SF5 RC-SF5 666 857 0 0 550 55 27.5 0.28 12.1
C50F50C-SF5 329 424 324 408 550 55 27.5 0.29 12.1
C100F100C-SF5 0 0 626 788 550 55 27.5 0.32 12.1
C100C-SF5 658 0 0 816 550 55 27.5 0.29 12.1
SF10 RC-SF10 633 815 0 0 550 55 55 0.29 12.1
C50F50C-SF10 313 402 308 387 550 55 55 0.30 12.1
C100F100C-SF10 0 0 601 756 550 55 55 0.32 12.1
C100C-SF10 633 0 0 784 550 55 55 0.29 12.1
 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949 943

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Comparison of the microstructure of the concrete mixes with SF: (a) old concrete mixing process; (b) new concrete mixing process.

Table 4 explained by the lower density of the RA when compared to NA.

Slump and effective w/b ratio of the concrete mixes. Similar conclusions were obtained by Pedro et al. (2014), for recy-
Concrete 0% SF 5% SF 10% SF cled aggregates with origin in concrete and in Bravo et al. (2015), for
mix aggregates with origin in several recycling plants. The increase in
Slump w/bef Slump w/bef Slump w/bef
(mm) ratio (mm) ratio (mm) ratio entrained air content and amount of voids, as a consequence of the
presence of RA, are other possible causes (Bravo et al., 2016).
RC 207 0.28 209 0.28 208 0.29
C50F50C 208 0.29 200 0.29 185 0.30 It should be noted that the observed reduction presents a linear
C100F100C 196 0.31 185 0.32 180 0.32 trend with the simultaneous introduction of FRA and CRA, with a
C100C 207 0.29 205 0.29 200 0.30 maximum variation that does not exceed 4% (Fig. 3).
In concrete mixes in which only coarse recycled aggregates (and
natural sand) are used, the maximum decreases are even lower,
3. Results and discussion presenting values between 1% and 1.1% (Table 5).
Analysing Fig. 3, it is also possible to observe a small decrease in
3.1. Fresh-state concrete properties the density with the increase in SF content. The reduction obtained
is related to the fact that the incorporation of SF (as an additional
3.1.1. Workability material in the mix) implies a reduction of the quantity of aggre-
From the results presented in Table 4, it can be perceived that gates (which have a higher density than SF). However, the varia-
the concrete mixes produced comply with the specified slump class tions observed are lower or equal to 1.5%.
(190 ± 20 mm). In Fig. 4 the theoretical and experimental density values are
However, it was necessary to increase the effective w/b ratio of compared, and it is possible to observe that the latter is higher than
RAC to reach similar values to those of the RC. This becomes more the former, with the difference reaching a maximum of about 5%.
evident for higher replacement ratios and when fine recycled ag- As the theoretical air content is not estimated, based on the
gregates are incorporated in the concrete mixes. maximum aggregate dimension, it is natural that slight deviations
The existence of ultrafine particles in the FRA may be respon- as these can be observed.
sible for the workability decrease. In fact, Quiroga and Fowler
(2004) observed this phenomenon and also had to increase the
w/b ratio to maintain a constant slump. This stems from the higher 3.2. Concrete mechanical properties
specific surface area presented by these particles, which implies the
need for a higher amount of kneading water. In the case of mixes 3.2.1. Compressive strength in cubic specimens
with 100% CRA, the small variation registered may be due to the The compressive strength tests were performed in 150 mm side
rougher surface of the coarse recycled aggregates that causes a cubic specimens, at 7, 28 and 91 days. In Table 6, the mean values
higher friction in the cementitious paste (Bravo et al., 2015). (fcm) and the variations due to the incorporation of RA (DRA) and of
Regarding the influence of the incorporation of silica fume, it is silica fume (DSF) are presented.
found that the concrete mixes with 10% SF already required an The results show that the compressive strength tends to
increment of the wef/b ratio (in relation to its 0% and 5% SF coun- decrease with the increase of recycled aggregates content.
terparts) in order to obtain the same workability. The higher water Considering the different ages, performance decreases of 1e6% and
demand may be also associated with the higher specific surface 2e8% are found, for replacement ratios (FRA/CRA%) of 50/50 and
area of silica fume particles (Holland, 2005). 100/100, respectively. It is also observed that, in the case of high-
performance concrete, the replacement of sand with FRA leads to
marginal performance decreases. The variations between the
3.1.2. Density reference mixes and the C100C mix reached a maximum of about
Table 5 presents the results of density on the fresh state and the 6%, which is not too far from those observed for C100F100C mixes.
variations due to the incorporation of RA (DRA) and those associated The worst performance of RAC concerns the fraction of mortar
with the introduction of silica fume (DSF). that exists in the RA. The presence of this mortar leads to a more
They show a reduction of the density with the increase of porous material and leads to mixes with higher effective w/c ratios
incorporation of recycled aggregates, a phenomenon that can be (Poon et al., 2004; Zong et al., 2014). The latter effect may be
944 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949

Table 5
Fresh-state density of the concrete mixes.

Concrete mix 0% SF 5% SF 10% SF

Density (kg/m3) DRA (%) DSF (%) Density (kg/m3) DRA (%) DSF (%) Density (kg/m3) DRA (%) DSF (%)
RC 2384.6 0.0 0.0 2373.3 0.0 0.5 2350.9 0.0 1.4
C50F50C 2340.2 1.9 0.0 2326.8 2.0 0.6 2311.6 1.7 1.2
C100F100C 2297.7 3.6 0.0 2287.0 3.6 0.5 2274.9 3.2 1.0
C100C 2359.8 1.0 0.0 2348.0 1.1 0.5 2324.1 1.1 1.5

coarse recycled aggregates (of medium/high quality) led to strength

Fig. 3. Fresh-state density for RA concretes versus aggregates’ replacement ratio.
mitigated by the use of high-performance recycled aggregates,
thereby limiting strength decreases. According to Poon et al.
(2004), increasing the quality of RA leads to a stronger bond in
the interfacial transition zones. Gonzalez and Etxeberria (2014) also
observed that the strength of the source concrete (SC) mix is an
important factor. For instance, the use of 100% CRA from a 40 MPa
SC originates a decrease of about 10% in strength, whereas the
decreases associated with aggregates from the 60 MPa SC were
irrelevant.
The trends found in this investigation are also in agreement
with the studies made by Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002) and
Tu et al. (2006). In the first case, the incorporation of 100% fine and
decreases between 5% and 20%. In turn, Tu et al. (2006), who
compared the performance between concrete mixes produced with
recycled aggregates only and mixes using RCA and natural sand,
obtained strength variations in the order of 5e15%.
Concerning the influence of densified silica fume, it is found that
its incorporation (as additional material in the concrete mix) is
responsible for increasing the performance of concrete. This seems
to take place from early age (Fig. 5).
At 7 days, both the RC and the RAC with silica fume show
strength increases of 9e13% in relation to non-SF concrete. For
subsequent ages (28 and 91 days), the beneficial effect of SF par-
ticles remains, although variations due to their presence appear to
decrease (3e7%). The efficiency of SF particles at early ages is
related to the fact that it coincides with the period of higher
development of their pozzolanic reactions (Mazloom et al., 2004;
Holland, 2005). Also during this period, the physical refinement
effect of the mix plays an important role (Holland, 2005).
In this way, the advantages obtained by the addition of SF can be
explained by two distinct reasons (Aïtcin, 2003): filler effect and
pozzolanic effect. The pozzolanic effect is related to the high
reactivity of silica fume which is capable of reacting with calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). On
the other hand, the filler effect is related to the fineness of SF par-
ticles that can occupy the voids that occur between particles,
resulting in an increase in the compactness and cohesion of the
mix.
The mixing process used seems to have attenuated the disper-
sion problems associated with densified SF particles, contributing
to their effectiveness at early ages, a result that was not found in
other research works (Elahi et al., 2010; Çakır and Sofyanlı, 2014).
Thus, the entry order of the constituents and the mixing times
promoted the disaggregation of the silica fume agglomerates. The
objective of the definition of these parameters was to maximize the
impact actions to which SF particles would be subjected and to take
into account the differences between recycled aggregates and
natural aggregates.

3.2.2. Splitting tensile strength

Fig. 4. Comparison between real and theoretical fresh-state density.
The splitting tensile strength test was performed at 28 days in
cylindrical specimens with 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height.
In Table 7 the values obtained for this property as well as the var-
iations due to the incorporation of RA (DRA) and of silica fume (DSF)
are shown.
Concerning the use of RA, the performance of these mixes is
found to decrease with increasing replacement of natural with
recycled aggregates. The losses obtained are between 18% and 29%,
and it is clear that, the higher the RA content, the greater the
decrease in strength. In absolute terms, RC reached values between
5.0 and 5.3 MPa, while RAC values were 3.6e4.4 MPa (Table 7). This
can be explained by the more porous structure of the recycled
aggregates. The results of Fig. 6 show that the model corresponding
to a linear variation is the one that best fits the relation between the
splitting tensile strength and the simultaneous incorporation of
 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949 945

Table 6
Compressive strength in cubes at 7, 28 and 91 days.

Concrete mix 7 days 28 days 91 days

fcm (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) fcm (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) fcm (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%)
RC-SF0 79.9 ± 0.9 0.0 0.0 93.4 ± 2.9 0.0 0.0 96.4 ± 1.4 0.0 0.0
C50F50C-SF0 74.9 ± 1.0 6.3 0.0 91.3 ± 3.0 2.2 0.0 94.7 ± 2.3 1.8 0.0
C100F100C-SF0 73.4 ± 1.6 8.1 0.0 90.1 ± 2.0 3.5 0.0 94.0 ± 2.1 2.5 0.0
C100C-SF0 76.6 ± 1.4 4.1 0.0 91.5 ± 1.8 2.0 0.0 95.2 ± 2.5 1.2 0.0

RC-SF5 87.1 ± 0.5 0.0 9.0 97.9 ± 2.0 0.0 4.8 101.1 ± 2.6 0.0 4.9
C50F50C-SF5 82.6 ± 0.4 5.2 10.3 95.5 ± 3.0 2.5 4.6 97.8 ± 1.3 3.3 3.3
C100F100C-SF5 80.3 ± 2.3 7.8 9.4 93.7 ± 1.9 4.3 4.0 96.4 ± 2.4 4.6 2.6
C100C-SF5 83.9 ± 0.5 3.7 9.5 96.0 ± 1.6 1.9 4.9 98.4 ± 2.2 2.7 3.4

RC-SF10 88.0 ± 1.3 0.0 10.1 102.2 ± 1.7 0.0 9.4 103.3 ± 3.5 0.0 7.2
C50F50C-SF10 83.5 ± 2.1 5.1 11.5 99.3 ± 1.0 2.8 8.8 101.4 ± 1.3 1.8 7.1
C100F100C-SF10 81.2 ± 2.8 7.7 10.6 97.3 ± 1.4 4.8 8.0 99.1 ± 2.9 4.1 5.4
C100C-SF10 86.5 ± 1.3 1.7 12.9 100.4 ± 0.4 1.8 9.7 101.5 ± 2.4 1.7 6.6

strength up to about 9% when compared to that of concrete without

SF. The strengthening of the interfacial transition zone may also
contribute to this performance improvement (Isaia et al., 2003). In
parallel, the increase of compactness generated in the mixes and the
reduction of the volume of macropores are responsible for the me-
chanical performance benefits (Elhakam et al., 2012; ACI 234R-06).

3.2.3. Modulus of elasticity

Fig. 5. Compressive strength in cubes versus time.
FRA and CRA (R2 ¼ 0.80e0.88).
Table 7 also allows observing that, in concrete mixes with 100%
CRA, the gain associated with not replacing sand with FRA as well
is, in most cases, less than about 0.5 MPa. Therefore, for the high-
performance mixes produced, the recycled fines fraction does not
seem to play a decisive role.
The results also show that the decrease in splitting tensile
strength is more pronounced than that of the compressive strength.
This situation is in agreement with Khoshkenari et al. (2014), where
a decrease of 26e32% was observed when natural aggregates (fine
and coarse) were replaced with recycled aggregates in standard
concrete. Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002) obtained more
satisfactory results for HPC. The maximum splitting tensile strength
losses resulting from the incorporation of 100% RA were around
20%.
Concerning the incorporation of densified silica fume, it is found
that the concrete mixes exhibited an increase in splitting tensile
The test to determine the modulus of elasticity of the concrete
mixes was performed at 28 days in cylindrical specimens with
150 mm diameter and 300 mm height. Table 8 presents the mean
values (Ecm) and the variations due to the incorporation of recycled
aggregates (DRA) and silica fume (DSF).
Overall, the reference concretes exhibited, for the families of 0%,
5% and 10% SF, values of 48.7, 51.1 and 56.7 GPa, respectively. For the
same families, the recycled concretes show results of 39.5e45.2 GPa,
40.7e49.0 GPa and 41.9e53.8 GPa. Further analysing the results, it is
possible to perceive that there is an approximately linear decrease of
this property with the increase of recycled aggregates content
(Fig. 7).
Regarding the replacement ratio of 100% (fine and coarse),
maximum decreases are observed, compared to RC, of 18.9e26.1%.
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002) obtained similar reductions
in their research on HPC (20e30%).
The worst performance of RAC may be associated with the fact
that the modulus of elasticity depends on both the stiffness of the
paste and that of the aggregates. Hence, the higher propensity for
deformation of RA relative to NA, since they have a lower modulus
of elasticity, contributes decisively to the degradation of the per-
formance of recycled concrete mixes (Silva et al., 2016).
From the observation of Table 8, it is still possible to perceive
that the lowest performance decreases occur in the concrete mixes
where only coarse recycled concrete aggregates were incorporated
(4e13%). The variations found are in agreement with those of
Gonzalez and Etxeberria (2014), where reductions of about 9% were
measured (using 100% high quality CRA). The substitution of sand
with FRA seems to be more conditioning, a situation that may be

Table 7
Splitting tensile strength at 28 days.

Concrete mix 0% SF 5% SF 10% SF

fct,sp (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) fct,sp (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) fct,sp (MPa) DRA (%) DSF (%)
RC 5.08 ± 0.06 0.0 0.0 5.22 ± 0.13 0.0 2.8 5.33 ± 0.17 0.0 4.9
C50F50C 3.91 ± 0.12 23.0 0.0 3.97 ± 0.12 23.9 1.5 4.18 ± 0.22 21.6 6.9
C100F100C 3.60 ± 0.17 29.1 0.0 3.83 ± 0.07 26.6 6.4 3.87 ± 0.10 27.4 7.5
C100C 4.02 ± 0.07 20.9 0.0 4.26 ± 0.12 18.4 6.0 4.36 ± 0.23 18.2 8.5
946 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949

Fig. 6. Splitting tensile strength versus aggregates’ replacement ratio. Fig. 7. Modulus of elasticity versus aggregates’ replacement ratio.

related to the greater porosity of this type of concrete mixes. The
irregularity of FRA and the weakening of the interfacial transition
zones are factors that may also contribute to this reality (Solyman,
2005).
Concerning the incorporation of silica fume, it is found that its
addition caused an increase of the values of modulus of elasticity.
The highest increases were obtained in the family with 10% SF, with
variations up to 20%. The results show that SF can cause variations
in the stiffness of RC and RAC, either by densification of the matrix,
increasing its stiffness, or by improving the aggregate-paste tran-
sition zone, which will reduce micro-cracking formation at lower
stress levels.
3.2.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was determined in cubic
specimens with 150 mm edge at 28 days. Table 9 shows the values
obtained for this property and the variations due to the incorpo-
ration of RA (DRA) and silica (DSF).
In general, the UPV was 5049e5092 m/s for reference concretes
and 4778e5012 m/s for mixes with recycled aggregates.
Performance losses, although not exceeding 9%, exhibit an
approximately linear trend (R2 ¼ 0.98e0.99) with the simultaneous
incorporation of FRA and CRA (Fig. 8). This can be attributed to the
higher porosity of the recycled aggregates mixes.
Regarding the incorporation of SF, there is a very slight increase
in performance, not exceeding 2%. In the study performed by Çakır
and Sofyanlı (2014), slight variations associated with the presence
of SF (of about 6%) are also reported.
According to the classification suggested by Malhotra (1976) all
concrete mixes can be classified as “good” since even the lowest
values of UPV fall in the range of 3660e4580 m/s. This indicates
that any voids or cracks that could affect structural integrity of the
concrete mixes are absent.
3.2.5. Bond strength
This test was performed at 91 days in a selected set of concrete
mixes. Cubic specimens with 120 mm side were used incorporating
steel reinforcement bars of class A500 NR SD with 12 mm diameter.
The anchorage length considered was 100 mm, with the casting of
the specimens being done in the direction perpendicular to the
steel bar, in order to simulate as close as possible the most common
situation observed in construction environment. However, this
type of procedure tends to cause worse adhesions between steel
and concrete since the steel bars are more prone to exudation
phenomena (El-Hacha et al., 2006). In Table 10, the values obtained
for the maximum load (Fmax), the mean bonding stress of the
reinforcement steel bar for maximum load (tbPmax), the relative
displacement at the unloaded end for the maximum load DLFmax
and the type of collapse mode. The value of tbPmax was calculated
according to the following equation:
Fmax
PbPmax ¼ (1)
p
F
lb
where Fmax is the applied load (N), F is the diameter of the steel
reinforcement bar (m) and lb is the anchorage length (mm).
From Table 10, it is found that the failure mode of several
specimens occurred by splitting. This failure mode is most often
associated with reduced cover concrete depths or large reinforce-
ment bar diameters. However, in addition to the cover concrete
depths, the volume of concrete between the loaded end and the
anchorage zone may play a key role in the splitting failure mode.
It should be mentioned that this type of failure mode does not
allow quantifying the maximum bond strength of concrete, making
it difficult to compare. However, the results obtained allow the
evaluation of the concrete behaviour in situations in which
confinement is reduced.
Analysing Fig. 9, it is further noted that, during splitting, the ribs

Table 8
Modulus of elasticity at 28 days.

Concrete mix 0% SF 5% SF 10% SF

Ecm (GPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) Ecm (GPa) DRA (%) DSF (%) Ecm (GPa) DRA (%) DSF (%)
RC 48.7 ± 0.1 0.0 0.0 51.1 ± 0.9 0.0 4.9 56.7 ± 0.9 0.0 16.4
C50F50C 43.9 ± 0.1 9.9 0.0 47.0 ± 0.1 8.0 7.1 48.6 ± 2.4 14.3 10.7
C100F100C 39.5 ± 1.4 18.9 0.0 40.7 ± 0.1 20.4 3.0 41.9 ± 2.6 26.1 6.1
C100C 45.2 ± 1.1 7.2 0.0 49.0 ± 0.1 4.1 11.6 53.8 ± 2.2 5.1 22.6
 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949 947

Table 9
Ultrasonic pulse velocity at 28 days.

Concrete mix 0% SF 5% SF 10% SF

UPV (m/s) DRA (%) DSF (%) UPV (m/s) DRA (%) DSF (%) UPV (m/s) DRA (%) DSF (%)
RC 5049 ± 25 0.0 0.0 5064 ± 43 0.0 0.3 5092 ± 40 0.0 0.9
C50F50C 4882 ± 20 3.3 0.0 4927 ± 60 2.7 0.9 4931 ± 31 3.2 1.0
C100F100C 4778 ± 29 5.4 0.0 4815 ± 29 4.9 0.8 4828 ± 26 5.2 1.0
C100C 4919 ± 29 2.6 0.0 4974 ± 65 1.8 1.1 5012 ± 19 1.6 1.9

Fig. 9. Splitting failure mode.

Fig. 8. Ultrasonic pulse velocity versus aggregates’ replacement ratio.

Table 10
Bond strength at 91 days (* indicates lower limit value of the bonding stress).

Concrete mix Fmax (kN) tbFmax (MPa) DLFmax (mm) Failure mode

RC-SF0 70.0 18.6* 0.26 Splitting

C100F100C-SF0 58.0 15.4* 0.17 Splitting
RC-SF10 71.7 19.0* 0.2 Splitting
C100F100C-SF10 60.4 16.0* 0.14 Splitting

are fully mobilized. The presence of crushed concrete is also

observed in their surrounding area. This situation, which is com-
mon to both reference concretes and mixes with recycled aggre-
gates, seems to indicate that there is an approximately uniform
distribution of bond stresses after slipping starts to occur (vali-
dating the hypothesis considered in the calculation of tb).
Hence, given this type of failure mode, the maximum bond
strength was conditioned by the tensile strength of concrete. In
fact, in Fig. 10, there is an excellent correlation between these two
properties (R2 ¼ 0.99). Similar conclusions were obtained in the
work done by Gjørv et al. (1990) for standard concrete.
It is thus concluded that RAC have, in relation to RC, worse
performances, justified by their lower splitting tensile strength.
Bond strength decreases of 15e17% are observed. In addition, the
quality of concrete in the vicinity of the steel bars is another factor
to be taken into account. The higher porosity of RAC in this zone
may negatively influence this property (Kim and Yun, 2013). It
should be noted, however, that the real effect of the aggregates on
bond strength should only be analysed when the failure mode is by
pull-out.
Concerning the influence of silica fume, its introduction does
not seem to influence the performance of the concrete mixes
(maximum variations under 4% are observed).
In Table 11, values of steel-concrete bond strength are normal-
ized to f1/2
cm are shown. The results exhibit values of 1.9 and 1.5e1.6
MPa1/2 for the reference concrete and for the recycled aggregates
Fig. 10. Bond strength versus splitting tensile strength.
mixes, respectively.
Thus, normalized stresses appear to be affected by the incor-
poration of RA, presenting variations of 15e21%. This can be
attributed to the higher compactness of the RC cement paste for a
given strength and to the improved quality of its interface.
4. Conclusions
Due to population growth in the main metropolitan regions of
the world, structures have become larger and more complex,
requiring a constant improvement of the properties of concrete, in
particular its mechanical properties. Construction in height (given
the lack of horizontal space in big cities) and the use of structural
elements with increasingly smaller cross-sections (allowing
smaller self-weight loads to be applied to foundations and the
occupation of smaller areas) are examples of this reality. Despite
the technical developments, the construction industry has become
the economic activity that consumes more raw materials world-
wide (almost 50% in mass), also generating a high amount of
associated waste (Pacheco-Torgal and Labrincha, 2013).
948 D. Pedro et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 939e949
Table 11
Bond strength normalized to f1/2
cm .
Concrete mix tbFmax/f1/2
cm (MPa
0,5
) DRA (%)
RC-SF0 1.9 0.0
C100F100C-SF0 1.6 15.8
RC-SF10 1.9 0.0
C100F100C-SF10 1.6 15.8
In this context, the work developed sought to analyse, from a
mechanical characterization point of view, a high-performance
concrete (HPC) that could combine technical issues with environ-
mental concerns. Thus, one of its objectives was to recycle existing
concrete waste and apply it again in concrete as replacement of
natural aggregates. A further objective was to assess possible con-
sequences that may arise from the use of some certified commercial
silica fumes (SF) in which there is no mention of the difficulties
associated to their dispersion.
The results obtained during the experimental campaign, in
which concrete mixes containing recycled aggregates (RA) and SF
were compared with reference concrete (RC) mixes, allowed
concluding the following:
 In the fresh state, it was possible for recycled HPC to obtain
similar workability as that of the reference HPC (produced with
natural aggregates only). For this purpose, it was necessary to
use a water compensation method (minimizing transfers of
kneading water into the RA) and to slightly increase the effective
w/b ratio of the recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) mixes (given
the greater roughness and the presence of ultrafine particles in
RA). Concrete mixes with 10% SF also required a higher effective
w/b ratio, which may be associated with the higher specific
surface area of these particles. Concerning the density of the
mixes, variations due to the introduction of RA and SF did not
exceed 6%;
 In the hardened state, despite the decrease in performance of
the RAC relative to the RC, extremely satisfactory values were
found, which were further increased with the presence of SF. For
instance, at 28 days, the concrete compressive strength
measured in cubic specimens yielded values of about 97 MPa
and 102 MPa, for concrete mixes C100F100C-SF10 and RC-SF10,
respectively. In the investigation of Ajdukiewicz and
Kliszczewicz (2002), for the same age and in cylindrical speci-
mens, values of 65e85 MPa and 55e80 MPa were obtained, in
reference concrete mixes and concrete mixes with recycled
aggregates only. The results show that by using suitable com-
positions and good quality recycled aggregates it is possible to
obtain identical strengths in mixes with RA and natural aggre-
gates (NA). On the other hand, in the investigation by Tu et al.
(2006) the maximum strengths (in cylinders) did not exceed
40 MPa approximately;
 For the modulus of elasticity, it was found that the highest value
recorded by a mix incorporating 100% RA was around 41 GPa
(C100F100C-SF10). According to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1,
2008), this value can be classified as being of (strength) class
C70/85. In the study by Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz (2002),
mixes with 100% RA exhibited values between 25 and 35 GPa;
 On the other hand, the splitting tensile strength appears to be
the most affected, in which the highest value obtained by a mix
with only RA (fine and coarse) was about 3.9 MPa, while the
maximum value of RC was of 5.3 MPa. As in previous properties,
the best performances were achieved by the 10% SF concrete
family.
 In terms of ultrasonic pulse velocity, according to the classifi-
cation suggested by Malhotra (1976), all concrete mixes may be
considered of good quality, meaning that they are free of voids
or cracks that could affect their structural integrity, displaying
DSF (%) values between 4500 and 5100 m/s. Tu et al. (2006) also ob-
0.0
tained satisfactory, though lower, values, between 4000 and
0.0 4200 m/s;
0.0  Finally, for bond strength, only a few concrete mixes were
0.0 evaluated. In all the selected mixes, it is found that the failure
mode of the specimens occurs by splitting of the concrete, thus
not allowing determining the maximum bond strength capacity,
which makes the comparison between concrete mixes difficult.
Despite this observation, there is a worse performance of RAC
(compared to the corresponding RC), although this does not
compromise their use.
The results show that the conclusions found in the literature,
which are mainly focused on CRA may also be valid for FRA, that is,
it may be feasible to produce HPC, replacing the totality of natural
aggregates with recycled aggregates and to obtain a similar
behaviour. This new concrete meets the societal challenges estab-
lished for the coming years, in which a “greener” culture is
required, in order to meet current needs without preventing future
generations from satisfying their own needs. At European level,
there are already a number of measures and programs aimed at
sustainability, and the construction industry will certainly have to
look at environmental issues in the development of its products in
the future. Furthermore, this investigation shows that the process
of densification of silica fume appears to be “irreversible” using
standard mixing procedures. It was necessary to adopt a new
procedure (developed by the authors) that guaranteed an adequate
dispersion of SF particles. This factor may be responsible for the
variations in efficacy registered in the literature and should be an
alert for users of this product, which has a much cost higher than
that of cement.
Since the mechanical properties may not be the main require-
ment for the use of a HPC, the present research team is also
developing a study in which it evaluates its durability. In addition to
this study, it may also be interesting to carry out a life cycle cost
analysis of high-performance concrete. Although they may possess
a higher initial cost compared to that of standard concrete, the costs
of future maintenance and repair actions may be lower.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the CERIS-

cnico from Univer-
ICIST Research Institute, Instituto Superior Te
sity of Lisbon, and FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology) through project PTDC/ECM/118372/2010 “Perfor-
mance evaluation of high-performance concrete mixes made with
recycled aggregates from prefabrication industry” (EXCELlentSUS-
tainable-CONCcrete) and through the doctoral fellowship SFRH/BD/
97178/2013.
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