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LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
After reading this article, you
should be able to:
O
+ ACCOUNT for sites of
thermal bridging by incorporat-
n Russell M. Sanders, AIA, is EVP and Senior
n February 24, 2017, The New York Times
Director, Technical Services with Hoffmann ing high-efficiency detailing that
Architects, an architecture and engineering
published an article regarding the eventual
addresses sources of energy
firm specializing in the building envelope. In decommissioning of the Indian Point Nuclear
addition to building enclosure evaluation for Power Plant, just north of New York City, which loss and insulates against heat
existing structures, Sanders specializes in transfer.
design detail assessment and constructabil-
the governor intends to close by 2021. A report
ity review for new construction. on the implications of the plant shutdown found
that the need to find new sources of energy
n Craig A. Hargrove, AIA, LEED AP, SVP and
HOFFMANN ARCHITECTS
building enclosures to meet these strict performance
benchmarks demands knowledge not only of build-
ing envelope systems, but also of the requirements
and objectives of the energy code, the fundamentals
of thermodynamics and energy transfer, and high-
efficiency enclosure detailing. or with location-specific modifications.
For property owners and facility managers, under- Every three years, a new version is Eventually, high-
standing the code requirements for energy-efficient released, with guidelines that up the efficiency detailing
that cuts energy
design, the science behind those standards, and the ante on energy performance. The
use will likely be
process involved in achieving energy performance current edition, published in 2015, mandated by code.
goals is critical to an informed and judicious ap- incorporates ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Stan-
proach to planning construction that meets stringent dard 90.1-2013 – Energy Standard
energy mandates. for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
When and why to exceed the requirements of the (ASHRAE 90.1). A reference standard, ASHRAE 90.1
code, and how to balance energy-use goals with prac- provides minimum requirements for energy-efficient
tical considerations such as constructability, perfor- building design and establishes criteria by which to
mance limitations, product availability, logistics, and determine compliance.
cost, are further considerations. In some cases, it There are three basic steps to meeting energy
makes sense to go beyond the published standards code requirements. First, identify which version of
and achieve forward-thinking energy performance that the IECC applies to the project. Second, to establish
looks ahead to energy-efficiency trends. In other situ- performance criteria, determine the correct building
ations, the net energy reduction for a given upgrade climate zone. Finally, choose the correct path to en-
may not be sufficient to justify the costs. Primarily, ergy code compliance dictated by the characteristics
these considerations pertain to new construction, but and composition of the building dictate.
some of the cost-benefit analysis could just as well
apply to retrofit decisions for existing buildings. STEP 1: Know Your Code
The 2015 IECC is the newest version of the code and
UNDERSTANDING THE CURRENT therefore a logical reference point for this discussion.
ENERGY CONSERVATION CODE However, it is important to know which version of the
First issued in 2000, the IECC is a model code, code is in effect for the jurisdiction in which a build-
which means that it is not, in itself, a regulation ing is located. If there is no legal reason to comply
or law, but rather a set of directives that may be with a newer, more stringent version of the IECC, then
adopted by state or local jurisdictions, either as is decisions about the energy performance of a building
HOFFMANN ARCHITECTS
ing days are warmer than 50°F. building enclosure is through the
HDD and CDD are aggregated over the course of a fenestration. The code recognizes
year, to specify the nominal heating or cooling load that glazed assemblies are inef-
and to estimate energy consumption. If annual HDD ficient when compared with the
exceeds CDD, the building is in a heating climate, or opaque portions of the building
one that requires the use of heat more often than envelope. Furthermore, additional glazing is often un-
air conditioning. If the opposite is true, then the necessary to achieve the desired indoor environment. High-efficiency
building is in a cooling climate. As a result, the IECC and ASHRAE 90.1 (and, by details, such as warm
extension, the jurisdictions that adopt them) are spacers at window
While heating and cooling are the chief climate
assemblies, prevent
identifiers, there are many distinctions beyond stipulating a reduction in the proportion of fenestra- heat loss/gain by
these two broad categories. For the continental tion in building façades as a reliable way to improve providing a thermal
United States, ASHRAE 90.1 identifies no fewer energy efficiency. break at conductive
materials, like
than seven climate zones. From a practical design metal-to-metal
standpoint, though, there are four main climate Quantifying Glazing Performance connections.
types to consider: Let’s look briefly at the science behind these claims.
n Moist heating climate The energy efficiency of building materials is broadly
n Dry heating climate defined by their ability to conduct or resist energy
n Moist cooling climate transfer. For fenestration, energy performance is
n Dry cooling climate defined in two ways:
For each of these climate types, the IECC and n Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), a measure of
ASHRAE 90.1 provide prescriptive requirements for how much of the sun’s heat transmits through the
energy efficiency of the building envelope. Before windows and into the building interior.
applying these values, however, you must first n Thermal transmittance (U-factor), a material or
quantify certain key characteristics of the enclosure assembly’s propensity to conduct energy. U-factor
design to establish whether the prescriptive path is is the inverse of R-value, a measure of resistance
appropriate for the building. to energy transfer.
Within a building, most heat accumulation at-
STEP 3: Know Your Building tributable to radiation is the result of solar heat gain
Whether the prescriptive values set by ASHRAE and through the glazing. However, reducing the SHGC of
the IECC can be used to design an energy-efficient, windows is a tradeoff, for as SHGC diminishes so
code-compliant building envelope depends primarily too does visible light transmission (VLT), a measure
on the percentage of glass in the façade. of glass transparency.
As with heat gain, most energy loss at the build-
Prescriptive Path ing enclosure also takes place through glazed as-
The 2015 IECC states that, to follow the simpler, semblies. This tendency is reflected in the maximum
prescriptive path to energy code compliance, verti- allowable U-factor established by the IECC, which is
cal fenestration area must not exceed 30% of the higher for fixed fenestration than for mass walls by a
recognized standard for evaluating the need for and of energy loss and incorporates thermal breaks that
placement of vapor retarders. insulate against heat transfer at windows, doors, floor
slabs, roof edges, and the bases of walls.
Dealing with Condensation The latest version of ASHRAE 90.1 now requires
When humid air contacts a cool surface, water vapor that linear transmittances must be accounted for in
changes from gas to liquid, collecting in droplets energy-performance calculations. Updated require-
through the process of condensation. To prevent ments for the Building Envelope Tradeoff Option
water damage, insulation should be thick enough to (ASHRAE 90.1, Normative Appendix C) stipulate that
maintain the surface above the dew point, the tem- uninsulated assemblies, such as projecting balconies,
perature at which condensation can occur. roof parapets, and floor slab edges, must be sepa-
Even without reaching the dew point, persistently rately modeled to achieve compliance.
high relative humidity can still create problems,
notably mold growth. Under the right conditions, WHEN HIGH-EFFICIENCY ENCLOSURES
though, a limited amount of interstitial condensa- GO WRONG (AND WHAT TO DO NEXT)
tion can be tolerated, provided there is ample If high-efficiency enclosures are designed incorrectly,
opportunity for the assembly to dry. Analysis of they can actually have an adverse impact on perfor-
moisture migration is complicated, and an accurate mance. Common problems include:
evaluation requires consideration of numerous vari- n Condensation
n Mold growth
Thermal efficiency calculations, too, tend to oversim- Ironically, even when they are designed correctly,
plify the behavior of the system. Analyses used to high-efficiency building enclosures can still succumb
determine energy code compliance for opaque wall to problems. Notably, the comprehensive insulating of
assemblies, including the R-value method and whole- the building envelope has led to increased problems
assembly U-factor method, may overrate insulating with snow and ice build-up on the exterior of buildings.
value by as much as 80%. To compensate for the thermally insulated enclosure’s
What these models fail to consider, primarily, is ther- tendency toward moisture accumulation in the colder
mal bridging, whereby highly conductive materials pass months, the design professional can include provi-
through insulation layers and transmit heat across sions to optimize weather integrity while maintaining
the wall assembly. Generally, thermal bridges can be peak energy performance.
grouped into two categories, based on their geometry:
n Linear transmittances, where heat flows across the THE FUTURE OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT
exterior wall along a two-dimensional length, such BUILDING ENVELOPES
as at floor slab edges, parapets, window and door As states continue to seek opportunities to reduce
heads/sills/jambs, and the base of walls energy consumption, more attention will be paid to
n Point transmittances, which transfer heat at a building envelope details that reduce inefficiencies. In-
single point of intersection between the wall and corporation of design details that minimize energy loss
another object, such as at beam penetrations. can result in improved indoor comfort, as well as cost
How significant is the impact of thermal bridging savings through smaller heating, ventilation, and air-
+EDITOR’S NOTE on energy performance? For a simple opaque exterior conditioning (HVAC) packages and reduced utility bills.
wall, the clear field, or basic wall assembly without To balance performance and practical consider-
This completes the
penetrations, might have an R-value that falls well ations, an energy-efficient enclosure should apply
reading for this
within the prescriptive requirements for the climate principles of energy transfer, heat loss, and moisture
course. To earn
zone and type of construction. However, factoring in migration. By considering how energy code require-
1.0 AIA CES HSW
learning units, study linear transmittances could reduce the total R-value ments are derived and why certain design factors
the article carefully by more than 50%. impact performance, building owners, managers, and
and take the exam This reduction in performance illustrates the impor- design professionals are better positioned to develop
posted at tance of eliminating linear and point transmittances in building envelope solutions that achieve real-world
www.BDCnetwork. building enclosure design as much as possible. High- efficiency demands without compromising aesthetics,
com/HEfacades efficiency detailing considers these potential sources comfort, or longevity. +