11 Applied Maths

A.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELLIPSE

1. Ellipse and Foci
Definition ellipse, focus, foci
An ellipse is a set of points in a plane whose distances P Q
from two fixed points in the plane have a constant
sum.
F¢ F
A¢ A
The fixed points are called foci (the plural form of
focus).
In the figure, P, Q and R are points on the ellipse R
and F and F are the foci. By the definition of an
ellipse, PF + PF = QF + QF = RF + RF.
2. Axes and Vertices

Look at the figure. The two lines AA and BB are
y
How to draw an ellipse perpendicular and intersect at the center of the ellipse (O). B
1. Cut a piece of string
of length x units.
A, A, B and B mark the intersection of the lines and the a a
b
2. Pin or nail the ends of ellipse. The longer line (AA) is called the major axis of x
the string to a board A¢ F¢ c O c F A
at a distance of y the ellipse and the shorter line (BB) is called the minor b
units, where x > y. axis of the ellipse. The points A, A, B and B are called
3. Use a pencil to stretch B¢
the string upwards the vertices of the ellipse.
then downwards to
draw a figure. The By the definition of an ellipse we have
figure is an ellipse
AF + AF = 2a and AF = AF. So AA = AF + AF = 2a, i.e. the major axis has length 2a.
and the two pins or
nails are the foci.
Note 1
The longer axis of an ellipse is always the major axis. The shorter axis is always the minor
axis. The foci always lie on the major axis. In the figure above, the major axis is AA. It lies
on the horizontal axis and has length 2a. The major axis of an ellipse can also lie on the
vertical axis, in which case the major axis is BB and has length 2b.
An ellipse is symmetric about its origin O. AA' and BB' are the axes of symmetry.
10 Applied Mathematics 11
Note 2
In this book, unless stated otherwise we assume that the axes of an ellipse are the x-axis and
y-axis of the coordinate plane and that the center of the ellipse is at the origin of the plane.
The coordinates of the vertices and foci of the ellipse are therefore
A(a, 0), A(–a, 0), B(0, b), B(0, –b), F(c, 0) and F(–c, 0).
3. Lengths of the Axes of an Ellipse y

Look at the figure. We know that AA = 2a and BB = 2b. Since B
an ellipse is symmetric about its axes, we have AO = AO = a
b a
and BO = BO = b. A¢ F¢ F A
x
Also, by the definition of ellipse we have BF + BF = 2a and BF = BF. O c
b a
So BF = BF = a.
Let FF = 2c, then FO = OF = c. B¢
By the Pythagorean Theorem we can write b2 + c2 = a2 , i.e. c2 = a2 – b2 . For an ellipse

whose major axis is the vertical axis, this equation becomes a2 + c2 = b2 .
EXAMPLE 1 The foci of an ellipse are F(3, 0) and F(–3, 0) and the length of its minor axis is 8 cm. Find
the coordinates of the vertices of the ellipse.
Solution The figure shows the ellipse. y
By the properties of the axes of an ellipse, B 4
c = 3 and BB= 8 cm so b = 4.
3 3 x
b2 + c2 = a2 so A¢ F¢ F A
42 + 32 = a2, i.e. a = 5.
B¢ 4
So the vertices are A(5, 0), A(–5, 0), B(0, 4) and B(0, –4).
EXAMPLE 2 The lengths of the major axis and the minor axis of an ellipse are 26 cm and 10 cm
respectively. What is the distance between the foci?
Solution 2a = 26 cm so a =13. Similarly, 2b =10 cm so b = 5.
c2 = a2 – b2 = 132 – 52 =169 – 25 =144, i.e. c = 12.
So FF = 2c = 24 cm.
EXAMPLE 3 One of the foci of an ellipse is F(3, 0) and the length of the
minor axis is 6 cm. Find the length of the major axis.
Solution 2b = 6 cm so b = 3. We are also given c = 3. So

b2 + c2 = a2 implies a2 = 32 + 32 = 18, i.e. a = 3ñ2.
So the length of the major axis is 2a = 6ñ2 cm.
Conic Sections 11
4. Eccentricity
Definition eccentricity of an ellipse
The ratio of the distance between the foci of an ellipse to the length of its major axis is called
the eccentricity of the ellipse, denoted by e. If the major axis is the horizontal axis, we can write
2c c
e= , i.e. e = .
2a a
c
We know that c < a since c2 = a2 – b2. So e = < 1 and we can conclude that 0  e < 1 for
a
any ellipse.
The eccentricity of an ellipse defines its overall shape. An ellipse with eccentricity zero is a circle.
As the eccentricity approaches 1, the shape of the ellipse becomes closer to a straight line.
e=0 e = 0.4 e = 0.6 e = 0.9
Note
If the major axis of an ellipse is the vertical axis then b > a and the equation for the
c
eccentricity becomes e = .
b
5. Circles of an Ellipse
Definition major and minor circles of an ellipse, circles of the directrix
Let E be an ellipse with a major axis of length 2a parallel to y
the x-axis and a minor axis of length 2b.
B minor circle
The circle whose diameter is the major axis of E and whose
center is at the center of E is called the major circle of the A¢ A
x
ellipse. It has the equation x2 + y2 = a2 .
The circle whose diameter is the minor axis of E and whose
center is at the center of E is called the minor circle of the B¢ major circle
ellipse. It has the equation x2 + y2 = b2 .
The two circles whose radii are 2a and whose centers are at the foci of the ellipse are called
the circles of the directrix. Their equations are (x  c)2 + y2 = 4a2 .
Note
If the major axis of an ellipse is the vertical axis then the formulas for the major and minor
circles are interchanged. In other words, if b > a then the major circle is x2 + y2 = b2 and
the minor circle is x2 + y2 = a2 .
6. Directrices
At the beginning of this chapter we defined an ellipse P
H H¢
as the set of points in a plane whose distances from two
fixed points have a constant sum. We can also define
an ellipse in a different way, as a set of points whose F F¢
distances from a fixed point F and a fixed line d have a d d¢

constant ratio, e.
The fixed line is called a directrix of the ellipse and the fixed point F is a focus of the ellipse.
In fact, we can find two different parallel lines and two different fixed points which satisfy
this definition for an ellipse, so each ellipse has two foci and two directrices.
PF PF
The ratio e is the same as the eccentricity of the ellipse. So in the figure above, e = = .
PH PH
The equations of the two The lines d and d are the directrices of the ellipse and the equations of the directrices are
directrices are usually
a2
written as one equation, given by x =  .
called the equation of c
the directrices.
Note
b2
If the major axis is BB then the equation of the directrices becomes y =  .
c
EXAMPLE 4 The vertices of an ellipse are A(3, 0), A(–3, 0), B(0, 2) and B(0, –2). Find the eccentricity
of the ellipse and the coordinates of its foci.
Solution From the given coordinates we have a = 3 and b = 2. Since b2 + c2 = a2,
c 5
22 + c2 = 32 and so c = ñ5. So the eccentricity is e = = and the foci are F(ñ5, 0) and
a 3
F(–ñ5, 0).
EXAMPLE 5 An ellipse has a focus at F(6, 0) and the length of its major axis is 20 cm. Find the
eccentricity, the vertices of the minor axis, and the equations of the major and minor circles
and the directrices.
Solution If F(6, 0) is a focus then c = 6.

c 6 3
The length of the major axis is 2a = 20 so a = 10 and e = = = .
a 10 5
b2 + c2 = a2 gives b2 = 102 – 62 = 64. So b = 8 and the vertices of the
minor axis are B(0, 8) and B(0, –8).
equation of the major circle: x2 + y2 = a2 so x2 + y2 = 100
equation of the minor circle: x2 + y2 = b2 so x2 + y2 = 64
a2 102 100 50
equation of the directrices: x =  = = =
c 6 6 3
Conic Sections 13
EXAMPLE 6 The eccentricity of an ellipse is
1
2
and the length of its major axis is 12 cm. Find the length
of the minor axis, the distance between the foci of the ellipse and the equations of its major
and minor circles.
c 1
Solution 2a = 12 so a = 6. Also, e =  so c = 3. Since b2 + c2 = a2 we have b2 + 32 = 62 and
a 2
b =3ñ3.
length of the minor axis: 2b = 2  3ñ3 = 6ñ3 cm
distance between the foci: 2c = 2  3 = 6 cm
equation of the major circle: x2 + y2 = a2, i.e. x2 + y2 = 36
equation of the minor circle: x2 + y2 = b2, i.e. x2 + y2 = 27
EXAMPLE 7 The major axis of an ellipse measures 10 cm and lies along

5
y
the y-axis. The eccentricity of the ellipse is 0.4. Find the

length of the minor axis and the coordinates of the foci.
Solution Length of the major axis: 2b = 10 so b =5. 2 F
2 c c ò21 ò21
x
e = 0.4 =   so c = 2.
5 b 5
2 F¢
a2 + c2 = b2 gives us a2 + 22 = 52, i.e. a =ò21.
length of the minor axis: 2a = 2ò21 cm
coordinates of the foci: F(0, 2) and F(0, –2) 5
EXAMPLE 8 The foci of an ellipse are F(0, 3) and F(0, –3) and the minor axis AA measures 8 cm. Find
the length of the major axis BB and the eccentricity e.
Solution If the foci are F(0, 3) and F(0, –3) then c = 3. y

5 B
AA' is the minor axis and BB' is the major axis. So
AA = 2a = 8 and a = 4. 3 F
2 2 2 2 2 2
Using a + c = b we get 4 + 3 = b , i.e. b = 5.
If b = 5 then the length of the major axis is BB = 2b = 10 cm. 4 4
x
A¢ A
c 3
Finally, the eccentricity is e = = = 0.6.
b 5 3 F¢
5 B¢
Check Yourself 1
1. F(2, 0) is a focus of an ellipse and the length of the major axis is 8 cm. Find the length of
the minor axis.
2. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an ellipse are AA = 8 cm and BB = 6 cm
respectively. Find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices of the ellipse.
3. E is an ellipse such that c = 4 and the length of the minor axis is 8 cm. Find the
eccentricity and the length of the major axis.
4. The vertices of an ellipse are A(3, 0), A(–3, 0), B(0, 6) and B(0, –6). Find the eccentricity
of the ellipse and the coordinates of the foci.
1
5. E is an ellipse with eccentricity e = and a major axis measuring 18 cm. Find the length
3
of the minor axis and the equations of the major and minor circles of the ellipse.
6. The coordinates of the foci of an ellipse are F(0, 5) and F(0, –5). Given that the length of
the major axis is BB = 20 cm, find the eccentricity and the coordinates of the vertices.
Answers
1. 4ñ3 cm
2. foci: F(ñ7, 0), F(–ñ7, 0); vertices: A(4, 0), A(–4, 0), B(0, 3), B(0,–3)
2
3. e = , major axis = 8ñ2 cm
2
3
4. e = , foci: F(0, 3ñ3), F (0, –3ñ3)
2
5. minor axis =12ñ2 cm, major circle: x2 + y2 = 81, minor circle: x2 + y2 = 72
1
6. e = , vertices: A(5ñ3, 0), A(– 5ñ3, 0), B(0, 10), B(0, –10)
2
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marr Khayyam (1048-1
Om
atics, physics, astronomy,
ous Mus lim scie ntis t and philosopher. He studied mathem on
Omar Khayyam was a fam ian was a book called Treatise
icin e and mus ic. His mos t famous work as a mathematic ed how to solv e cub ic
poetry, med bra. In part of this book, Khayyam
show
Demonstration of Problems of Alge cub ic equ atio ns into thir teen
ic sections. Khayyam classified
equations geometrically using con n of cubic equations in the
d on thei r com plex ity. This was the first classificatio
diffe rent type s, base tions to mathematics were the
yyam's other important contribu
history of mathematics. Omar Kha contributed to the development of
and his works on geometry, which
discovery of binomial expansion
non-Euclidean geometry. known as the Jalali calendar.
k as an astro nom er led him to invent a new calendar,
Omar Kha yyam 's wor r we use today loses one day
5000 years. The Gregorian calenda
This calendar loses one day in only not moving around the Earth, as
demonstrated that the universe was
every 3330 years. Khayyam also ch lit star charts as they
le thou ght at that time . His demonstration used candles whi
many peop een night and day.
room, showing the difference betw
revolved on a platform around the his life. He died in 1131 in Nishapur,
trav eled to Sam arka nd, Buk hara and Isphahan during
Omar Khayyam
Iran.
Conic Sections 15
B. EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE
1. Equation of an Ellipse Centered at the Origin
y
Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse opposite. Then P
P(x, y)
satisfies the equation PF + PF = 2a where
PF = ( x – c)2 + y2 and PF = ( x + c)2 + y2 . F¢(c, 0) F(c, 0)

x
c c
So ( x – c)2 + y2 + ( x + c)2 + y2 = 2 a, i.e.
( x – c)2 + y2 + 2 ( x – c)2 + y2  ( x + c)2 + y2 +( x + c)2 + y2  4 a 2 (take the square of both sides)
( x – c)2 + y2  ( x + c)2 + y2 = 2 a2 – x2 – y2 – c2
[(x – c)2 + y2]  [(x + c)2 + y2] = (2a2 – x2 – y2 – c2)2 (take the square of both sides)
(x2 + y2 + c2)2 – (2a2 – x2 – y2 – c2)2 = 4c2x2 (expand the parentheses and rearrange the terms)
2  (x2 + y2 + c2 – a2)  2a2 = 4x2c2 (b2 + c2 = a2, so c2 = a2 – b2)
4a2(x2 + y2 + a2 – b2 – a2) = 4x2(a2 – b2)
a2x2 + a2y2 – a2b2 = a2x2 – b2x2.
Rearranging this gives us b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2 , and dividing both sides of this by a2b2 gives
x2 y2
+ =1 .
a 2 b2
y
x2 y2 x2 y
2
The equation + =1 is called the canonical b + =1
a2 b 2 a2 b2
equation of the ellipse, which means the equation of an

x
ellipse which is not rotated or translated and which has a a
its center at the origin.

b
The y-intercepts of the ellipse are (0,  b).
The x-intercepts are (a, 0).
EXAMPLE 9 The lengths of the major and minor axes of an ellipse are AA = 12 cm and BB = 8 cm
respectively. Find the canonical equation of the ellipse.
Solution major axis = 2a = 12 cm, a = 6
minor axis = 2b = 8 cm, b = 4
x2 y2 x2 y2
Using 2 + 2 =1 gives us 2 + 2 =1.
a b 6 4
x2 y2
So the canonical equation is + =1, or 16 x2 + 36 y2 = 576.
36 16
x2 y2
EXAMPLE 10 +
36 25
=1 is the equation of an ellipse. Find
a. the length of the major axis. b. the length of the minor axis.
c. the eccentricity. d. the distance between the foci.
e. the coordinates of the vertices and the focii.
Solution a2 = 36 so a = 6. b2 = 25 so b = 5.
b2 + c2 = a2 so 52 + c2 = 62, i.e. c2 = 11 and c =ò11.
a. length of the major axis = 2a = 2  6 = 12
b. length of the minor axis = 2b = 2  5 = 10
c 11
c. eccentricity = e = =
a 6
d. distance between the foci = 2c =2ò11
e. vertices: A(6, 0), A(–6, 0), B(0, 5), B(0, –5); foci: F(ò11, 0),
F(–ò11, 0)
EXAMPLE 11 9x2 + 16y2 = 144 is the equation of an ellipse. Find the lengths of the major and minor axes
of the ellipse.
Solution 9x2 + 16y2 = 144

9x2 +16 y2 144 x2 y2
= , + =1 (divide both sides by 144)
144 144 16 9
From this we get a2 = 16, i.e. a = 4 and the length of the major axis is 2a = 2  4 = 8.
Similarly, b2 = 9 so b = 3 and the length of the minor axis is 2b = 2  3 = 6.
Conic Sections 17
EXAMPLE 12 The equation of an ellipse is x2 +
y2
4
 1. Find
a. the lengths of the major and minor axes.
b. the eccentricity.
Solution a2 =1 so a =1. b2 = 4 so b = 2.
So b > a and so the major axis is BB' and a2 + c2 = b2, i.e.
12 + c2 = 22, c2 = 3, c = ñ3.
a. length of the major axis: 2b = 2  2 = 4
length of the minor axis: 2a = 2  1 = 2
c 3
b. eccentricity = e = =
b 2
EXAMPLE 13 9x2 + 16y2 =1 is an ellipse. Find

x2 y2 2 1 1
Solution 9x2 + 16y2 = 1, i.e. + =1. So a = and a = .
1 1 9 3
9 16
1 1 1 1 1 1 7 7
Similarly, b2 = and b = . b2 + c2 = a2, + c2 = , c2 = – = and c = .
16 4 16 9 9 16 144 12
2 2 1
a. length of the major axis: 2a = , length of the minor axis: 2b = 
3 4 2
7
c 7 3 7
b. eccentricity: e = = 12 =  =
a 1 12 1 4
3
EXAMPLE 14 The length of a line segment is 12 cm. Find the equation for the set of points whose distances
from the endpoints of this line segment have a sum of 20 cm.
Solution This is the definition of an ellipse whose foci are the endpoints of the line.
So FF = 2c = 12 cm and c = 6.
The sum of the distances from the foci is 2a = 20 cm, so a = 10.
b2 + c2 = a2 gives us b2 + 62 = 102, b2 = 100 – 36 = 64 and so b = 8.
The equation for the set of points is the same as the equation of the ellipse:
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1, 2
+ 2 = 1 so + = 1 or 64 x2 +100 y2 = 6400.
a b 10 8 100 64
EXAMPLE 15 From each point on the circle x2 + y2 =100 we draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis. What
is the equation of the figure which is obtained by connecting the midpoints of all the
perpendicular lines?
y
Solution Let Q(x, y) be any point on the new figure. Then P(x, 2y)
10 P(x, 2y)
is a point on the circle.
So P(x, 2y) must satisfy the equation of the circle 5 Q(x, y)
(x2 + y2 =100), i.e. x2 + (2y)2 =100.
From this equation we get the equation of the coordinates x
10 10
satisfying Q(x, y): x2 + 4y2 = 100 or
x2 4y2 x2 y2
+ = + =1.
100 100 100 25
This is the canonical equation of an ellipse, so the new 10
figure is an ellipse.
Check Yourself 2
1. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an ellipse are AA = 16 cm and BB= 10 cm
respectively. What is the equation of the ellipse?
2. Find the lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse whose equation is 9x2 + 25y2 = 225.
x2 y2
3. + =1 is the equation of an ellipse. Find each component.
9 16
a. the length of the major axis b. the length of the minor axis
c. the eccentricity d. the distance between the foci
e. the coordinates of the foci f. the equations of the circles of the ellipse
g. the equation of the directrix
4. 9x2 + 25y2 =1 is the equation of an ellipse. Find

a. the lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
b. the eccentricity of the ellipse.
5. 9x2 + 4y2 =36 is the equation of an ellipse. Find

a. the lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
b. the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Conic Sections 19
Answers
2 2
1. x + y =1 2. major axis = 10, minor axis = 6
64 25
7
3. a. 8 b. 6 c. d. FF = 2ñ7 e. F(0, ñ7), F(0, –ñ7)
4
16 7
f. major circle: x2 + y2 = 16, minor circle: x2 + y2 = 9 g. y = 
7
2 2 4
4. a. major axis = , minor axis = b.
3 5 5
5
5. a. major axis = 6, minor axis = 4 b.
3
C. AREA OF AN ELLIPSE
Recall the concept of orthogonal projection: to find the orthogonal
projection of an object on a plane P we draw lines perpendicular A¢
to P from all the points on the object and trace their intersection
with P. a
a Q
Look at the figure opposite. We can say that the ellipse passing O
b B
through A, B and A is an orthogonal projection of a circle with
a
diameter AA whose radius is a and center is O.
Let us assume that the point Q is the midpoint of the semicircle A a
and that the dihedral angle between the planes containing the
The angle between two
planes is called their circle and the ellipse is . We can say that the projection of the point Q is B.
dihedral angle.
b
So OQ = a and OB = b, and therefore cos  = . By the rules of projection we can write
a
areaprojection = areafigure  cos , i.e.
areaellipse = areacircle  cos 
b
areaellipse = a2 .
a
areaellipse =  ab . This is the formula for the area of an ellipse.
EXAMPLE 16 What is the area of the ellipse defined by
x2 y2
+ =1?
36 16
Solution From the given equation we get a = 6 and b = 4. So the

area of the ellipse is
areaellipse = ab = 6  4 = 24.
x2 y2
EXAMPLE 17 What is the area of the region R between the ellipse + =1 and its major circle?
144 81
Solution From the equation we get a = 12 and b = 9.

So the major axis of the ellipse is horizontal and the radius of the major circle is 12. The area
between the ellipse and its major circle is the difference between the area of the major circle
Remember:
The major circle of an and the area of the ellipse. So
ellipse is a circle whose
center is the center of
areaR= areamajor circle – areaellipse= a2 – (a  b) = (122) – (12  9) = 144– 10836
the ellipse and whose
diameter is the major
axis of the ellipse. The
equation of the major
circle for an ellipse with
a horizontal major axis
is x2 + y2 = a2.
Check Yourself 3
x2 y2
1. Find the area of the ellipse defined by + = 1.
121 49
2. Find the area of the ellipse defined by 2x2 + 5y2 = 20.
x2 y2
3. What is the area of the region between the ellipse + =1 and its major circle?
9 16
4. What is the area of the region between the ellipse 400x2 + 9y2 = 3600 and its minor
circle?
5. What is the area of the ellipse defined by 9x2 + y2 = 9?
Answers
1. 77 2. 2ò10   3. 4 4. 51 5. 3
Conic Sections 21
ELLIPSES AROUND US
Although the ellipse is not as simple as a circle, it is the most common
geometric figure in nature. If you look at the circular objects and buildings
around you, you will generally see an ellipse because of the effect of
perspective.
Today we know that the planets in our solar system trace out elliptical
paths (called orbits) as they move through space. This discovery was made
by the mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) in the
17th century. The ancient Greek astronomers, many centuries before Kepler,
thought that the paths were circular, but Kepler proved that the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun is an ellipse and that the Sun is one of the foci of this ellipse.
This, combined with the fact that the Earth rotates on an axis tilted at 23.5
degrees to its orbit, creates the different seasons we experience on Earth. On
January 3 each year the Earth is at its closest point to the Sun, a distance of
149.5 million kilometers. On July 4 it reaches its farthest point from the Sun at
152.5 million kilometers. This means that in the equation for the ellipse of
the Earth's orbit, a – c = 149.5 and a + c = 152.5, i.e. a = 151 and c = 1.5.
c 1.5
So the eccentricity of this ellipse is e = = , which is approximately
a 151
0.01. We know that as the eccentricity of an ellipse approaches zero, the
shape of the ellipse gets closer and closer to a circle. So the orbit of the Earth
is an ellipse that is almost a circle. The moon and artifical satellites moving
around the Earth also have elliptical
orbits with the Earth at one focus. Comets have been proven to have orbits
shaped like a conic section whose eccentricity increases as the speed of the
comet increases.
Ellipses appear elsewhere in nature, too. The electrons in an atom move

around the nucleus in an elliptical orbit. And ellipses can be used to model
waves of sound and light. Special elliptical
rooms and buildings called ‘whispering galleries’ show how the ellipse relates
to sound waves. If two people stand at the two foci of a whispering gallery,
they can hear each other whisper. However, if one person moves away from
a focus, he or she can no longer hear the other person. The White House in
Washington has a whispering gallery.
EXERCISES 1 .1
A. Basic Elements of an Ellipse 8. An ellipse has an eccentricty of 0.8 and foci at
F(6, 0) and F(–6, 0). Find the coordinates of the
1. An ellipse has foci F(6, 0) and F(–6, 0) and two
vertices of the ellipse and the equation of its
vertices at A(10, 0) and A(–10, 0). Find the
directrices.
coordinates of the vertices B and B.
2. An ellipse has foci F(0, 5) and F(0, –5) and two 9. The major axis of an ellipse lies along the y-axis
vertices at B(0, 13) and B(0, –13). Find the and measures 12 cm. Given that the eccentricity
coordinates of the vertices A and A. 5
is , find the length of the minor axis and the
6
coordinates of the foci.
3. The vertices of an ellipse are A(25, 0), A(–25, 0),

B(0, 24) and B(0,–24). What are the coordinates
of the foci F and F of the ellipse? 10. An ellipse has foci F(0, 5) and F(0, –5). Given
that AA = 18 cm, find BB and the eccentricity e.
4. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an

ellipse are AA = 12 cm and BB = 6 cm respectively.
What are the coordinates of the vertices? 2
11. An ellipse has eccentricity e = and the length
5
of its major axis is 20 cm. Find the length of the
5. The major axis BB of an ellipse measures 30 cm minor axis and the equations of the major and
and the distance between the foci of the ellipse is minor circles of this ellipse.
24 cm. Find the length of the minor axis.
2
6. An ellipse has a focus at F(–8, 0) and the length 12. The eccentricity of an ellipse is and the
3
of its major axis is 20 cm. Find the eccentricity of
equation of its major circle is x2+ y2 = 81. Find
the ellipse, the vertices on its minor axis, and the
the length of the major axis BB and the minor
equations of its major and minor circles and the
directrices. axis, and the equation of the directrices.
7. An ellipse has a focus at F(4, 0). If the eccentricity

13. An ellipse has a focus F(3, 0) and the equation of
4
of the ellipse is , find the lengths of the major one directrix is x = 4. What is the eccentricity of
5
and minor axes. this ellipse?
Conic Sections 23
14. P(2, 3) and Q(10,9) are given. The set of points 20. A line segment PQ measures 8 cm. Find an
 equation for the set of points whose distances
whose distances from P and Q have a sum of
26 cm form an ellipse. Find the coordinates of the from the endpoints of this line segment have a
vertices A, A, B and B of this ellipse. sum of 14 cm.
21. From each point on the circle x2 + y2 = 144 we

B. Equation of an Ellipse
draw a line perpendicular to the y-axis. What is
15. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an the equation of the figure which is obtained by
ellipse are AA = 22 cm and BB = 14 cm connecting the midpoints of all the perpendicular
respectively. Find the canonical equation of this lines?
ellipse.
C. Area of an Ellipse
16. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an 22. Find the area of the ellipse defined by
ellipse are BB = 16 cm and AA = 10 cm x2 y2
+ =1.
respectively. Find the canonical equation of this 81 36
ellipse.
23. Find the area of the ellipse defined by 3x2+ 8y2 = 48.
17. Find the lengths of the major and minor axes of
the ellipse defined by 100x2 + 16y2 = 1600.
24. What is the area of the region between the ellipse
x2 y2
+ =1 and its major circle?
100 36
x2 y2
18. An ellipse is defined by + =1. Find
100 64
a. the length of the major axis. 25. What is the area of the region between the ellipse
b. the length of the minor axis. x2 y2
+ =1 and its minor circle?
c. the eccentricity. 5 16
d. the distance between the foci.
26. Find the area of the y
shaded region in the 4

19. The equation 25x2 + 16y2 = 1 defines an ellipse. figure.
Find 8 1 1 8
x
b. the eccentricity. 4
A. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A HYPERBOLA
1. Hyperbola and Foci
Definition hyperbola, foci
A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane y
R P
whose distances from two fixed points in the
plane have a constant difference. The fixed
points are called the foci of the hyperbola.
In the figure, P, Q and R are points on the F¢ A¢ A F
hyperbola and F and F are the foci. By the x
definition of a hyperbola,
Q
PF – PF = QF – QF = RF – RF.
2. Axes and Vertices

Look at the figure. It shows a hyperbola with conjugate
axis
two axes which intersect at O. The line FF
On an ellipse, the is called the transverse axis or major axis of
distances from the foci the hyperbola. The axis perpendicular to this F¢(- c, 0) A¢(-a, 0) A(a, 0) transverse
have a constant sum. F(c, 0) axis
is called the conjugate axis. The midpoint O O(0, 0)
On a hyperbola, the
distances have a constant of the line segment FF is called the center
difference.
of the hyperbola. The intersection points of
the hyperbola with its transverse axis (A and
A in this diagram) are the vertices of the hyperbola. Since the conjugate axis does not
contain any points on the hyperbola it is also sometimes called the imaginary axis.
Note 1
If we center the hyperbola in the coordinate plane then the coordinate axis which includes
FF is the transverse axis and the other axis is the conjugate axis. The vertices of the
hyperbola are always on the transverse axis.
Note 2
A hyperbola is symmetric about its origin. The transverse axis and conjugate axis are the axes
of symmetry.
Note 3
In this book, unless stated otherwise we will assume that the axes of a hyperbola are
the x- and y-axes of the coordinate plane and that the center of the hyperbola is at the
origin of the coordinate plane.
Conic Sections 25
3. Lengths of the Axes of a Hyperbola
By the definition of a hyperbola, the difference of the distances from F and F is constant for
all points on the hyperbola. Let us say that this difference is 2a, then we have AF – AF = 2a
and AF = AF due to symmetry. So AA = 2a, i.e. the length of the transverse axis of a
hyperbola is 2a.
The symmetric property of a hyperbola also gives us OA = OA = a and OF = OF. If we write
OF = c then the distance between the foci is FF = 2c.
Now look at the figure opposite. It shows a circle of y

radius c whose center coincides with the center of
the hyperbola. Two perpendicular lines intersect the N M
B(0, b)
transverse axis of the hyperbola at A and A.
c b
Let M, M, N and N be the points of intersection of
F¢ A¢ A F
these two lines and the circle. O a
x
So MNNM is a rectangle.
Let the length MM = NN be 2b, then OB = OB = b.
N¢ B¢(0, b) M¢
From OAM we get a2 + b2 = c2 .
So the length of the conjugate axis of the hyperbola
is BB = 2b.
Note
If the transverse axis of a hyperbola is
b
horizontal in the coordinate plane, the b
transverse axis is AA = 2a and the

conjugate axis is BB = 2b. a a transverse a a
conjugate
If the transverse axis is vertical in the axis axis
Remember: coordinate plane, the transverse axis b

b
The foci and vertices of
a parabola always lie on
is BB = 2b and the conjugate axis is conjugate
axis
its transverse axis. AA= 2a. transverse
axis
EXAMPLE 18 The foci of a hyperbola are F(5, 0) and F(–5, 0) and

the length of the transverse axis is 6 cm. Find the
length of the conjugate axis.
Solution c = 5 and AA= 6 cm so a = 3.

a2 + b2 = c2 gives us 32 + b2 = 52, i.e. b = 4.
So the length of the conjugate axis is 2b = 8 cm.
EXAMPLE 19 The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes of a hyperbola are 24 cm and 10 cm
respectively. Find the distance between the foci.
Solution 2a = 24 cm so a = 12; 2b = 10 cm so b = 5.
c2 = a2 + b2 means 122 + 52 = 144 + 25 = 169, i.e. c = 13.
So FF = 2c = 26 cm.
20
y
EXAMPLE The figure shows a hyperbola with foci P
F(10, 0) and F(–10, 0). If PF = 4 cm and
PF = 16 cm then find the coordinates of the
vertices and the lengths of the axes of the F¢(10, 0) F(10, 0)
x
hyperbola.
Solution By the definition of a hyperbola we have

PF – PF = 2a. So 16 – 4 = 12 = 2a, i.e. a = 6.
From the figure we get c = 10, so c2 = a2 + b2 means 102 = 62 + b2 and so b = 8.
coordinates of the vertices: A(6, 0) and A(–6, 0).
length of the transverse axis: 2a = 2  6 = 12 cm
length of the conjugate axis: 2b = 2  8 = 16 cm
EXAMPLE 21 F(0, 15) is a focus of a hyperbola. Given that the length

of the conjugate axis of the hyperbola is 18 cm, find the
length of the transverse axis.
Solution Since the focus is on the y-axis, the transverse axis of

the hyperbola lies on the y-axis. So the length of the
conjugate axis is 2a = 18 and a = 9. We also have c = 15.
a2 + b2 = c2 means 92 + b2 = 152, i.e. b =12.
So the length of the transverse axis is 2b = 2  12 = 24 cm.
4. Eccentricity
Definition eccentricity of a hyperbola
The ratio of the distance between the foci of a hyperbola to the length of its transverse axis
is called the eccentricity of the hyperbola, denoted e. In other words, for a hyperbola whose
transverse axis is parallel to the x-axis,
2c c
e= , i.e. e = .
2a a
Conic Sections 27
c
We know c > a since c2 = a2 + b2. So e = >1 and we can conclude that e > 1 for any hyperbola.
0 < e < 1 for an ellipse. a
e > 1 for a hyperbola.
The eccentricity of a hyperbola defines its overall shape, as shown in the figures.
e@1 e>1 e®¥
Note 1
The coordinates of the vertices of a hyperbola are A(a, 0), A(– a, 0), B(0, b) and B(0, –b).
The foci are F(c, 0) and F(–c, 0) (c > a).
Note 2
c
If the transverse axis of a hyberbola is parallel to the y-axis then its eccentricity becomes e  .
b
EXAMPLE 22 A hyperbola has vertices A(3, 0) and A(–3, 0). Given that the length of its conjugate axis is
8 cm, find its eccentricity and the coordinates of the foci.
Solution If the vertices are A(3, 0) and A(–3, 0) then a = 3.

The length of the conjugate axis is 2b = 8 so b = 4.
a2 + b2 = c2 means 32 + 42 = c2 so c = 5.
c 5
So the eccentricity is e = = and the foci are F(5, 0) and F(–5, 0).
a 3
EXAMPLE 23 A hyperbola has a focus at F(8, 0) and an eccentricity of 2. Find the lengths of the transverse
and conjugate axes of the hyperbola and the coordinates of its vertices.
Solution If F(8, 0) is a focus then c = 8.

c 8
e = means 2 = so a = 4.
a a
a2 + b2 = c2 means 42 + b2 = 82 so b = 4ñ3.
length of the transverse axis: 2a = 8
length of the conjugate axis: 2b =8ñ3
The vertices are A(4, 0) and A(–4, 0).
5. Circles of a Hyperbola
y
Let H be a hyperbola with a transverse axis of length major circle
2a and a conjugate axis of length 2b. a minor circle
The circle whose diameter is the transverse axis of H
b
and whose center is at the center of H is called the
major circle of the hyperbola. It has the equation a b b a x
x2 + y2 = a2 .
The circle whose diameter is the conjugate axis of H b
and whose center is at the center of H is called the
minor circle of the hyperbola. It has the equation a
x2 + y2 = b2 .
The two circles with radius 2a whose centers are the foci of the hyperbola are called the
circles of the directrices. They have the equations
(x – c)2 + y2 = 4a2 and (x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 .
Note
If the transverse axis of the hyperbola is parallel to the y-axis
then the equation of the major circle is x2 + y2 = b2 and the
equation of the minor circle is x2 + y2 = a2 .
6. Directrices
Look at the figure opposite. d1  d2 and PH  d2, y
PH  d2. Suppose that H and H are such that

PF PF H P
= = e. Then the lines d1 and d2 are called H¢
The eccentricity e of a PH PH
parabola is the same as the directrices of the hyperbola. The directrices are F¢ F
PF PF x
and .
PH PH often described in a single equation called the
equation of the directrices.
If the transverse axis of a hyperbola lies along the

d1 d2
x-axis then the equation of the directrices is
a2
x=  .
c
b2
If the transverse axis lies along the y-axis then the equation of the directrices is y =  .
c
Conic Sections 29
EXAMPLE 24 The transverse axis of a hyperbola lies on the x-axis and has length 8 cm. Given that the
length of the conjugate axis is 12 cm, find the equations of the circles and the directrices of
this hyperbola.
Solution length of the transverse axis: 2a = 8 so a = 4

length of the conjugate axis: 2b = 12 so b = 6
a2 + b2 = c2 means 42 + 62 = c2. So c = 2ò13.
equation of the major circle: x2 + y2 = a2, i.e. x2 + y2 = 16
equation of the minor circle: x2 + y2 = b2, i.e. x2 + y2 = 36
equations of the circles of the directrices: (x – 2ò13)2 + y2 = 64 and (x +2ò13)2 + y2 = 64
a2 42 8 8 13
equation of the directrices: x =  , i.e. x =  = =
c 2 13 13 13
7. Asymptotes
To better understand the graph of a hyperbola we need to know the behavior of the graph at
infinity. To define this behavior we use the term asymptote. An asymptote of a hyperbola is a
line (or a curve) that the hyperbola approaches but never actually touches.
a. b. c.
If we do not know the behavior of the graph at infinity, we cannot decide which of the graphs
a, b or c is the graph of a hyperbola. In fact, figure c shows a hyperbola and the shapes in
figures a and b are not hyperbolas.
A hyperbola has two asymptotes. The equations of the asymptotes of a hyperbola are given by
b
y=  x . The yellow lines in figure c above are the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
a
Note
If the y-axis is the transverse axis of the hyperbola then the equation of the asymptotes does
b
not change. It is still y =  x.
a
B. EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA
1. Equation of a Hyperbola Centered at the Origin
Let P(x, y) be a point on a hyperbola whose transverse axis is on the x-axis. Then P satisfies
Distance formula
the equation |PF – PF| = 2a, i.e. PF – PF = 2a where PF = ( x – c)2 + y2 and
If P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) PF = ( x + c)2 + y2 .
are two points in a plane y
then the distance between P(x, y)
P and Q is So 2 2 2 2
( x + c) + y – ( x – c) + y = 2 a, i.e.
( x2 – x1 )2 +( y2 – y1 )2 . F¢(- c, 0) A¢( - a, 0) A(a, 0) F(c, 0)
2 2 2 2
x
( x + c ) + y = 2 a + ( x – c) + y
and taking the square of both sides gives us

x2 + 2cx + c2 + y2 =
2 2
= 4a2 + 4a ( x – c) + y + x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2.
If we cancel the common terms, take the square of both sides and move everything to the
left-hand side we get
2 2
xc – a2 = a ( x – c) + y ,
x2c2 – 2xca2 + a4 – a2x2 + 2xca2 – a2c2 – a2y2 = 0.

Factoring gives
x2(c2 – a2) –a2 (c2 – a2) – a2y2 = 0
b2x2 – a2b2 – a2y2 = 0 (substitute b2 = c2 – a2)
b2x2 – a2y2 = a2b2.
x2 y2
Dividing both sides by a2b2 gives us – =1 or b2x2 – a2y2 = a2b2 . This is the equation of
a2 b 2
a hyperbola whose transverse axis is on the x-axis.
Notice that when y = 0 we get x1 = –a and x2 = a. These are the x-intercepts of the hyperbola.
But when x = 0 the value of y is not defined. So we can say that the graph of a hyperbola
with a transverse axis on the x-axis does not intercept the y-axis, but it intercepts the x-axis
at the points A(a, 0) and A(– a, 0).
Note
If the transverse axis of the hyperbola is on the y-axis then the equation of the hyperbola
y2 x2
becomes 2 – 2 =1 or a2y2 – b2x2 = a2b2 . This hyperbola does not intercept the x-axis, and
b a
intercepts the y-axis at B(0, b) and B(0, –b).
Conic Sections 31
EXAMPLE 25 The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes of a hyperbola are AA = 14 cm and BB = 6 cm
respectively. Find the equation of the hyperbola.
Solution transverse axis: 2a = 14 so a = 7

conjugate axis: 2b = 6 so b = 3
So the equation of the hyperbola is
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
2
– 2 =1, i.e. 2 – 2 =1 which gives – =1 or 9x2 – 49y2 = 441.
a b 7 3 49 9
EXAMPLE 26 Find the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes of the hyperbola defined by
x2 y2
– =1.
121 36
Solution a2 = 121, a = 11
b2 = 36, b = 6
length of the transverse axis: 2a = 2  11 = 22
length of the conjugate axis: 2b = 2  6 = 12
EXAMPLE 27 x2
–
144 25
y2
=1 is the equation of a hyperbola. Find
a. the lengths of the axes.

c. the coordinates of the vertices and the foci.
d. the equations of the directrices and the asymptotes.
Solution a2 = 144 so a = 12; b2 = 25 so b = 5.

a2 + b2 = c2 means 122 + 52 = c2 so c2 = 169 and c = 13.
a. length of the transverse axis: 2a = 2  12 = 24
length of the conjugate axis: 2b = 2  5 = 10
c 13
b. eccentricity: e = =
a 12
c. vertices: A(12, 0), A(–12, 0); foci: F(13, 0), F(–13, 0)
a2 144 b 5
d. directrices: x =  =  , asymptotes: y =  x =  x
c 13 a 12
EXAMPLE 28 The equation of a hyperbola is
y2
4
– x2 =1. Find
Solution The transverse axis is the y-axis because x2 has a negative coefficient in the equation.
b2 = 4 so b = 2; a2 = 1 so a = 1.
a2 + b2 = c2 means 12 + 22 = c2 so c2 = 5 and c =ñ5.
a. length of the transverse axis: 2b = 2  2 = 4
length of the conjugate axis: 2a = 2  1 = 2
c 5
b. eccentricity: e = =
b 2
EXAMPLE 29 The center of a hyperbola is at the origin and its foci are on the x-axis. Given that the
hyperbola passes through the points M(3, 1) and N(4, – 2), find the equation of the hyperbola.
x2 y2
Solution The equation of the hyperbola will be in the form – =1. If the points M and N are
a2 b 2
on this hyperbola then they satisfy this equation.
9 1 16 4
For M(3, 1) we have 2 – 2 =1, and for N(4, – 2) we have 2 – 2 =1.
a b a b
Let us solve this system:
9 1 36 4
–4 / – =1 – + = –4 (1)
a 2 b2 a2 b 2
gives
16 4 16 4
– =1 – =1. (2)
a2 b 2 a2 b 2
20
Combining these gives us a2= .
3
Substituting this in (1) gives us
9 1 1 27 7 20
– =1, i.e. 2 = – 1= and b2 = .
20 b2 b 20 20 7
3
x2 y2 x2 y2 3x2 7y2
So the equation of the hyperbola is 2 – 2 =1, i.e. – =1 or – =1 or 3 x2 – 7 y2 = 20.
a b 20 20 20 20
3 7
EXAMPLE 30 The equation x2 – y2 = 64 defines an isosceles hyperbola. Find the distance between the foci
of the hyperbola and the positive angles between the asymptotes of the hyperbola and the
transverse axis.
Conic Sections 33
x2 y2
Solution The equation of the hyperbola is x2 – y2 = 64 which means – =1 . So a = b = 8.
64 64
The equation a2 + b2 = c2 gives us c =8ñ2. So the distance between the foci is 16ñ2.
The equations of the asymptotes are y =  x. So the slope of the line (tan ) is 1 or –1 and
therefore the angles between the asymptotes and the transverse axis are 45° and 135°.
Check Yourself 4
1. The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes of a hyperbola are AA = 12 cm and
BB = 8 cm respectively. What is the equation of the hyperbola?
2. Find the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes of the hyperbola defined by
64x2 – 25y2 = 1600.
x2 y2
3. – =1 is the equation of a hyperbola. Find
36 64
a. the lengths of the axes. b. the eccentricity.
c. the distance between the foci.
d. the equations of the directrices and the asymptotes.
4. 4y2 – 18x2 = 1 is the equation of a hyperbola. Find
a. the lengths of the axes. b. the eccentricity.

x2
5. A vertical line is drawn through one of the foci of the hyperbola defined by – 4 y2 =1.
9
What is the distance between the intersection points of the line and the hyperbola?
Answers
x2 y2
1. – =1
36 16
2. transverse axis = 10, conjugate axis = 16
5
3. a. transverse axis = 12, conjugate axis = 16 b. e = c. 20
3
18 4
d. directrices: x =  , asymptotes: y =  x
5 3
11
4. a. transverse axis = 1, conjugate axis = 2 b. e =
3 3
1
5.
6
MENAECHMUS (380-320 BC)
Menaechmus was a pupil of Eudoxus (408-355 BC) and studied with Plato.
He was famous for his discovery of conic sections and was the first to show that the ellipse, the parabola and the
hyperbola can be obtained by intersecting a plane with a pair of circular cones placed vertex to vertex.
In Menaechmus’ time there were three well-known problems for geometers: duplicating a cube, trisecting an
angle and squaring a circle. Menaechmus also tried to solve these problems, and discovered conic sections while
he was attempting to solve the problem of duplicating a cube.
EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA (325-265 BC)

Euclid of Alexandria is one of the best-known mathematicians of the ancient
world. His most famous work is his book The Elements, which contains almost all the
mathematical knowledge of the time, organized in thirteen sections.
Euclid studied at Academia, a school in Athens. Then he became a teacher. He is
known as the father of geometry.
Geometry had its beginnings in ancient Egypt. Long before Euclid’s time, Egyptian
land surveyors had to recalculate land boundaries every year when the Nile burst its
banks. They used a kind of geometry, but in the beginning there were no theorems,
proofs or common rules. Euclid collected the rules and theorems of geometry from
Thales, Pythagoras and Eudoxus. Then he proved some of the theorems in his book.
Euclid organised his information into five postulates and five axioms. Today we
still use these postulates and axioms.
He wrote a book about conics, but this book has been lost.
ARCHIMEDES (278-212 BC)

Archimedes has been accepted as one of the three greatest scientists of all time. He was a mathematician, a
physicist and a philosopher and invented a lot of interesting devices. He used lenses to focus light on enemy ships
to burn them. He also invented pulleys, the hydraulic screw and infinite screws.
In geometry, Archimedes calculated formulas for the area and the volume of a
1 10
sphere. He calculated the number  to be between 3 and 3 . While he was
7 71
trying to square a parabola he used the concept of infinitely small parts, which
formed the basis of differential integrals.

Archimedes studied equilibrium and said, ‘If you can give me a suitable base
then I can move the Earth.’ He also discovered the rules of the lifting power of water.
In 212 BC The Romans conquered Syracus. At the time, Archimedes was
working on a problem so he did not escape and a Roman soldier killed him.
EXERCISES 1 .2
A. Basic Elements of a Hyperbola 7. The transverse axis of a hyperbola lies along the
x-axis. Given that the lengths of the transverse
1. The vertices of a hyperbola are A(4, 0) and
and conjugate axes are 4 cm and 6 cm respectively,
A(– 4, 0). Given that the length of the conjugate
find
axis is 6 cm, find the eccentricity and the
a. the eccentricity.
coordinates of the foci.
b. the equations of the asymptotes.
2. The vertices of a hyperbola are A(3, 0) and

A(–3, 0). Given that one of the foci is F(6, 0), find 8. The equations of the asymptotes of a hyperbola
12
the length of the conjugate axis and the eccentricity. are y =  x . If the distance between the foci is
5
78 cm, calculate the lengths of the transverse and
3. The transverse axis of a hyperbola lies on the conjugate axes of the hyperbola.
x–axis and has length 10 cm. If the length of
conjugate axis is 6 cm, find the equations of the
circles and the directrices of this hyperbola. 9. The figure shows y
P
a hyperbola with
foci F(15, 0) and
x
F(–15, 0). F¢(15, 0) F(15, 0)
4. A hyperbola has a focus at F(6, 0) and its
eccentricity is 3. Find the lengths of the transverse If PF = 3 cm and
and conjugate axes of the hyperbola and the PF = 27 cm, find the lengths of the axes of the
coordinates of its vertices. hyperbola and its eccentricity.
10. One of the foci of a hyperbola is F(0, 25). Given

6 that the length of the conjugate axis is 14 cm, find
5. The eccentricity of a hyperbola is and the
5 the length of the transverse axis and the
length of its transverse axis along the x-axis is
eccentricity.
20 cm. Find the length of the conjugate axis, the
distance between the foci and the equations of
the directrices. 11. The vertices of a hyperbola are B(0, 12) and
B(0, – 12) and the length of the conjugate axis is
10 cm. Find
6. A hyperbola has a focus at F(9, 0) and eccentricity a. the coordinates of the foci.
3 b. the eccentricity.
. Find the equations of the asymptotes and the
2
directrices. c. the equation of the directrices.
12. The transverse axis of a hyperbola lies along the 17. Find the lengths of the axes and the eccentricity
y-axis and the lengths of the transverse and of the hyperbola defined by 16x2 – y2 = 16.
conjugate axes are 8 cm and 20 cm respectively.
Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola and the
equation of its directrices.
18. 81y2 – 9x2 = 1 is the equation of a hyperbola.
Find
B. Equation of a Hyperbola b. the equation of the directrices.
13. The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes

of a hyperbola are AA = 8 cm and BB = 12 cm
respectively. Find the equation of this hyperbola. 19. The equation x2 – y2 = 49 defines an isosceles
hyperbola. Find the distance between the foci of
the hyperbola and the positive angle between the
asymptotes of the hyperbola and the transverse axis.
14. Find the lengths of the transverse and conjugate

axes of the hyperbola whose equation is
x2 y2 y2 x2
– =1. 20. The equation of a hyperbola is – =1 . Find
144 64 9 16
x2 y2
15.   1 is the equation of a hyperbola. Find
64 16
21. A hyperbola centered at the origin has its foci on
the x-axis. Given that the hyperbola passes
b. the eccentricity. through the points M(2ñ3, 3ñ2) and N(4, 3ñ3),
c. the equations of the directrices and the find the equation of the hyperbola.
asymptotes.
22. A vertical line is drawn through one of the foci of

x2 y2
the hyperbola – =1. What is the distance
16. 9x2 – 49y2 = 441 is the equation of a hyperbola. 16 36
Find the length of each axis of the hyperbola and between the two intersection points of the line
the distance between its foci. and the hyperbola?
Conic Sections 37
A. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A PARABOLA
1. Parabola and Focus
Definition parabola, focus, directrix
A parabola is a set of points in a plane that are equidistant from y
a fixed point and a fixed line.

H P(x, y)
The fixed point is called the focus of the parabola and the fixed
line is the directrix of the parabola. F
x
K A
In the figure opposite, P, Q and A are points on the parabola. F is
the focus and HL lies on the directrix. By the definition of a Q
L
parabola, PF = PH, AF = AK and QF = QL.
2. Axis and Vertex

The point on a parabola which is closest to the directrix is called the vertex of the parabola.
In the figure above, A is the vertex of the parabola.
The line perpendicular to the directrix which passes throught the focus is called the axis of
the parabola. KF is the axis of the parabola above. Notice that we can also define the vertex
as the intersection point of the parabola and its axis.
Since AF = AK by the definition of a parabola, the vertex of a parabola lies at the midpoint
of its axis. Any parabola is symmetric about its axis.
Note
In this book we generally take the x-axis or y-axis as the axis of the parabola. There are four
basic types of parabola:
y
y y
y
axis
axis axis O
x x x x
O O O
d
axis
d d
opens to the right opens to the left opens upward opens downward
3. Parameter
The length of the line segment between the focus and the directrix of a parabola is called the
parameter of the parabola, denoted by p.
p
In the figure at the start of this section, p = FK and FA = AK = .
2
4. Eccentricity
The eccentricity of a parabola is the ratio of the distance between a point on a parabola and
its focus to the distance between the same point and the directrix.
ellipse: 0<e<1
parabola: e = 1 PF
In the figure at the start of this section, the eccentricity is . But we know from the
hyperbola: e > 1 PH
definition of a parabola that PF = PH, so e = 1.
In fact, we can see that the eccentricity of any parabola is 1 by simply considering the
definition of a parabola. So we can define a parabola in an alternative way as a conic section
whose eccentricity is 1.
5. Directrix
When we define a parabola we look at its vertex and focus. To y
make our calculations easier, we often place the vertex of the
parabola at the origin.
In the figure, O(0, 0) is the vertex of the parabola. K O F
x
p p
p
We know that FK = p so KO = OF = . So the focus of the 2 2
2
p
parabola is at F( , 0) and the equation of the directrix is
2
p
x= – .
2
Depending on the type of parabola (opening to the left, right, upward or downward), we can
p p
see that the four possible equations of the directrix are x =  and y =  .
2 2
EXAMPLE 31 The focus of a parabola is F(3, 0) and its vertex is at

the origin. Find the equation of the directrix.
Solution The parabola opens to the right.
p p
F( , 0) = F(3, 0) so = 3.
2 2
So the equation of the directrix is x = –3.
EXAMPLE 32 Find the focus and eccentricity of the parabola whose vertex is at the origin and whose
directrix is x = 5.
Conic Sections 39
Solution By considering the position of the directrix, we can see that y
the parabola opens to the left.

p p p
The focus is F( , 0) and the directrix is x = – so = 5 .
2 2 2 F
x
So the focus is F(–5, 0). 5 5
The eccentricity of a parabola is always 1.
Note
When solving problems like this, we look at the position of the focus and then write – or +
because the parameter is always positive.
EXAMPLE 33 Find the parameter of the parabola with focus F(0, – 4) whose vertex is at the origin.
p p
Solution The focus is F(0, – ) or F(0, ) . We know p is the distance between the focus and the
2 2
p
directrix and this distance cannot be negative, so we have = 4 and so p = 8.
2
Check Yourself 5
1. F(2, 0) is the focus of a parabola whose vertex is at the origin. Find the parameter p of the
parabola and the equation of its directrix d.
2. The equation of the directrix of a parabola is y = –7. Find the focus F and parameter p of
the parabola if its vertex is at the origin.
3. A parabola whose vertex is at the origin has parameter p = 8. Find the focus F and the
equation of the directrix d if the axis of the parabola lies along the x-axis and the focus is
on the positive side of this axis.
Answers
1. p = 4, d: x = –2 2. F(0, 7), p = 14 3. F(4, 0), d: x = – 4
B. EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
1. Equation of a Parabola with Vertex at the Origin
Let P(x, y) be a point on a parabola whose vertex is at the origin and which lies on the
positive side of the x-axis. Then P satisfies the equation of the parabola.
Look at the figure. By the distance formula we get y
p 2 p y
PF = ( x – ) + y2 and PH = x+ . H P(x, y)
2 2
But PF = PH (by the definition of a parabola), so
x
p 2 p p x p
F( , 0)
(x – ) + y2 = x + 2 2
2 2
p 2 p2
(x – ) + y2 = x2 + px + (take the square of both sides)
2 4
p2 p2
x2 – px + + y2 = x2 + px + . (expand)
4 4
So y2 = 2px is the equation of the parabola in the figure. It is also the equation of any
parabola which lies on the positive side of the x-axis. Let us now summarize the results for
all four different possible positions of a parabola whose vertex is at the origin.
1. If the parabola lies on the positive side of the x-axis then y

we have
p
focus: F( , 0)
2
x
p
p O p
F( , 0)
directrix: x = – 2 2
2
equation: y2 = 2px.
2. If the parabola lies on the negative side of the x-axis then y
we have
p
focus: F(– , 0)
2 x
p O p
p F( , 0)
directrix: x = 2 2
2
equation: y2 = –2px.
3. If the parabola lies on the positive side of the y-axis then y
we have p
F(0, )
2
p
focus: F(0, )
2
p x
directrix: y = – O
2
equation: x2 = 2py.
p

2
4. If the parabola lies on the negative side of the y-axis then y

we have
p
p 2
focus: F(0, – )
2
p x
directrix: y = O
2
equation: x2 = –2py.
p
F(0, )
2
Conic Sections 41
EXAMPLE 34 Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is at the
origin and focus is F(5, 0).
p
Solution = 5 so p = 10.
2
If the focus is F(5, 0) then the parabola lies on the positive
side of the x-axis and so its equation is of the form y2 = 2px.
So the equation is y2 = 2  10  x = 20x.
EXAMPLE 35 Find the equation of the parabola which has its vertex at the origin and each additional
component.
a. focus F(4, 0) b. focus F(0, –5)
1
c. focus F(– , 0) d. directrix d: x – 2 = 0
2
1
e. directrix d: 3y + 1 = 0 f. directrix d: x = –
4
Solution We can examine the focus or the directrix to determine where the parabola lies in the plane.
p
a. The focus is of the form F( , 0) so the parabola lies on the right side of the y-axis and
2
p
gives = 4, p = 8. So the equation is y2 = 2px = 16x.
2
p p
b. The focus is of the form F(0, – ) so the parabola is below the x-axis and = 5,
2 2
p = 10. The equation is x2 = –2py = –20y.
p p 1
c. F(– , 0) is on the left of the y-axis and = , p = 1. The equation is y2 = –2px = –2x.
2 2 2
p
d. The directrix is x = 2 so the parabola is on the left of the y-axis, = 2 and p = 4. equa-
2
tion: y2 = –2px = –8x
1 p 1 2 4
e. directrix: y = – so = and p = ; equation: x2 = 2py = y
3 2 3 3 3
1 p 1 1
f. directrix: x = – so = and p = ; equation: y2 = 2px = x
4 2 4 2
EXAMPLE 36 Find the foci and the directrix of each parabola given that its vertex is at the origin.
1
a. x2 = 4y b. x2 = – y c. y2 = 6x d. y2 = –x
6
p
Solution a. x2 = 4y means p = 2, =1 and the axis of the parabola is
2
the y-axis.
p p
focus: F(0, ) = F(0, 1), directrix: y = – = –1
2 2
1 1 p 1
b. x2 = – y means p = , = and the axis of the
6 12 2 24
parabola is the y-axis.
p 1 p 1
focus: F(0, – ) = F(0, – ), directrix: y = =
2 24 2 24
2 p 3
c. y = 6x means p = 3, = and the axis of the parabola is
2 2
the x-axis.
p 3 p 3
focus: F( , 0) = F( , 0), directrix: y = – = –
2 2 2 2
1 p 1
d. y2 = –x means p = , = and the axis of the parabola is the x-axis.
2 2 4
p 1 p 1
focus: F(– , 0) = F(– , 0), directrix: y = =
2 4 2 4
EXAMPLE 37 P(3, a) is a point on a parabola which has its vertex at the origin and directrix y = –3. Find a.
p
Solution The directrix is y = –3 so = 3, p = 6 and the equation is x2 = 2py, i.e. x2 = 12y.
2
If P(3, a) is on the parabola then it must satisfy the equation of the parabola. So
9 3
32 = 12  a and so a = = .
12 4
EXAMPLE 38 The vertex of a parabola is at the origin of the

coordinate plane and P(1, 2) is a point on the
parabola. Find the equation and focus of this parabola
if its focus is on the positive side of the x-axis.
Solution If the focus is on the positive side of the x-axis then

the equation is of the form y2 = 2px.
The point P(1, 2) must satisfy this equation,
so 22 = 2  p  1 and p = 2.
p
So the equation is y2 = 4x and the focus is F( , 0) = F(1, 0).
2
Conic Sections 43
Check Yourself 6
1. Find the equation of the parabola which has its vertex at the origin and each additional
component.
a. focus F(1, 0) b. focus F(0, –6)
c. focus F(–2, 0) d. focus F(0, 4)
e. directrix d: 2x + 3 = 0 f. directrix d: y = –1
2
g. directrix d: 4y – 5 = 0 h. directrix d: x =
5
2. Find the focus F and the directrix d of each parabola if its vertex is at the origin.
2 1
a. x2 = y b. x2 = – y c. y2 = x d. y2 = – 4x e. 4x2 – 5y = 0
3 2
3. The vertex of a parabola is at the origin and Q(3, –2) is a point on the parabola. Find the
equation and focus of this parabola if the focus is on the negative side of the y-axis.
4. The equation of a parabola is y2 = –8x. A line parallel to the y-axis is drawn through the
focus of the parabola. Find the distance between the two points at which the parabola
intersects this line.
Answers
1. a. y2 = 4x b. x2 = –24y c. y2 = –8x d. x2 = 16y
8
e. y2 = 6x f. x2 = 4y g. x2 = –5y h. y2 = – x
5
1 1 1 1 1 1
2. a. F(0, ), d: y = – b. F(0, – ), d: y = c. F( , 0), d: x = –
4 4 6 6 8 8
5 5
d. F(–1, 0), d: x = 1 e. F(0, ), d: y = –
16 16
9 9
3. equation: x2 = – y, focus: F(0, – ) 4. 8
2 8
2. General Equation of a Parabola in the Plane (OPTIONAL)

We have so far learned the possible equations of a parabola whose vertex is at the origin. How
does the formula change if the vertex is not at the origin but at the point A(h, k)?
In this case the axis of the parabola will be parallel to the x-axis or the y-axis and the form
of the equation of the parabola will change.
Let A(h, k) be the vertex of a parabola and let us look at each possible case in turn.
PARABOLIC REFLECTORS
People all over the world today use digital satellite receivers and
antennas in their houses. If you use a mobile phone, your service provider
will also use receivers on its antenna masts. But do you know how these
devices work?
Parabolas have useful reflective properties. A parabolic reflector (also

called a parabolic mirror) is a dish shaped like a parabola, with a
receiver at its focus. Parabolic reflectors are used to collect and distribute
radio, sound and light waves. They are designed so that any wave
traveling towards the reflector which is parallel to the parabola's axis will
be reflected to the parabola’s focus. Similarly, any wave emitted from the
parabola’s focus will be reflected back parallel to the parabola’s axis.
Satellite antennas use this principle to emit and gather radio waves and
microwaves. They are often used for sending and receiving radio and
telephone communications. These communications are transmitted at high
frequencies. The satellite antennas have a special conversion device at their
focus. This device receives the incoming high-frequency waves, converts
them to a lower frequency and transmits them to an indoor receiver by
cable.
Parabolic reflectors are used in satellite links, radio astronomy,

microwave links, radio relay towers and mobile phone antenna masts.
These applications require high levels of gain to receive the incoming
signals.
Some antennas use a different system, called a Cassegrain reflector
system, to feed the antenna. In this system, the waves hit the center of a
parabolic reflector from the center of the parabola and are then reflected
back. Cassegrain reflectors make it easier to receive and send wawes
efficiently.
Parabolic reflectors are also used to reflect light beams. If a light

source is placed at the focus of a parabolic reflector, the light will be
reflected parallel to the axis. In this way, we can get a straight beam of
light. Spotlights and car headlights both use parabolic mirrors in this
way.
In 1721, the astronomer John Hadley invented a telescope which

used parabolic reflectors. Before Hadley, telescopes had used spherical
mirrors, which do not always reflect rays to the same focus. Hadley’s
design made it easier to reflect rays to a single focus, and so allowed
astronomers to observe light sources more clearly.
EXERCISES 1 .3
A. Basic Elements of a Parabola 7. Find the focus F and the equation of the directrix
d of each parabola if its vertex is at the origin.
1. F(5, 0) is the focus of a parabola whose vertex is 2
a. y2 = 6x b. y2 = – x
at the origin. Find the equation of its directrix. 3
c. 5y2 – 3x = 0 d. x2 = –36y
e. x2 = –y f. 2x2 – 9y = 0
2. Find the focus of the parabola whose vertex is at
the origin and whose directrix is x = 3.
8. A parabola whose vertex is at the origin has

directrix x = –2 and passes through the point
3. Find the parameter of the parabola whose focus is
P(4, a). Find a.
F(0, –6) and whose vertex is at the origin.
4. A parabola whose vertex is at the origin has 9. The vertex of a parabola is at the origin and
parameter p = 6. Find the focus F and the P(3, 4) is a point on the parabola. Find the
equation of the directrix d, given that the axis of equation and focus of this parabola if its focus is
the parabola lies along the x-axis and the focus is on the positive side of the y-axis.
on the positive side of this axis.
B. Equation of a Parabola 10. The equation of a parabola is x2 = 12y. A line

5. In each case, find the equation of the parabola parallel to the x-axis is drawn through the focus
with a vertex at the origin and focus F. of this parabola. Find the distance between the
two points at which the parabola intersects this
a. F(6, 0) b. F(0, –2)
line.
c. F(–4, 0) d. F(0, 8)
6. In each case, find the equation of the parabola 11. The equation of a parabola is y2 = 10x. A line
with a vertex at the origin and the given directrix. parallel to the y-axis is drawn through the focus
a. 2x – 3 = 0 b. 5y – 2 = 0 of this parabola. Find the distance between the
3 two points at which the parabola intersects this
c. x = –ñ3 d. y = –
4 line.
Conic Sections 47
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A
1. An ellipse has foci F(6, 0) and F(–6, 0) and its x2 y2
6. An ellipse is defined by the equation + =1.
major axis measures 20 cm. Find the length of its 9 81
Find the sum of the lengths of its major and
minor axis.
minor axes.
A) 6 cm B) 8 cm C) 12 cm D) 16 cm E) 18 cm
A) 6 B) 12 C) 24 D) 90 E) 180
2. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an 7. An ellipse is defined by x2 + 9y2 = 9. What is the
ellipse are 13 cm and 5 cm respectively. Which eccentricity of this ellipse?
point is a possible focus?
3 2 2 2 1 10
A) B) C) D) E)
A) F(3, 0) B) F(5, 0) C) F(6, 0) 2 3 3 3 3
D) F(12, 0) E) F(0, 18)
x2 y2
8. + =1 is the equation of an ellipse with
a 2 b2
3. The vertices of an ellipse are A(4, 0), A(–4, 0), c 4
= and a – b = 4. What is the value of a?
B(0, 3) and B(0, –3). What is its eccentricity? a 5
3 5 4 7 7 A) 3 B) 4 C) 6 D) 10 E) 15
A) B) C) D) E)
4 4 5 3 4
9. Which point is a focus of the ellipse defined by
9x2 + 25y2 = 1?
3 9 4 4
4. An ellipse has eccentricity e = and its minor A) F(0, ) B) F( , 0) C) F(0, )
5 25 5 5
axis measures 24 cm. What is the length of its
4
major axis? D) F( , 0) E) F(4, 0)
15
A) 5 cm B) 10 cm C) 15 cm D) 24 cm E) 30 cm
10. Find the area between the major circle of the
x2 y2
ellipse + =1 and the ellipse itself.
5. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an 18 50
ellipse are 14 cm and 10 cm respectively. What is A) 20 B) 32 C) 24 D) 30 E) 68
its equation?
A) 25x2 + 49y2 =1225 11. The foci of a hyperbola are F(6, 0) and F(–6, 0)
and the length of its transverse axis is 8 cm. Find
B) 100x2 + 196y2 = 1
the length of its conjugate axis.
C) 25x2 + 49y2 =1
D) 100x2 + 196y2 = 19600 A) 12 cm B) 4ñ7 cm C) ñ3 cm
E) 5x2 + 7y2 = 35 D) 2ñ5 cm E) 4ñ5 cm
12. The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes y2 x2
17. – =1 is the equation of a hyperbola.
of a hyperbola are 8 cm and 10 cm respectively. 144 100
Find the distance between the foci. What is its eccentricity?
A) 12 cm B) 2ò41 cm C) 6 cm 61 6 36 12 11
A) 2 B) C) D) E)
6 5 25 12
D) ò41 cm E) 18 cm
13. A hyperbola has vertices B(0, 4) and B(0, –4).

18. Which of the following is the equation of a
Given that the length of its conjugate axis is 12 cm,
hyperbola?
find the eccentricity of this hyperbola.
A) 3x2 + 5y2 =1 B) 4x2 – 9y2 = 0
13 2 5
A) B) ò17 C) D) ñ5 E) ò13
2 5 C) 16x2 = 9y2 D) x2 = 36y
14. A hyperbola has eccentricity 3 and the length of E) y2 – 8x2 = 1

its conjugate axis is 16 cm. Find the length of its
transverse axis.
19. Which equation describes a directrix of the
A) 6ñ2 cm B) 2ñ3 cm C) 6 cm hyperbola 9x2 – 4y2 = 36?
D) 4ñ2 cm E) 8ñ2 cm 4 13 13 13
A) x = B) y = C) x =
13 13 13
15. The lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes
of a hyperbola are 16 cm and 20 cm respectively. 2 5 9 13
D) x = E) x =
What is a possible equation for this hyperbola? 5 13
x2 y2 x2 y2
A) – =1 B) – =1
16 20 64 100 20. Which equation defines the asymptotes of the
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
C) – =1 D) – =1 hyperbola – =1?
8 10 196 400 100 36
x2 y2
E) – =1 1 2 3
16 36 A) y =  x B) y =  x C) y =  x
2 3 4
16. A hyperbola centered at the origin has eccentricity 3 4
D) y =  x E) y =  x
4 5 5
and a focus at F(4, 0). Find the equation of the
3
hyperbola.
x2 y2 x2 y2
21. Which point is a focus of the hyperbola
A) – =1 B) – =1 9y2 – 16x2 = 1?
3 5 9 49
x2 y2 x2 y2 5 3 3
C) – =1 D) – =1 A) F( , 0) B) F(0, ) C) F( , 0)
3 5 9 7 12 5 5
x2 y2 5
E)  1 D) F(0, 25) E) F(0, )
9 25 12
Chapter Review Test 1A 49

22. F(4, 0) is the focus of a parabola whose vertex is 28. Find the focus F and equation of the directrix d of
at the origin. Find the equation of its directrix. the parabola x2 = 6y if its vertex is at the origin.
A) y = 4 B) y = 16 C) y = –8 A) F(3, 0), d: y = –3
D) x = –4 E) x = –2
3 3
B) F( , 0), d: y = –
2 2
23. Find the focus of the parabola whose vertex is at 3 3
1 C) F(0, ), d: y = –
the origin and whose directrix is x = . 2 2
3 3 3
D) F(0, ), d: y =
1 1 1 2 2
A) F( , 0) B) F(– , 0) C) F(0, )
3 3 3 3 3
E) F( , 0), d: y =
1 2 2 2
D) F(0, – ) E) F( , 0)
3 3
24. Find the parameter of the parabola whose focus is

F(0, –6) and whose vertex is at the origin. 29. A parabola with directrix y = 5 and vertex at the
origin passes through the point P(10, a). What is a?
A) 12 B) 24 C) 6 D) 3 E) –6
A) 3 B) 5 C) –5 D) 10 E) 2
25. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is

F(8, 0) and whose vertex is at the origin.
A) y2 = 32x B) y2 = 16x C) y2 = 8x 30. The vertex of a parabola is at the origin and

2
D) x = 16y 2
E) x = y + 2 P(6, 9) is a point on this parabola. Find the
equation of the parabola if its focus is on the
26. Find the equation of the parabola whose directrix positive side of the y-axis.
is the line 3x + 4 = 0 and whose vertex is at the A) y2 = 4x B) x2 = 4y C) x2 = 2y
origin.
D) x2 = 8y E) y2 = 8x
8 8 32
A) y2 = x B) y2 = y C) y2 = x
3 3 3
16 16
D) y2 = x E) y2 = y
3 3
31. The equation of a parabola is y2 = 12x. A line
parallel to the y-axis is drawn through the focus
27. Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is of this parabola. Find the distance between the
at the origin and whose focus is F(0, –5). two points at which the parabola intersects the
A) x2 = 10y B) x2 = –10y C) y2 = 10x line.
D) y2 = –20x E) x2 = –20y A) 3 B) 6 C) 8 D) 10 E) 12
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
Three car dealers each sell three models of a car. The table below shows the number of cars
each dealer sold in a given month.
Dealer 1 Dealer 2 Dealer 3

Model A 5 7 4
Model B 3 4 9
Model C 2 0 1
We can organize data like this in a matrix. The matrix for our car dealer data is
D1 D2 D3
Model A 5 7 4
A  Model B 3 4 9  .

Model C  2 0 1 
Two large square brackets contain the numbers in the matrix. This matrix has three rows and
The plural form of matrix three columns.
is matrices, pronounced
‘may-trih-sees’. 5 
The column  3  represents the cars sold by the first dealer. The row [5 7 4] represents all
 
2 
the model A cars sold by the three dealers.
Matrices give us an effective way of organizing and manipulating data in different problems.
We can begin our study of matrices with a more formal definition.
Definition matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.
 a11 a12 a13 ... a1n  
a 
 21 a22 a23 ... a2 n  
 a31 a32 a33 ... a3 n   m rows
 . . . . 
 .. .
.
.
.
.
. 
 
am1 am 2 am 3 ... amn  
  
n columns
The horizontal lines of numbers in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called
columns. The number of rows and the number of columns determine the dimensions (also
called the order) of the matrix. A matrix with m rows and n columns has dimensions m × n and
is called an m × n (read as ‘m by n’) matrix. Notice that the number of rows is always given first.
Each number in a matrix is called an entry of the matrix. aij means the entry in the ith row
and jth column of the matrix A.
m × n 3 columns
rows × columns 2 5 4
A   2 rows Matrix A is a 2 × 3 (‘two by three’) matrix.
6 3 0
a13
2 5 4 a13 is the entry in the first row
A   and the third column: a13 = 4.
1st row 3rd column
6 3 0
EXAMPLE 1 Write the dimensions of each real matrix.
0.5  2 0 4 1
1 2   1  
a. A =   b. B =  –1 c. C =  –2  d. D = 5 9 0 7 
4 7   2   
 7   1 0 4 9 
If each entry of a matrix
is a real number then the
matrix is called a real
matrix.
Solution a. [A]2×2 is a 2×2 matrix b. [B]1×3 is a 1×3 matrix

c. [C]3×1 is a 3×1 matrix d. [D]3×4 is a 3×4 matrix
[A]m×n means a matrix A
with m rows and n columns.
2 0 4 1 
EXAMPLE 2 A = 5 9 0 7  is given. Write each matrix entry.
 1 0 4 9 
a. a31 b. a23 c. a34 d. a22
Solution a. 1 b. 0 c. 9 d. 9
 –3 0 5 
EXAMPLE 3 Given A = 
 3 1 3
 , find 2a – 3a2 – 4a .
13 21 23
 2
3
Solution We have a13 = 5, a21 = 3 and a23 = , so the expression becomes
2
2 3
(2  5)  3( 3) – (4  ) =10 – 9 – 6 = –5.
2
Matrices and Determinants 53
B. TYPES OF MATRIX
1. Square Matrix
A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns.
0 0 0
0 0   0 0  are all square matrices. We say that a square matrix has order n if
A matrix with only one
row, such as [1 3 2], is [2],   and 0
0 0  0
called a row matrix. 6 0 
Likewise, a column
it has n rows and n columns.
 1
matrix such as  3 has
 
4 
only one column. 2. Zero Matrix
A zero matrix is a matrix whose entries are all zeros. We write 0 to mean a zero matrix.
0 0  0 0 0 
[0],   and   are all zero matrices.
0 0  0 0 0 
3. Identity Matrix
A square matrix whose main diagonal elements (from top left to bottom right) are 1 and whose
other entries are all zero is called an identity matrix. We write I to mean the identity matrix.
The main diagonal of a
square matrix always  1 0 0
 1 0 0 1
runs from top left to bot- [1],   and 0 1 0  are all identity matrices.   is not an identity matrix.
 
tom right. 0 1 0 0 1  1 0
 a11 
 a 
 nn 
main diagonal 4. Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix in which all the entries except the main diagonal entries are zero is called a
diagonal matrix.
2 0 0 
 –1 0   
 0 8  and 0 5 0  are diagonal matrices.
 
0 0 0 
5. Scalar Matrix
A square matrix whose main diagonal elements are all equal (a11 = a22 = a33 = ...) and whose
other entries are all zero is called a scalar matrix.
7 0 0 
 –5 0 
[8],   and 0 7 0  are all scalar matrices.
 
 0 –5  0 0 7 
Notice that a scalar matrix is a type of diagonal matrix.
C. EQUAL MATRICES
Definition equal matrices
Two matrices are called equal matrices if they have the same dimension and their corresponding
entries are all equal. We write A = B to mean that two matrices A and B are equal.
 1
Notice that [1 2 3]  2  , because these matrices do not have the same dimension:
 3
 
(1×3)  (3×1).
EXAMPLE 4 Find a11, a12, a21 and a22 in the matrix equation.
 a11 a12   2 –1
a =
 21 a22   –3 0 
Solution Since the two matrices are equal, their corresponding entries are equal, and so
a11 = 2, a12 = –1,
a21 = –3, a22 = 0.
 x + y –3  2 –3 
EXAMPLE 5  3
 x – y  = 3 2 x + 3y  is given. Find x, y and z.
  
Solution Since the two matrices are equal, their corresponding entries are equal. So
x + y = 2 (1)
x – y = 2 x + 3y  x + 4 y = 0. (2)
8 2
Solving (1) and (2) for x and y gives us x = , y = – .
3 3
Check Yourself 1
4x +5 9 15  21 9 15 
Solve  = for x and y.
 7 –2 y + 3 –1   7 y – 12 –1 

Answers
x = 4, y = 5

D. OPERATIONS ON MATRICES
1. Matrix Addition
Although we can always add two real numbers together, we cannot always add two matrices.
Adddition and subtraction
In fact, we can only perform matrix addition on matrices with equal dimensions. To add or
are not defined for subtract two matrices A and B, we simply add or subtract corresponding entries.
matrices with different
dimensions.
A + B
 a b   e f  ( a + e ) (b + f )
 c d  +  g h  = ( c + g) ( d + h) 
    
5 0 4 2 2 1 1 5 
EXAMPLE 6 A= 
 2 3 –1
, B=   and C =
5 3 7 
3 0  are given. Write the matrices.
 
a. A + B b. A – B c. A + C
Solution a. Since the matrices have the same dimensions, we can add them.
 5 0 4  2 2 1 5+ 2 0+ 2 4+1  7 2 5 
2 3 –1 + 5 3 7  = 2+5 3+ 3 –1+7  = 7 6 6 
       
b. Since the matrices have the same dimensions, we can subtract them.
A–BB–A
 5 0 4  2 2 1 5 – 2 0 – 2 4 – 1   3 –2 3 
2 3 –1 – 5 3 7  = 2 – 5 3 – 3 –1 – 7  = –3 0 –8 
       
Notice that A – B  B – A.
c. A + C is undefined, since A and B have different dimensions.
EXAMPLE 7 Find each matrix sum or difference.

 1 2   –1 –2   1 2  0 0   1 2  2 –1
a.  +   b.  +   c.  – 
4 3  –4 –3  4 3  0 0  3 –5   1 3 
 1 2   –1 –2  0 0   1 2  0 0   1 2 
Solution a.  +  =   b.  +  = 
4 3  –4 –3  0 0  4 3 0 0  4 3 
 1 2  2 –1 –1 3 
c.  – =  
3 –5   1 3   2 –8 
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

For any three real m × n matrices A, B and C, the following properties hold.
Closure property : A + B is also an m × n matrix.
Remember! Commutative property : A + B = B + A
0 is the m × n matrix Associative property : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
whose elements are all Additive identity :A+0=A
zero.
Additive inverse : A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0
2. Multiplying a Matrix and a Scalar
In matrix algebra, a real number is often called a scalar. To multiply a matrix by a scalar, we
multiply each entry in the matrix by the scalar. This operation is called scalar multiplication.
 a b  c  a c  b 
c = 
 b d c  b c  d 
 1 2 4  2 0 0
EXAMPLE 8 The matrices A =  –3 0 –1 and B =
 
 1 –4 3  are given. Perform the matrix operations.
 
 2 1 2  –1 3 2 
a. 3A b. –B c. 3A – B
 1 2 4  3 1 3 2 3 4   3 6 12 
Solution a. 3 A = 3   –3 0 –1 = 3 (–3) 3 0 3 (–1) = –9 0 –3 
     
 2 1 2   3  2 3 1 3  2   6 3 6 
 2 0 0  –2 0 0 
b. – B = (–1)  1 –4 3  =  –1 4 –3 
   
 –1 3 2   1 –3 –2 
 3 6 12  –2 0 0   1 6 12 
c. 3 A – B = 3 A +(– B) = –9 0 –3 +  –1 4 –3 = –10 4 –6 
     
 6 3 6   1 –3 –2   7 0 4 
 
 
from a from b
EXAMPLE 9   3 2 x   –3 5   0 18 
Solve the matrix equation for x and y. 2   +  = 
 6 4  –3 y 3   6 14 

Solution Simplify the left side of the equation:

  3 2 x  –3 5   0 18 
2  +   =  
 6 4   –3y 3   6 14 
It is often useful to
rewrite a matrix as a scalar  3 – 3 2 x +5  0 18 
multiple of a simpler 2 =  
matrix. For instance, in
6 – 3y 4+ 3  6 14 
the following example
 0 4x +10  0 18 
the scalar 1 has been 12  6 y = .
2
factored out of the  14  6 14 
matrix: Equate corresponding entries and solve the two resulting equations:
1 3 4x + 10 =18 12 – 6y = 6
2 – 
2 1  1 –3
 =
5 1  2 5 1 . 4x = 8 6y = 6
 2 2
x=2 y = 1.

Check Yourself 2
6 –1 4   1 4 2
Given the matrices A =   and B =  , find
2 4 3  –1 5 0 
a. –A. b. 2A – 3B. c. 5A + B.
Answers
 –6 1 –4  9 –14 2  31 –1 22 
a.   b.  c. 
 –2 –4 –3  7 –7 6  
 9 25 15 
3. Matrix Multiplication
It is important to check the dimensions of two matrices before we start to multiply them. If
matrix A has dimension m × n and matrix B has dimension p × q, then the product AB only
exists if n = p. Furthermore, the product will have dimension m × q.
If A is an m × n matrix
and B is an n × p matrix (n = p)
then the product AB is
an m × p matrix.
A  B = AB
m×n n×p m×p
m×n p×q
equal
dimensions of AB
dimension of product (m × q)
We obtain each entry in the matrix AB (the product of A and B) from a row of A and a col-
umn of B as follows: multiply the entries in the ith row of A by the entries in the jth column
of B and add the results to get aij in AB.
jth column of B
ith row of A aij = (1  1) + (3  4) + (2  2) = 17
   1   
1 3 2    4 = 17 
     
   2   
 1 –1 5 
 2 1 –2 
EXAMPLE 10 A=
3 1 5
 
 and B = –2 0 6  are given. Find the products.
 3 2 4 
a. AB b. BA
Solution a. The product AB is defined because A has dimension 2 × 3 and B has dimension 3 × 3.
Moreover, the product AB will have dimension 2 × 3. Look at the procedure for calculating
the product:
2  1 + 1  (–2) + (–2)  3 = –6
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 
1st row, 1st column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  =  
    
 3 2 4 
2  (–1) + 1  0 + (–2)  2 = –6
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 –6 
1st row, 2nd column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  =  
    
 3 2 4 
2  5 + 1  6 + (–2)  4 = 8
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 –6 8 
1st row, 3rd column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  =  
    
 3 2 4 
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 –6 8 
2nd row, 1st column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  = 16 
    
 3 2 4 
3  1 + 1  (–2) + 5  3 = 16
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 –6 8 
2nd row, 2nd column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  = 16 7 
    
 3 2 4 
3  (–1) + 1  0 + 5  2 = 7
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2    –6 –6 8 
2nd row, 3rd column  3 1 5    –2 0 6  = 16 7 41 
    
 3 2 4 
3  5 + 1  6 + 5  4 =41
 1 –1 5 
2 1 –2   –6 –6 8 
So the product is     –2 0 6  =  .
 3 1 5   3 2 4  16 7 41 
 
b. Since the dimensions of B and A are 2 × 2 and 3 × 2 respectively, the product BA is not
defined. This shows us that matrix multiplication is not always commutative: AB  BA.

Check Yourself 3
Find the products.
 –2 4 2 
 1 0 3    3 4  1 0  1 2   –1 2 
a.    1 0 0 b.    c.   
 2 –1 –2   –1 1 –1  –2 5  0 1 1 1  1 –1
 
Answers
 –5 7 –1  3 4  1 0
a.   b.   c.  
 –3 6 6   –2 5  0 1
 0 3 –1 7 
EXAMPLE 11 Given the matrices A =  
 –2 6 
and B = 
 2 4
, show that AB  BA.
Solution Using the definition of the product of two matrices, we get

 0 3  –1 7   0  (–1)+ 3  2 0 7+ 3 4   6 12 
AB =    2 4  = (–2)  (–1)+6  2 (–2) 7+6 4  = 14 10 
 –2 6      
Matrix multiplication is not  –1 7   0 3  (–1)  0+7 (–2) (–1) 3+7 6  –14 39 
BA =   = = .
in general commutative:
 2 4   –2 6   2  0+ 4 (–2) 2  3+ 4 6   –8 30 
AB  BA.
Thus AB  BA.
The figure shows the computer network from Example 19. Find the matrix that represents
EXAMPLE 12 the number of ways that data can be sent from one computer to another through exactly one
computer.
Computer A
Computer B Computer C
Computer D
Solution This example shows how the product of twe matrices can be useful. The product of matrix X
with itself (or the square of matrix X) gives us the number of ways that data can be sent from
one computer to another through exactly one computer.
0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0  1 1 1 2
0 0 1 1  0 0 1 1  1 2 0 1 
X2 = X  X =  =
1 1 0 1  1 1 0 1  0 2 2 1
(to)     
0 1 0 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 1 1
A B C D
A The 1 in the first row, first column of X2 means that Computer A can send data to itself in
1 1 1 2
(from) B 1 2 0 1 
one way (via Computer C). Likewise, the 2 in the first row, fourth column means that

C 0 2 2 1
Computer A can send data to Computer D in two ways (via either Computer B or Computer
  C). Notice that, for example, B cannot send data to C through any other computer, so the cor-
D 0 0 1 1
responding matrix entry is 0.
EXAMPLE 13 The following table shows the probabilities of a taxi ride ending at each of three destinations
for taxis traveling among three sections of a city. For example, the probability of picking up
a rider southside and dropping him off downtown is 30%.
Destination
Pickup
Northside Downtown Southside
Northside 50% 20% 30%
Downtown 10% 40% 50%
Southside 30% 30% 40%
What is the probability of starting downtown and being downtown again after two taxi rides?
Solution Let us represent the information we are given in a matrix:

N D S
N 0.5 0.2 0.3 
D  0.1 0.4 0.5  = P.
S 0.3 0.3 0.4 
0.5 0.2 0.3  0.5 0.2 0.3  0.36 0.27 0.37 

Then P2 = P  P =  0.1 0.4 0.5  0.1 0.4 0.5 = 
0.24 0.33 0.43 

Remember!
 0.3 0.3 0.4  0.3 0.3 0.4   0.3 0.3 0.4 
If E1 and E2 are independent
events then the probability
The second column of the product matrix P2 shows the probability of ending up downtown
of events E1 and E2 both
happening is after two trips, given the original starting point of either N, D or S. The Downtown to
P(E1  E2) = P(E1)  P(E2). Downtown probability is in the middle: 0.33, or 33%.

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
If A, B, C are any three matrices whose products are defined and k is any real number, then
the following properties hold.
1. A(BC) = (AB)C (associative)
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC (distributive)
3. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
Remark 1. In general, AB  BA.
2. If AB = 0, we cannot conclude (in general) that either A = 0 or B = 0.
3. If AB = AC then it is not true in general that B = C. In other words, the cancellation laws
do not hold for matrix multiplication.
We can verify 2 and 3 as follows:
1 2   2 2 0 0 
A=  , B=   but AB =  .
1 2   –1 –1 0 0 
 1 0 0 0  0 0 
Also, for A =   , B=   and C =   we have
0 0  0 2  0 3 
0 0  0 0 
A B=   and A  C = 0 0  but B  C.
 0 0   
4. If A is a square matrix and n   then A0 = I, A1 = A, A2 = AA, A3 =AA2, ..., An = AAn – 1.
5. In = I
6. AI = IA
AI = A
II=I
2 0  0 1 
EXAMPLE 14 Given X = 
 1 –1

and Y = 
2 –3 
2 2
 , find XY, YX, X and Y .
 2 0  0 1  2  0+0  2 2 1+0 (–3)   0 2

Solution XY =   2 –3  = 1  0+(–1)  2 1 1+(–1) (–3)  = –2 4 
 1 –1     
0 1 2 0   0  2+1 1 0  0+1 (–1)  1 –1 
YX =     = =  
 2 –3  1 –1 2  2+(–3) 1 2 0+(–3) (–1)  1 3 
2 0  2 0   2  2+0 1 2  0+0 (–1)  4 0 
X2 =     = =  
 1 –1  1 –1 1  2+(–1) 1 1 0+(–1) (–1)  1 1 
0 1 0 1  0  0+1  2 0 1+1 (–3)   2 –3 
Y2 =   2 –3  = 2  0+(–3)  2 2 1+(–3) (–3)  = –6 11 
 2 –3      
0 3
EXAMPLE 15 A= 
2 0 
is given. Find A206.
Solution First we calculate A2:
0 3  0 3  6 0  1 0 
A 2 = AA =   2 0  = 0 6  = 6 0 1 = 6I.
 2 0      
Remember!
 1 0
1. I =   is the Now A206 = (A2)103, and substituting A2 = 6I gives us (6I)103 = 6103  I103.
0 1
identity matrix. 6103 0 
n
2. I = I
Finally, since I103 = I, we get 6103  I =  103  . This is the required matrix.
0 6 
3 2 
EXAMPLE 16 Let A =  1986
 . Find A .
0 –3
Solution First we calculate A2:
 3 2  3 2  9 0  1 0 
A 2 = AA =     =  =9  = 9I.
0 –3  0 –3  0 9  0 1 
Also, A1986 = (A2)993, and substituting A2 = 9I gives us (9I)993 = 9993  I993.
9993 0 
Since I993 = I, we get 9993  I =  .
993
0 9 
2
 –4 x  –1 0 
EXAMPLE 17 Solve  
– x 4
=
 0 –1
.
Solution First expand the left-hand side:

2
 –4 x  –4 x   –4 x  16 – x2 0 
– x 4 =  – x 4  – x 4  =  
      0 16 – x2 
Now equate corresponding entries:

16 – x2 = –1
x2 = 17
x = ò17. This is the solution.

Check Yourself 4
1. Calculate the products.
 1 –1 1 2 
 3 1 3 –6 
a.    b.  1 1 1 2 
  
 –1 2  5 7   –1 1 –1 2 
2 0 3 
2. Given  1 0 1 , find A2 and A3.
 
0 2 0 
3. Given the function f(x) = x2 – 5x + 2I where I is the identity matrix,
2 0 
calculate f(A) for A =  
 4 5 .
Answers
 2
14 –11  
1. a.   b.  6 
Remember!  7 20   –2 
 
a b
p
 c d  4 6 6  14 12 18 
 pa pb 
2. A = 2 2 3 , A =  6 6 8 
2  3
=
   
 pc pd   2 0 2   4 4 6 
 –4 0 
3.  
 8 2
F. THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX

1. Definition
So far we have looked at some of the similarities between the algebra of real numbers and
the algebra of matrices. In this section we will extend the algebra of matrices to include the
solution of equations.
To begin, consider the real number equation ax = b. To solve this equation for x, we can mul-
tiply both sides of the equation by
1
a –1 = (provided that a  0).
a
ax = b
(a  a)  x = a–1  b
–1
1  x = a–1  b
x = a–1  b.
The number a–1 is called the multiplicative inverse of a, because, a–1a = 1 (the identity element
for real number multiplication). We can define the multiplicative inverse of a matrix in a sim-
ilar way.
Definition inverse matrix, invertible matrix, singular matrix
Let A and B be two square matrices with dimension n × n. Then B is called the inverse of A if
AB = BA = In,
where In is the identity matrix of order n. We write A–1 to mean the inverse of a matrix A.
A matrix which has an inverse is called an invertible matrix. A matrix which does not have
an inverse is called a noninvertible (or singular) matrix.
Only square matrices have invenses: non-square matrices do not have inverses. To see this,
1
notice that if A is of dimension m × n and B is of dimension n × m (where n  m), then the
A –1 
A products AB and BA are of different dimensions and therefore could not be equal to each
other.
 –1 2  1 –2 
EXAMPLE 18 Given A = 
 –1 1
 and B = 
1 –1
, show that A and B are inverses of one another.
Solution First calculate the products:

 –1 2  1 –2  –1+ 2 2 – 2  1 0 
AB =   = =  
 –1 1 1 –1  –1+1 2 – 1  0 1 
1 –2   –1 2  –1+ 2 2 – 2  1 0 
BA =   = =  .
1 –1  –1 1  –1+1 2 – 1  0 1 
Both product matrices are the 2 × 2 identity matrix for multiplication, so AB = BA = I2 and
therefore A and B are inverses of one another.
 1 4
EXAMPLE 19 Find the inverse of the matrix A =  .
 –1 –3 
Solution To find the inverse of A, we need to solve the matrix equation AX = I for X.
 1 4  a b   1 0 
 –1 –3   c d  = 0 1 .
    
Multiplying A and X gives us
 a + 4c b + 4d   1 0 
 – a – 3c – b – 3d  = 0 1 .
   
Equating the corresponding entries gives
a + 4c = 1 b + 4d = 0
and
–a – 3c = 0 –b – 3d = 1.
Solving these two systems, we find that a = –3, b = –3, c = 1 and d = 1.

So the inverse of A is
 –3 –3 
X = A –1 =  .
 1 1
As an exercise, check this result using matrix multiplication.
The following rule provides a simple way of calculating the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix when it exists.
a b x y 
 z t  be two matrices which satisfy A  A = I.
–1 –1
Let A =   and A =
 c d   
Multiplying these two matrices gives us
 a b   x y  1 0  ax + bz ay + bt  1 0 
 c d   z t  = 0 1  , cx + dz cy + dt  = 0 1 .
        
So ax + bz = 1 ay + bt = 0
,
cx + dz = 0 cy + dt = 1.
Solving these two systems gives us
d –b c a
x= , y= , z= , t= , i.e.
ad – bc ad – bc ad  bc ad – bc
 d –b 
 ad – bc ad – bc  Factor out 1
A –1 =  . (ad – bc  0) to get
 –c a  ad – bc
 ad – bc ad – bc 
1  d – b
A –1 = . This is the form of the inverse of [A]2×2.
ad – bc  – c a 
Rule inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix

a b
A matrix A =   is invertible if and only if ad – bc  0. If the inverse exists, it is given by
 c d
1  d – b
A –1 =  .
ad – bc  – c a 
 1 5
EXAMPLE 20 Find A–1 if A =  .
 2 3
Solution Using the rule for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, we get

 3 5
1  3 –5  1  3 –5  – 7 7
A –1 =  =  =  .
AA–1 = I = A–1A
1  3 – 5  2  –2 1 –7 –2 1  2 1
–
 7 7 
 3x+1 6 
EXAMPLE 21 For which value of x does the matrix A = 
 4 2 
have no inverse?
Solution By the theorem for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, A is singular when ad – bc = 0. So

(3x + 1)  2 – (4  6) = 0
6x + 2 – 24 = 0
Remember! 6 x – 22 = 0
A singular matrix is a 11
matrix with no inverse. x= .
3
 –3 m
EXAMPLE 22 A=
 2 – m 3 
–1
 is a matrix such that A = A . Find A.
Solution Since A = A–1, AA–1 = AA = I.

 –3 m   –3 m   9+ 2m – m 2 –3m + 3m 
So A  A =     = 
2 – m 3  2 – m 3   –6+ 3m +6 – 3 m 2 m – m +9 
2
 – m2 + 2m +9 0  1 0
= =   , which gives us
 0 – m + 2 m +9  0 1 
2
–m2 + 2m + 9 = 1, i.e, m2 – 2m – 8 = 0.
Solving the quadratic equation for m gives us m1 = 4 or m2 = –2.
 –3 4   –3 –2 
If m1 = 4, A1 =   . If m2 = –2, A2 =   . So there are two possibilities for the matrix A.
 –2 3   4 3
Check Yourself 11  1
4 6  a 3
1. Find A–1 if   . 2. Let A =   . Find a if A = A–1.
 1 2 1 b
 12 
 2 –4 
3. For which value of x does the matrix A =  have no inverse?
Answers  –3 log x 
 1 –3 
35
1.  1  2.  3. 106
– 2 6
 2 

CRYPTOGRAPHY
If you have ever tried to send a secret message to someone, you have probably used cryptography. Cryptography is the study
and use of special codes to send and receive messages. In the past, people used codes to communicate secret messages such
as information about battleships and soldiers in a war. Today, cryptography helps us to send messages around the world in dig-
ital form, and also keeps private information about people and companies safe.
There are many different kinds of code. One kind involves the use of matrices and their inverse. For example, imagine that
you have a matrix B that contains a message you want to send in code. To encode the message, create a second invertible
matrix A so that the product AB exists, and then calculate AB. Make sure that the receiver of your message knows the inverse
matrix A–1, then you can send your message as AB. The receiver of the message then calculates the product of A–1 and your
message. Indeed, we have
A–1(AB) = B,
which is the original message.
The following table shows a simple code for sending messages. Each letter of the alphabet corresponds to a number: for exam-
ple, the letter R corresponds to 17 and N corresponds to 13. The space between two words corresponds to the number 26.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P Q R S T U V W X Y Z – ? . ,
15 16 17 18 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Follow the steps to encode the word ESCAPE:
1) ESCAPE corresponds to the number sequence 4 18 2 0 15 4. We can write this as the 2 x 3 matrix B:
4 18 2 
B=  .
0 15 4 
3 5
2) Create an invertible matrix A such as A =   to encode the message, then calculate the product AB:
 1 2
 3 5  4 18 2  12 129 26 
AB =   = .
 1 2  0 15 4   4 48 10 
3) The encrypted message is 12 129 26 4 48 10.
To decode the message, repeat the steps but use the inverse of A. The inverse of our encoding matrix is
–1 1  2 –5   2 –5 
A = = .
6 – 5  –1 3   –1 3 
12 129 26 
Write the encrypted message as the 2 x 3 matrix C =  .
 4 48 10 
Finally, multiply C by A–1 to get the original message:
–1  2 –5  12 129 26  4 18 2 
A C=  =  .
 –1 3   4 48 10  0 15 4 
The product gives the decoded message 4 18 2 0 15 4.
This product gives us the message 4 18 2 0 15 4, which corresponds to ESCAPE.
Notice that to make this process easy, both A and A–1 should contain only integers. We can use our knowledge of matrices to
generate A: if A is a matrix with determinant 1 and only integer entries, then its inverse will also contain only integers.
Try encoding other short messages with matrices. Can you find any disadvantages of this encoding technique?
EXERCISES 2 .1
D. Operations on Matrices 6. Solve the matrix equations for a, b, c and d.
1. Calculate A + B, A – B, 2A and 2A – B for each  a – b 2b + c  5 1
a.  = 
pair of matrices.  c – 2b a + d  5 5 
 1 2 –3 –2  a + b b + c   0 3
a. A =  , B=  b.  = 

 2 1  4 2

 a – c b – a  –3 2 
 6 –1  1 4
A =  2 4  , B =  –1 5  7. Calculate AB in each case.
b.    
 –3 5   1 10  2 –1 0 0 
a. A =   , B=  
 1 4 3 –3 
 3  –4  3 –1  1 –3 
 2 , B =  6  b. A =   , B= 
1
c. A =      1 3 3
 –1  2 
1 –1  1 3
c. A =   , B=  
1 1 –3 1
 1 –1 7  1 1 2 
2. Find c21 and c13 if C = 3A – 2B,   
d. A =  2 –1 8  , B = 2 1 1
 5 4 4  1 2 –7   3 1 –1  1 –3 2 
A=  and B =  .
 –3 1 2  0 –5 1 
2 
e. A = [3 2 1], B =  3
 
0 
3. Find c23 and c32 if C = 2A + 5B,
 4 11 –9   1 2 –7  8. Calculate AB in each case.
A =  0 3 2  and B = –4 6 11 .
   2 1 0 –1 0 
 –3 1 1 –6 4 9 
a. A =  –2 4  , B = 4 0 2 
 
 1 6  8 –1 7 
0 –1 0   2
4. Solve the matrix equation for a, b and c. b. A = 4 0 2  , B = –3 
 
a b  b c 4 a 8 –1 7   1
4  =2  +2  
 c –1  – a 1 5 – a   –1 3 
 1 2
c. A =  4 –5  , B =  
 0 2  0 7 
5. Find k, m and n if  1 0 0 3 0 0 
 n k   –4 3   1 n d. A = 0 4 0  , B = 0 –1 0 
 
 1 –3  =  2 –1 + 2 m k .
      0 0 –2  0 0 5 

0 0 –5  6 –11 4  B. The Inverse of a Matrix
    12. Show that B is the inverse of A in each case.
e. A = 0 0 –3  , B = 8 16 4 
0 0 7  0 0 0 
 –2 1
 1 2  3
 6 a. A =   , B =
 1
 –2  3 4 – 
 2 2 
f. A =   , B =[10 12]
 1
   2 –17 11 1 1 2 
 6 b. A =  –1 11 –7  , B = 2 4 –3 
 
 –2  1 6
g. A =  1 0 3  , B = 4 2 
 0 3 –2  3 6 –5 
6 13 8 –17   
1 
2 0 0
 2 0 0   
1
c. A =  0 –3 0  , B =  0 – 0
   3 
 0 0 4  
1

0 0
 4 
0 1 0  3 1 2
9. Compute the given power of A for the matrix
d. A =  1 1 2  , B =  1 0 0 
 
  0 2 1 2 0 1 
A =  1 0 .
0 –1
13. Find the inverse of each matrix, if it exists.
a. A29 b. A30
 1 2  1 –2  2 4 
a.   b.   c.  
3 7  2 –3  4 8 
 1 1 1  1 2 2
11 1  3 7 9
d.   e. 3 5 4  f.
   
 –1 0  3 6 5   –1 –4 –7 
10. Solve each matrix equation for A.

 1 2 1 0 2 –1 1 0  1
a.   A=  b.   A=  x – 2 
3 5  0 1  3 –2  0 1 14. A =   and A = A–1. Find x + y.
y 1
 5 
x 2
15. A =   and A  A = A . Find x  y.
–1 2
 y –2 
11. Verify that AB = BA for the matrices 1 3 5 

 7  is not invertible. Find a.
 cos  – sin   cos  – sin   16. A =  3 0
A= and B =  sin  cos  .
 sin  cos      1 3 a – 9 
A. THE DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX
Every square matrix can be assigned a real number which is called the determinant of the
matrix. This number is useful when we are calculating the inverse of a matrix or solving
a system of linear equations. We write det A, |A|, D or  to mean the determinant of a square
matrix A.
Only square matrices
have determinants.
1. Determinants of 1×1 and 2×2 Matrices
Definition determinant of a 1×1 matrix
The determinant of a 1×1 matrix [a] is a.
1 1 1
For example, det [6] = |6| = 6, det [–5] = |5| = –5 and det   = = .
[A] is a matrix. |A| is a 3 3 3
determinant.
Definition determinant of a 2×2 matrix
a b 
The determinant of a 2×2 matrix   is ad – bc.
 c d
We can remember this rule visually like this:
+ –
a b
= ad – bc.
c d
Look some examples of the determinants of 2×2 matrices:

1 2
A= , det A = |A| = (1  4) – (2  3) = –2
3 4 
2 3
B=  , det B = |B| = (2  7) – (3  5) = –1
5 7 
5 –3 
C= , det C = |C| = [5  (–2)] – [(–3)  6] = 8.
6 –2 
Notice that the determinant of a matrix can be either positive or negative.

EXAMPLE 23 Evaluate the determinant of each matrix.
1 2  a 0  2 – k –3 
a.   b.   c. 
4 7  0 a   k 3 
1 2  a 0  2
Solution a.   = (1  7) – (2  4) = –1 b.   = ( a  a) – (0  0) = a
4 7  0 a 
2 – k –3 
c.  = (2 – k)  3 – (–3)  k = 6 – 3 k+ 3 k = 6
 k 3 
99876 99877 
EXAMPLE 24 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix  .
99874 99875 
Solution Let x = 99874, then we can write

99876 99877 x+ 2 x+ 3
=
99874 99875 x x+1
= (x + 2)(x + 1) – x(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x + 2 – x2 – 3x
= 2.
EXAMPLE 25 Evaluate the determinant of each matrix.

15 18  2006 2002 
a.   b.  
18 15   2005 1999 
15 18
Solution a. = (15  15) – (18  18) = 152 – 182
18 15
= (15 – 18)  (15 + 18) = (–3)  33 = –99
2006 2002 a+7 a+ 3
b. Let a = 1999, then =
2005 1999 a+6 a
= (a + 7)a – (a + 3)(a + 6)
= a2 + 7a – (a2 + 9a + 18)
= –2a – 18
= –2(a + 9)
= –2  2008
= –4016.
2. Minors, Cofactors and Cofactor Matrices
Definition minor
Let A be a square matrix. The minor of an entry aij, denoted by Mij, is the determinant of the
square matrix formed when we delete the ith row and jth column from A.
1 2 3 4
2 2 2 4 
For example, to find the minor of a24 in the matrix  , we first cross out the row
4 5 6 4
 
An n × n matrix has n2 7 8 9 4
minors.
and column that pass through entry a24 (i.e. delete the second row and the fourth column of
the matrix). The determinant of the new, smaller matrix is the minor M24.
cross out all entries sharing a

matrix A minor M24
row or column with entry a24
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 3
 2 2 4  2
 2 2 4 
4 5 6 =0
The determinant 4 5 6 4 4 5 6 4
(therefore a minor) is a     7 8 9
real number. 7 8 9 4 7 8 9 4
 2 0 1
EXAMPLE 26 Find all the minors of the matrix A =  2 –1 3  .
 
 0 1 4 
Solution The minors of the given matrix are M11, M12, M13, M21, M22, M23, M31, M32 and M33.
To find the minors, we eliminate each corresponding row and column and then calculate the
determinant of the remaining entries.
2 0 1 2 0 1
–1 3 2 3
M11 = 2 –1 3  = = (–1)  4 – 1  3 = –7 M12 = 2 –1 3  = = 2  4 – 0 3 = 8
1 4 0 4
0 1 4  0 1 4 
2 0 1 2 0 1
2 –1 0 1
M13 = 2 –1 3  = = 2 1 – 0 (–1) = 2 M21 = 2 –1 3  = = 0  4 – 1 1= –1
0 1 1 4
0 1 4  0 1 4 

2 0 1 2 0 1
2 1 2 0
M22 = 2 –1 3  = = 2  4 – 0 1= 8 M23 = 2 –1 3  = = 2 1 – 0  0 = 2
0 4 0 1
0 1 4  0 1 4 
2 0 1 2 0 1
0 1 2 1
M31 = 2 –1 3  = = 0  3 – (–1) 1=1 M32 = 2 –1 3  = = 2  3 – 2 1= 4
–1 3 2 3
0 1 4  0 1 4 
2 0 1
2 0
M33 = 2 –1 3  = = 2  (–1) – 2 0 = –2
2 –1
0 1 4 
Definition cofactor
A cofactor Cij is a real number defined in terms of the minor Mij as
Cij = (–1)i + j  Mij.
Notice that the sign of the cofactor Cij depends on i, j and the minor Mij. If the power of (–1)
is an even number then we leave the minor alone (multiply by 1). However, if the power of
(–1) is an odd number then we multiply the minor by (–1).
We can summarize this idea in the following sign matrix. We can see that C11 = M11, C12 = –M12,
C13 = M13, and so on.
 –  –  
 –  –  – 
 
 –  –  
 
      
Definition cofactor matrix

Let A be an n × n matrix and let Cij be the cofactor of aij. Then the cofactor matrix of A is
 C11 C12  C1n 
C  C2 n 
 21 C22 .
     
 
C
 n1 C n2  Cnn 
2 0 1
EXAMPLE 27 Find the cofactors of the matrix A = 2 –1 3  from Example 4 and write the cofactor
 
0 1 4 
matrix of A.
Solution The minors of the matrix A (from Example 4) are
M11 = –7, M12 = 8, M13 = 2,
M21 = –1, M22 = 8, M23 = 2,
M31 = 1, M32 = 4, M33 = –2.
Using the formula Cij = (–1)i + j  Mij, we get
C11 = (–1)1+1  M11 = (–1)2  (–7) = –7
We could also write the
minors in a matrix:
C12 = (–1)1+2  M12 = (–1)3  8 = –8
 –7 8 2  C13 = (–1)1+3  M13 = (–1)4  2 = 2

 –1 8 2  C21 = (–1)2+1  M21 = (–1)3  (–1) = 1
 
 1 4 –2  C22 = (–1)2+2  M22 = (–1)4  8 = 8
and apply the signs
C23 = (–1)2+3  M23 = (–1)5  2 = –2
+ – +
 – + – C31 = (–1)3+1  M31 = (–1)4  1 = 1
 
+ – + C32 = (–1)3+2  M32 = (–1)5  4 = –2
to get the same result. C33 = (–1)3+3  M33 = (–1)6  (–2) = –2.
 –7 –8 2 
 
So the cofactor matrix of A is  1 8 –2 .
 1 –4 –2 
3. The Determinant of a 3×3 Matrix

We have seen how to find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix. In this section we will look at
two different methods for finding the determinant of a 3×3 matrix: first by using a process
called cofactor expansion, and second by using the rule of Sarrus.
a. Finding the determinant with cofactors
Definition cofactor expansion
 a11 a12 a13 

 a23  by multiplying the entries
We can calculate the determinant of a matrix A  a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 
in any row or column by the cofactors of their minors. The cofactor expansion along the ith row is
|A| = (ai1  Ci1) + (ai2  Ci2) + (ai3  Ci3).
Similarly, the cofactor expansion of the jth column is
|A| = (a1j  C1j) + (a2j  C2j) + (a3j  C3j).

 –1 2 4 
EXAMPLE 28  
Find the determinant of the matrix A =  2 1 3  by cofactor expansion
 3 2 1
a. along the first row.
b. along the second column.
Solution a. By the definition we have just seen,
–1 2 4
1 3 2 3 2 1
For a 3×3 determinant,
2 1 3 = (–1)  (–1)1+1  2 (–1)12  4 (–1)1+3
2 1 3 1 3 2
the sign matrix is 3 2 1
+ – +
  = –(1 – 6) – 2(2 – 9)  4(4 – 3)
– + – .
+ – +
= 5  14  4 = 23.
b. Again by the definition,
–1 2 4
2 3 –1 4 –1 4
2 1 3 = 2(–1)1+2  1(–1)2+2  2(–1) 3+2
3 1 3 1 2 3
3 2 1
= –2(2 – 9)  (–1 – 12) – 2(–3 – 8)
=14 – 13  22 = 23.
Notice that the determinant is the same in each case. Indeed, it doesn’t matter which row or
column we choose for cofactor expansion: the determinant of a matrix will always be the
same. In general, it is best to choose the row or column with the most zero entries, as this
makes the calculations easier.
 2 4 0
EXAMPLE 29 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A =  1 4 3  .
 
 –2 3 5 
Solution Let us expand the cofactors along the first row, since it contains a zero.
2 4 0
4 3 1 3 1 4
1 4 3 = 2  (–1)1+1  4 (–1)1+2  0 (–1)1+3
3 5 –2 5 –2 3
–2 3 5
= 2(20 – 9) – 4(5+6)+0
= 22 – 44 = –22
x 1 x
EXAMPLE 30 Solve for x: 2 3 4  16.
x 5 x
Solution Let us expand the cofactors along the first row.
x 1 x
3 4 2 4 2 3
2 3 4 = x – +x
5 x x x x 5
x 5 x
= x(3x – 20) – (2 x – 4 x)+ x(10 – 3 x)
= 3x2 – 20 x + 2 x + 4 x +10 x – 3 x2
16 = –8 x
x = –2
Check Yourself 5
 –3 4 2 
1. Find the minors for the entries –3, 1 and –8 in the matrix  6 3 1 .

 4 –1 –8 
 1 –2 4 
2. Find the cofactors for the entries –2, 0 and 7 in the matrix 3 0 –1 .
 
5 7 2 
3. Find the determinant of each matrix.
 1 1 2  –1 0 1
 1 10   19 20 
a.   b.   c.  1 –2 3 d.  1 2 3 
   
5 8  20 19  2 4 1  4 5 0 
Answers
1. M11 = –23, M23 = –7, M33 = –29 2. C12 = –11, C22 = –18, C32 = 6
3. a. –42 b. –39 c. 7 d. 12
b. The rule of Sarrus

We can also find the determinant of a 3×3 matrix as shown in the figure below. First we copy
the first two rows or columns, then we add the products of one set of diagonals and subtract
the products of the other diagonals from the result.
–
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a
 11 a12 a13  –
 
det A =  a21 a22 a23  a21 a22 or  
det A =  a21 a22 a23  –
 a31 a32 a33  a31 a32  a31 a32 a33 
a11 a12 a13 +
– – – + + +
a21 a22 a23 +
We can define this rule more formally as follows: +

Definition rule of Sarrus
 a11 a12 a13 

Let A =  a21 a22 a23  . Then det A is defined as
 a31 a32 a33 
det A = a11a22a33 + a21a32a13 + a31a12a23 – a31a22a13 – a32a23a11 – a33a21a12
= a11a22a33 + a21a32a13 + a31a12a23 – ( a31a22a13 + a32a23a11 + a33a21a12).
 1 3 4
EXAMPLE 31 
Use the rule of Sarrus to evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = 2 5 –1 .

 3 –2 3 
Solution Let us write the first column and the second column of A after the third column:
 1 3 4 1 3
A = 2 5 –1 2 5
 3 –2 3  3 –2
– +
– +
– +
So by the rule of Sarrus we have

det A = [(1 5 3) + (3 (–1)  3) + (4  2  (–2))] – [(4  5  3) + (1  (–1)  (–2)) + (3  2  3)]
= (15 – 9 – 16) – (60 + 2 + 18)
= –10 – 80
= –90.
We can check this result by using cofactor expansion. Let us expand the cofactors along the
first row:
1 3 4
5 1 2 1 2 5
2 5 –1 =1  3 4
2 3 3 3 3 2
3 2 3
=1  (15  2)  3(6  3)  4( 4 15)
=13  27  76
= 90.
As we can see, the determinant is the same in each case.
 1 i i +1
EXAMPLE 32  
Use the rule of Sarrus to evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = 0 1 i – 1 , where i2 = –1.
0 i i 
Solution Use the rule of Sarrus.
1 i i +1 det A = (i + 0 + 0) – (0 + i2 – i + 0)
A = 0 1 i – 1 = i – (–1 – i)
0 i i  =i+1+i
– 1 i i 1 + = 2i + 1.
– 0 i i +
– +
Check Yourself 6
1. Find the determinant of each matrix by using the rule of Sarrus.
a.  b. 
1 2 0 1 –2 3 
   
 –1 1 1  –1 1 0 
 0 2 1  0 2 1
   
Answers
1. a. 1 b. –7
 1 1 
 2 1
6
 
EXAMPLE 33 Find the determinant of the matrix A =  –
 3
2 1
3
0 .

 
 1 –
1
0
 4 4 
Solution Since the third column has two zeros, we can expand the determinant along the third
column. However, the fractions in the matrix will make the calculations complicated.
Therefore, before expanding let us see if we can get rid of the fractions inside the matrix.
1 3
Notice that = . We can write
2 6
1 1 3 1 6 1 1 1
1 3 1 6
2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
2 1 2 1 1 1
– 0=– 0 =  (–2) 0 .
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
– 0 – 0 – 0
4 4 4 4 4 4

1 1
So there is a common factor of in the first row. Likewise, we can factor out of the
6 3
1
second row and out of the third row. As a result, we have
4
1 1 1
3 1 6
6 6 6 3 1 6
1 1 1 1 1
det A =  (–2) 0 =    –2 1 0.
3 3 6 3 4
1 –1 0
1 1
– 0
4 4
Now the calculations are easier. Expanding along the third column we get
3 1 6
1 1 1 1 –2 1 1
   –2 1 0 = 6  = . This is the determinant.
6 3 4 72 1 –1 12
1 –1 0
Property
Let A be an n × n matrix. If each element in one row (or column) of its determinant is
multiplied by a real number k and the resulting elements are then added to the corresponding
elements of another row (or column), then the resulting determinant is the same as the
original one.
 1 4 1
EXAMPLE 34 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A =  2 –1 0  .
 
 0 18 4 
Solution Add –2 times the first row to the second row:

1 4 1 1 4 1
det A = 2 –1 0 = 0 –9 –2
0 18 4 0 18 4
By the property we have just seen, this new determinant is equal to det A.
Notice that the third row is a multiple of the second row, i.e. [0 18 4]= –2[0 –9 –2].
So |A| = 0.
1 a a2
EXAMPLE 35 Prove that 1 b b2 = ( b – a)( c – a)( c – b).
1 c c2
Solution Subtract the first row from the second row and the third row:
1 a a2 1 a a2
1 b b2 = 0 b – a b2 – a2 .
1 c c2 0 c–a c2 – a 2
Expand the determinant by the first column:
1 a a2
b – a b2 – a2 b – a ( b – a)( b + a)
0 b – a b2 – a2 =  .
2 2
2
c–a c –a 2
c – a ( c – a)( c + a)
0 c– a c –a
Factor out (b – a) and (c – a):

1 ( b + a)
= ( b – a)( c – a)
1 ( c + a)
= (b – a)(c – a)(c – b), as required.
 2 –3 10 
EXAMPLE 36  
Find the determinant of A =  1 –2 –2  .
 0 1 –3 
Solution Using the properties we have seen, we can rewrite |A| in triangular form as follows:
2 –3 10 1 2 –2
Interchange the
1 –2 –2 = – 2 –3 10 first two rows.
0 1 –3 0 1 –3
1 2 –2 Add –2 times the

first row to the
= – 0 –7 14
second row to get
0 1 –3 a new second row.
1 2 –2
Factor –7 out of
=7 0 1 –2 the second row.
0 1 –3
1 2 –2 Add –1 times the

second row to the
= 7 0 1 –2 . third row to get a
new third row.
0 0 –1
Now, because the final determinant is the determinant of a triangular matrix, we can con-
clude that the determinant is |A| = 7  1  1  (–1) = –7.
Property
Let A and B be two square matrices of the same size, then the determinant of their matrix
product is the product of their determinants, i.e.
det(AB) = det A  det B.

EXAMPLE 37 Compute det (A2) if det A = 5.
Solution det (A2) = det (AA) = (det A)  (det A) = 5  5  25.
 1 2 0 2 
EXAMPLE 38 Verify the theorem det (AB) = det A  det B for the matrices A =  
 –1 3 
and B =  .
 1 –1
 1 2  0 2  2 0 
Solution A B=   =  
 –1 3   1 –1 3 –5 
2 0
det ( A  B) = = –10. (1)
3 –5
1 2 0 2
Also, det A = = 3 – (–2) = 5 and det B= = –2, so
–1 3 1 –1
det A  det B = 5  (–2) = –10. (2)
Combining (1) and (2) gives us det (AB) = det A  det B, as required.
Theorem
Let A be an n × n matrix. If the elements of a row or column are expressed as binomials, the
determinant can be written as the sum of two determinants as follows:
a+ k b+l c+ m a b c k l m
d e f =d e f +d e f .
g h i g h i g h i
EXAMPLE 39 Evaluate the following determinants.

2004 2005 2006
165 187
a. b. 2003 2004 2005
167 188
2002 2003 2004
165 187 165 187 165 187 165 187

Solution a. = = +
167 188 165+ 2 187+1 165 187 2 1
165 187
Since the rows are the same, = 0.
165 187
165 187 165 187
So = =165 1 – 187  2 = 209.
167 188 2 1
2004 2005 2006 2003+1 2004+1 2005+1
b. 2003 2004 2005 = 2003 2004 2005
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004
2003 2004 2005 1 1 1

= 2003 2004 2005 + 2003 2004 2005
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004
  
since the first row and the
second row are the same,
the determinant is zero
1 1 1
= 2002+1 2003+1 2004+1
2002 2003 2004
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2002 2003 2004 + 1 1 1
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004
= 0+0 = 0.
Check Yourself 7
1. Which property of determinants is illustrated by each equation?
2 3 5 1 –2 –3
1 2
a. =0 b. 0 0 0 = 0 c. 7 2 0 = 0
–2 –4
4 2 –1 1 –2 –3
1 3 2 1 2 3 2 5 0 3 2 1
4 12 1 3
d. 2 5 4 = – 2 4 5 e. 1 7 2 =– 1 7 2 f. =4
–3 2 –3 2
0 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1 2 5 0
3 6 0 1 2 0 2 5 0 3 2 1
g. 15 10 20 =15  3 2 4 h. 1 7 2 =– 1 7 2
1 0 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 2 5 0
0 5 2 0 5 2
3 –2 3 –2
i. = j. 2 –1 3 = – –2 1 –3
9 5 0 11
7 5 0 7 5 0
2. Compute det(A2) if det A = –3.
 
3. A =  1 3  and det(AB) = 28 are given. Find det B.
 4 –2 
Answers
2. 9 3. –2
DATA MATRICES
If you visit any large supermarket today, the cashier will calculate your grocery bill using a bar code reader. The reader reads
a set of vertical lines called a bar code, which is printed on grocery packaging to uniquely identify each product. Linear bar
codes like this are used in many modern applications: they are printed on boxes, product labels, magazines and books, and
help companies to track their stock as it is manufactured, transported and sold.
However, linear bar codes (also called UPC bar codes) have some limitations. In particular, the vertical lines can only be read
accurately if they are printed in high contrast, which requires good quality printing and means that the bar code cannot be
very small. This makes linear bar codes unsuitable for some things, such as identifying small electronic components.
A data matrix is a different kind of bar code. Instead of using vertical lines, a data matrix stores information as a set of black
and white squares (called cells) which are arranged in a square or rectangle. Data matrices can be printed in low contrast
and can also be very small, which makes them appropriate for marking and tracing small parts. Data matrices are widely used
in the automotive, aerospace, electronics, semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries.
A data matrix has four main parts:
 an L-shaped solid border around two sides,
 an L-shaped dotted border along the other two sides,
 the data storage area inside the symbol, and
 a ‘quiet zone’ around the whole symbol, which must not contain any writing or marks.
The special coding used to create the data matrix is free for anyone to use, which means that anyone can create and read
data matrix codes without paying a license.
Solid border Broken border Data storage area
ISBN 978-605-112-034-8
9 786051 120348
Data matrix Linear bar code

Advantages of Data Matrices
Data matrices have the following advantages over traditional linear bar codes:
 They encode information digitally (as a set of 0 and 1 digits).
 They can be very small and printed with low contrast, so they can be printed directly on small parts.
 They offer high information density, which means that a small matrix can carry a lot of data.
 They can be printed at different sizes.
 They have good built-in error correction, which means that a data matrix can still be read even if up to 20% of it is miss-
ing or damaged.
 They are read by video cameras instead of a laser beam, which means that they can be read in any orientation (e.g. upside
down).
Storage Capacity
A data matrix is square or sometimes rectangular, and is made up of an arrangement of between 8 x 8 and 144 x 144 black
and white cells. A matrix can store up to 3116 numbers, or 2335 alphanumeric characters (i.e. letters and numbers). In com-
puting terms, a data matrix can store anything between a few bytes and two kilobytes of data. This is much more efficient
than a UPC linear bar code, which can encode only 12 numbers plus one ‘check digit’ for error correction.
Activities
 Search the Internet for online barcode generators. Try making a data matrix containing your name and the name of your
school (select ‘data matrix’ as your symbology or bar code type). How big is each matrix?
Now try making a linear bar code with the same information (select ‘UPC’ as your data symbology or bar code type). Can
you do it?
 How could you write a data matrix as a numerical matrix like the ones you are studying in this book?
 How many distinct pieces of information can be encoded if the area inside the border of a data matrix is
a) a 1 x 1 matrix?
b) a 2 x 2 matrix?
c) a 5 x 5 matrix?
 What size of square matrix would you need in order to encode every letter of the English alphabet, if each matrix had to
contain one letter?
EXERCISES 2 .2
A. The Determinant of a Matrix  –1 27
1. Evaluate the determinants. 4. Given the matrix A =  3 0 –2  , compute the
 4 11 1
1 2 7 0 13 12
a. b. c. cofactors C12, C23 and C31.
5 8 11 6 12 13
101 100 a a +1 x–2 x

d. e. f.
100 101 a –1 a x x–2
5. Evaluate the determinants.

1 3 2 3 –2 1
a. 2 1 3 b. 4 3 0
3 0 5 5 1 0
2. Evaluate the determinants. 2 –1 3 15 12 10

25 26 105 107 c. 1 0 2 d. 0 0 1
a. b. 1 2 1 4 5 6
27 28 109 111
1113 1117 cos 25  – sin 25  15 15 10 2 –1 3
c. d. e. 2 2 4 f. 1 2 –1
1111 1115 sin 25  cos 25 
1 1 6 3 –4 7
cos15  sin15  2007 – a 2008 – a
e. f.
sin15 cos15  2009 – a 2010 – a
7. Find x in each case.

3 4 3 x 1 x
a. –2 x 4 = 30 b. x 1 1 =0
x –1 x 1 1 x
 4 11 9 
3. Given the matrix A = 0 3 2  , compute the 2 2 0 1 2 x–1
 3 1 1 c. 2 x 0 =0 d. x 2x x =0
minors M12, M23 and M31. x 2 6 0 x 1
1. The following matrix shows the results of a recent  1 2  b a
poll. 6. A    and B =   are equal. Find
 –3 a  –3 c 
For Against
a + b + c.
Proposition 1 1553 771 
Proposition 2  689 1633  A) –1 B) 1 C) 2 D) 4 E) 5
Proposition 3  2088 229 
Given these results, which conclusion is false?  1 –2   a 1  2 –1
7. If  + = , what is a + b?
A) There were 771 votes against Proposition 1. 0 b  3 –1 3 3 
B) More people voted against Proposition 1 than A) 5 B) 1 C) 3 D) 4 E) 0

voted for Proposition 2.
C) Proposition 2 has little chance of passing.  sin x 
8. What is [sin x cos x]   ?
D) More people voted for Proposition 1 than for  cos x
Proposition 3.
 sin x 
E) There were 229 votes against Proposition 3. A) [cos x sin x] B)   C) [1]
cos x 
4 –1 –6 5  1 1
2.  + =? D)  E) [–1]
7 2   –3 –1 
1 1
 –2 1 4 –2   –2 4 
A)   B)   C)  
 4 1 4 1   1 4  6 4
1 5 6 
9. What is     –2 0  ?
 4 1  –2 4  2 –4 0   8 0 
D)   E)    
 –1 4   4 1
 44 4   4 44  44 4 
A)   B)   C)  
2 –1 20 8  20 8   8 20 
3. If A =   , what is (2  a12) + (3  a22)?
1 3  20 8   4 20 
D)   E)  
A) –4 B) –2 C) 3 D) 5 E) 7  4 44  44 4 
 –2 1 –1
4. If A =   , what is a23 – (2  a12) + a11?  1 1
 1 0 2 10. If A =   , what is A ?
207
0 1
A) 5 B) 3 C) 1 D) –2 E) –3
0 1   1 1  1 207 
A)   B)   C) 
a 0  1 0  0 1 0 1 
5. A =  is a zero matrix. What is a + b?
 0 1 – b 
1 1  1 0 
D)   E)  
A) –1 B) 0 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4 0 207  0 207 

5 –3   4 2 1 0
11. What is the inverse of  ?
 –2 1  17. If  –5 2 0 8  , what is a11  a23 – a13?
 
 2 –3 8 1
 –5 –3   –1 –3   –1 3
A)   B)   C)  
 2 –1  –2 –5   2 –5  A) 32 B) 24 C) –1 D) 0 E) –2
 1 3  1 2
D)   E)  
2 5  3 4 
18. What are the values of x and y in this matrix
 a equation?
2
12. If [1 2 a 5]   =[0], what is a?  –2 –1 –16 –8 
 3 2x   = 
   –10 5   y 40 
4
A) 4, –80 B) –4, –80 C) 4, 80
A) –6 B) –4 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
D) 8, –80 E) 2, –40
3 a  1  –1
13. If      =   , what is a?
2 a +1  x   2 
a 0 
19. A =  is an identity matrix. Find
A) –3 B) 1 C) 2 D) –1 E) 3  b 2 – c 
a + b + c.
 x 1
14. A =   and A  A = A . What is y – x?
–1 2
A) –1 B) 0 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
 y 1
A) –5 B) –4 C) –3 D) –2 E) –1
15. Which matrix has no inverse? 1 1 

20. If A =  2
 and f(x) = x + x – 2, what is f(A)?
4 2 
6 0  4 6  –2 4 
A)   B)   C)  
0 5   –6 –9   3 6 1 4 
A) 
4 –2 
B) 
2 4 
C) 
  
4 5  4 1  1 5 
 1 1  –4 4 
D)   E)  
0 1  2 1  4 4
D) 
1 2 
E) 
 
16 8  2 3 
2 –1 1 0 
16. Find   +2   .
1 2 1 –1
3 –2 
 –2 1 4 2   –2 4  
A)   B)   C)   21. If A = 
1 2 
and A 1 =  5 5  , what is a?
 
 4 1 3 1   1 4  –1 a  1 1 
 5 5 
 4 1 4 –1
D)   E)  
 –1 4  3 0  A) 5 B) 1 C) 3 D) 4 E) 0
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B
1. A triangle with vertices (–4, 1), (2, 3) and cos 2 x cos x  | A|
(x, –1) has an area of 11 square units. What is x 5. A =   is given. What is ?
 sin 2 x sin x  cos x
if x is a positive number?
A) tan x B) cot x C) 1
A) 11 B) 9 C) 6 D) 2 E) 1
D) sin x E) sin 2x
 1 –1 6. A is a 3 × 3 matrix with |A| = 2. Find det(2A).

2. A =  –1
 is given. Find det(A ).
 2 3
1 1 A) 32 B) 30 C) 24 D) 16 E) 8
A) 25 B) 5 C) 1 D) E)
5 25
 1 –1 1 x   4 
7. Given  –1 1 2    y  =  8  , find z.
x –1 x2 –1  2 1 3   z  11
3. Solve 2
= .
1 x x +1 1 1 1
A) –2 B) – C) – D) 3 E) 4
2 3
A) 3 B) 2 C) 1 D) 0 E) –1
a2 –a
8. Evaluate if a and b are the roots of the
b2 b
log 2 6 1
4. Evaluate the determinant . equation x2 + x – 2 = 0.
ln e log 36 16
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4 A) –4 B) –2 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
Chapter Review Test 2B 89

2 sin x 1+ cos x  2x x x
9. f ( x) = . Find f (  ).  –3x –2 x  x  = –27,
1 – cos x sin x 3 13. If   what is x?
 x x x 
1 3
A) B) C) 1 D) 2 E) 4 A) 3 B) 1 C) –1 D) –3 E) –4
4 4
b + c c b 
 | A|
e x
e 2 14. A =  c c+ a a . Simplify .
10. Given = 24, find x. abc
e –2 ex  b a a + b 
A) 4 B) 1 C) a + b
A) –5 B) 3 C) 2 D) ln 2 E) ln 5
D) a + b + c E) –1
11. Find the sum of the entries in the first column of

15. Find the determinant of the matrix
 1 2 –1
  1 x y + z 
the adjoint of the matrix A = 2 3 0  . 1 y x + z  .
 1 –1 2   
1 z x + y 
A) –5 B) –4 C) –3 D) 2 E) 4 A) x  y  z B) 0 C) –1
D) x + y + z E) 1
 1 2  1 –2  16. Which one of the following cannot be a value of x

12. Given A =   and B–1 =  , find
 –1 3  3 2   1 x –1
det(A–1B). if the inverse of the matrix 2 –1 3  exists?
 
1 1 12 14  1 –2 1
A) B) C) 2 D) E)
80 40 5 5 A) –1 B) –2 C) –5 D) –8 E) –11
Many interesting and important results in mathematics have been discovered by first observing
patterns in some specific cases and then making generalisations from the observations, that
is, by applying inductive reasoning. For example, it is easy to form a conjecture about the sum
of the first k odd positive integers.
1 = 1
1+3 = 4
1+3+5 = 9
1+3+5+7 = 16
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25
.
.
.
The numbers 1, 4, 16, and 25 are the squares of the first five positive integers, and so it
appears that the sum of the first k odd positive integers is exactly k2. Since the kth odd positive
integer may be written as (2k – 1), the conjecture may also be expressed as an equation:
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k – 1) = k2
Although this particular formula is valid, it is important for you to see that recognising a
pattern and then simply jumping to the conclusion that the pattern must be true for all
values of n is not a logically valid method of proof. There are many examples in which a pat-
tern appears to be developing for small values of n and then at some points the pattern fails.
One of the most famous cases of this was the conjecture by the French mathematician Pierre
de Fermat (1601 - 1655), who speculated that all numbers of the form
n
Fn = 22 + 1, n = 0,1,2, ...
are prime. For n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, the conjecture is true.
The fifth Fermat number (F5 = 4294967297) is so great that it was difficult for Fermat to
determine whether it was prime or not. However, another well-known mathematician,
Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783) , later found the factorisation
F5 = 4294967297 = 641(6700417)
which proved that F5 is not prime, and therefore Fermat's conjecture was false.
Just because a rule, pattern, or formula seems to work for several values of n, you cannot
simply decide that it is valid for all values of n without goind through a legitimate proof.
A. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Mathematical induction is based on simple characteristics of the natural numbers which are
stated in the following theorem.
Theorem Induction Theorem

If ID is a subset of natural numbers so that
1. 1  ID and
2. k  ID implies k + 1  ID, then ID = IN+
Proof On the contrary, that ID  IN+, then there exists at least one element, say m  IN+
such that m  ID. So this implies that (m – 1)  ID, and if (m – 1)  ID, then
(m – 1) – 1 = (m – 2)  ID. By this way, we can easily see that,
(m – 3), (m – 4), ... , 3, 2, 1
will not be an element of ID. But by induction theorem, 1  ID, so we conclude the this is a
contradiction. Therefore, ID = IN+.
Axiom
Let IN+ be the non-empty set with
1. 1  IN+ .
2. For each n  IN+, n*  IN+ called successor of n.
3. For each n  IN+, we have n*  1.
4. If m, n  IN+ and m* = n*, then m = n.
5. An subset K of IN+ having the properties
a. 1  K
b. k*  K whenever k  K is equal to IN+
In order to prove a proposition by mathematical induction, it is enough to satisfy the fifth
Peano Axiom. These axioms will investigated in advanced algebra.
Induction theorem is useful particularly for proving propositions involving the positive
integers. To formulate the following principle of mathematical induction, it is convenient to
let Pn be a proposition where n is the positive integer.
Conclusion Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let a  IN+ and Pn be a proposition involving the positive integer n  a. If,
1. the proposition is true for n = 0, that is Pa is true, and
2. for every positive integer k, the truth of Pk implies the truth of Pk + 1, then Pn must be true
for all positive integers n.
Mathematical Induction 93
The set Na = {n | n  a} where a  IN+ is called the truth set of Pn. Note that, after verifying
that Pa is true you must assume that Pk is true for some k  N+. This assumption is called
“Induction hypothesis”.
A well - known illustration used to explain why the
principle of mathematical induction works is the
unending domino line. Proving that “P1 is true” is like
knocking over the first domina. Proving that “whenever
Pk is true then Pk + 1 is also true” is likehaving the
dominos arranged so that each one would knock down
the next one as it fell. That means, you could knock
them all down simply by pushing the first one.
Mathematical induction works in the same way. Since
P1 is true, then P2 must be true. Since P2 is true, P3
must be true. Since P3 is true, hhen P4 must also be
true, and so on. This suggests that you can prove a
statement Pn to be true for n  k by showing that Pk
implies Pk + 1.
EXAMPLE 1 Prove by mathematical induction that the proposition

n( n  1)
Pn :1  2  3  ...  n 
2
is true for all n  IN+.
1  (1  1
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 is true since 1  .
2
2. For n = k, assume that
k( k  1)
pk : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k  .
2
holds. We must show that, for n = k + 1,
( k  1)( k  2)
Pk + 1 : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + (k + 1) = .
2
Now, adding “k + 1” to the each side of the equality
k( k  1)
Pk : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = .
2
we obtain
k( k  1)
1  2  3  ...  k  ( k  1)   ( k 1)
2
k2  3k  2

2
( k  1)( k  2)
 .
2
Thus, Pk + 1 is true whenever Pk is true. Hence.
n( n  1)
Pn :1  2  3  ...  n 
2
is true n  IN+.
EXAMPLE 2 Prove by the mathematical induction that

a. 2 + 3 + 6 + ... + 2n = n(n + 1)
b. 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n – 1) = n2
are true for all n  IN+.
Solution You may work out for the proof by yourself.
EXAMPLE 3 Use mathematical induction to prove that

n( n  1)(2 n  1)
Pn :12  2 2  32  ...  n2 
6
for all n IN+.
1 2  3
Solution 1. When n = 1, the formula is valid, because P1 :12  .
6
2. Assume that
k( k  1)(2k  1)
Pk :12  22  32  ...  k2 
6
holds.
We must show that
( k  1)( k  2)(2k  3)
Pk1 :12  22  32  ...  ( k  1) 2  .
6
Now, adding (k + 1)2 to each side of the induction hppothesis, we obtain
k( k  1)(2k  1)
12  22  32  ...  ( k  1) 2  ( k 1) 2
6
k( k  1)(2k  1)  6( k  1) 2

6
( k  1)[k(2k  1)  6( k  1)]

6
( k  1)(2k2  7k  6)

6
( k  1)( k  2)(2k  3)
 .
6
Thus, Pk + 1 holds when Pk is true. Hence Pn is true n  IN+.
EXAMPLE 4 Prove by mathematical induction that
n2 ( n  1)2
Pn :13  23  33  ...  n3 
4
for all n IN+.
Solution You may work out for the proof by yourself.
EXAMPLE 5 Prove by mathematical induction that, for all positive natural numbers
1 1 1 1 n
Pn :    ...   .
1 2 2  3 3  4 n ( n  1) n 1
1 1
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 :  is true.
1 2 1  1
2. For n = k, assume
1 1 1 1 k
Pk :    ...   .
1 2 2  3 3  4 k ( k 1) k 1
Now, we will show that
1 1 1 k 1
Pk 1 :   ...   .
1 2 2  3 ( k  1) ( k  2) k  2
By hypothesis, we have
1 1 1 k 1
Pk 1 :   ...   .
1 2 2  3 ( k  1) ( k  2) k  2
1
By adding ( k  1)  ( k  2) to each side of this of this equality, we get
1 1 1 1 k 1
  ...     .
1 2 2  3 k  ( k  1) ( k  1) ( k  2) k 1 ( k 1) ( k 2)
That is, we have

1 1 1 1 k2  2 k  1
   ...  
1 2 2  3 3  4 ( k  1) ( k  2) ( k 1) ( k  2)
( k  1)2

( k  1)  ( k  2)
( k  1)
 .
k2
Therefore, Pk+1 is true. Hence, n  IN+:
1 1 1 1 n
Pn :    ...  
1 2 2  3 3  4 n ( n  1) n  1
EXAMPLE 6 Prove by mathematical induction that n  IN+
1  rn
Pn : 1  r  r 2  ...  r n 1  , ( r  1).
1 r
1  r1
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : 1  , (r  1) is obviosly true.
1 r
2. Assume that for n = k,
1  rk
Pk : 1  r  r 2  ...  r k 1  , ( r  1)
1 r
holds. We will show that Pn is also true for n = k + 1. Now, by assumption
1  rk
1  r  r 2  ...  r k 1  , ( r  1)
1 r
Adding rk to each side of the equality above, gives
1 rk
1  r  r 2  ...  r k1   r k , ( r  1)
1 r
1  r k  r k  r k1
 1  r  r 2  ...  r k1  , ( r  1)
1 r
1  r k1
 , ( r  1)
1 r
That is, Pn is true for n = k + 1. Hence, n  IN+:

1  rk
1  r  r 2  ...  r k 1  , ( r  1)
1 r
EXAMPLE 7 Prove by the mathematical induction that the sum of cubes of three consecutive natural
numbers is divisible by 9.
Solution Let n, n + 1 and n + 2 be three consecutive natural numbers (n  IN+). The given proposi-
tion in mathematical form is
Pn : 9 |n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3.
1. For n = 1 , P1 : 9 | 13 + 23 + 33 . P1 is clearly true, since 9 | 36.
2. Assume that Pk is true, i.e.,
k3 + (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3
is divisible by 9. We will show that Pk implies Pk + 1, i.e., we’ll prove that Pk + 1 must also
be true,
9 | (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 + (k + 3)3
Now, by the assumption, we have
k3 + (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 = 9t (t  IN+).
Adding –k3 + (k + 3)3 to the both sides of the equality gives
k3 + (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 – k3 + (k + 3)3 = 9t – k3 + (k + 3)3
 (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 + (k + 3)3 = 9t – k3 + k3 + 9k2 + 27k + 27
= 9t + 9k2 + 27k + 27
= 9(t + k2 + 3k + 3).
Since 9(t + k2 + 3k + 3) is divisible by 9, we may easily conclude that Pk + 1 is also true.
Hence, by 1° and 2°
Pn : 9 | n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3
is true for all n  IN+.
EXAMPLE 8 Use mathematical induction to prove that for all n  IN+ the number “32n – 1” is of the form
8k, k  Z.
Solution The proposition is Pn : 8 | 32n – 1.

1. For n = 1,
P1 : 8 | 32  1 – 1 is clearly true.
2. Assume that Pk : 8 | 32  k – 1 is true. Now, we will prove, for n = k + 1,
Pk + 1 : 8 | 32(k + 1) – 1.
By hypothesis, 32k – 1 = 8t(t  Z). Multiplying both sides of this equality by 32, we obtain
32  (32k – k) = 32  8t  32k + 2 – 32 = 72t
 32(k + 1) – 9 = 72t,
 32(k + 1) – 1 – 8 = 72t
 32(k + 1) – 1 = 72 t + 8,
 32(k + 1) – 1 = 8(9t + 1).
It can easily be seen that 32(k + 1) – 1 is also of the form 8k, k  Z. i.e., Pn is al true for
n = k + 1. Therefore, n  IN+.
8 | 32n – 1.
EXAMPLE 9 Find the truth set Na, a  IN+ of Pn : 2n < n! and prove it by mathematical induction.
Solution 1. P1 : 21 < 1!  2 < is not true.

P2 : 22 < 2!  4 < 2 is not true.
P3 : 32 < 3!  8 < 6 is not ture.
P4 : 24 < 4!  16 < 24 is true. So the truth set is
N4 {4, 5, 6 ...}
2. Assuming that Pk is true, i.e., Pk : 2k < k!, we have to prove that the truth of Pk + 1 follows
from that of Pk. In other words, we will show that
Pk + 1 : 2k + 1 < (k + 1)!
is true. It is clear that for k > 3, 2 < k + 1. Also, by hypothesis 2k < k!. Multiplying these
inequalities side by side, we get
2k · 2 < k! · (k + 1)  2k + 1 < (k + 1)!
We conclude that Pn is also true for n = k + 1, hence
Pn : 2n < n!C
is true for all n  N4.
EXAMPLE 10 Prove “Bernoulli Inequality” by mathematical induction.

“Bernoulli Inequality”
n  IN+ and for 1 + x  0, (1 + x)n  1 + nx.
Solution 1. For n = 1, (1 + x)1  1 + 1  x and also for n = 2, (1 + x)2  1 + 2  2

Since
1 + 2x + x2  1 + 2x  x2  0
is always true.
2. Assuming for n = k, Pk : (1 + x)k  1 + kx holds, we will verify that
Pk + 1 : (1 + x)k+1  1 + (k + 1)x
also holds. By hypothesis, we have
(1 + x)k  1 + kx.
Multiplying both sides of this inequality by 1 + x gives.
(1 + x)k (1 + x)  (1 + kx) (1 + x)  (1 + x)k + 1  1 + x + kx + kx2
 (1 + x)k + 1  1 + (k + 1)x + kx2.
Recall by the transitive property, a, b, c  IR if a  and b  c, the a  c.
By using this this property, since
(1 + x)k + 1  1 + (k + 1)x + kx2
and, kx2  0 for k  IN+,
1 + (k + 1)x + kx2  1 + (k + 1)x,
we can get
(1 + x)k + 1  1 + (k + 1)x.
That means, Pk + 1 is also true. Hence, Bernoulli Inequality is true for all n  IN+.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
BERNOULLI, JAKOP or JACQUES (1654 - 1705)

Swiss mathematician, born in Basel. He was the first of the famous Bernoulli family to
achieve distinction in mathematics. He developed the newly invented calculus into a powerful
mathematical tool, applying it to the solution of a variety of problems. In 1682 he opened a
seminary in Basel for mathematics and experimental physics. He was appointed professor of
mathematics at the University of Basel in 1687. In his Ars conjectandi he laid the foundations
of the theory of probability; Bernoulli’s Theorem, given there, is of great importance where the
number of “trials” is large. He and his brother Johann were the first to be elected foreign
associates of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
EXAMPLE 11 Prove that hep proposition

n2
Pn : 12  2 2  32  ...  ( n  1)2 
3
holds for all n  IN+.
13
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : (1 – 1)2 < is true.
3
2. Induction hypothesis:
Assume Pk is true; i.e.,
k3
Pk : 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (k – 1)2 <
3
holds. Then, we will prove that Pk+1 is also true. By adding k2 to both sides of the inequality
k3
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (k – 1)2 < ,
3
we obtain
k3
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (k – 1)2 + k2 < + k2 (I)
3

Now, it is clear that for every k  IN+
k3 + 3k2 < k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1  k3 + 3k2 < (k + 1)3,
k3  3k2 ( k  1)3
 ,
3 3
k3 ( k  1)3
  k2  (II)
3 3
By using the transitive property, from the inequalities I and II, we get
( k  1)2
12  2 2  32  ...  k2  .
3
Thus, Pk + 1 is also true. Hence, we can conclude that
n3
12  22  32  ...  ( n  1)2  .
3
EXAMPLE 12 Use mathematical induction to prove that

Pn : IN  
f IN  , f (1)  1, f ( n )  f ( n 1)n  n!.
Solution 1. P1 is true, since f(2 – 1) · 2 = 2!.

2. First, we assume for n = k,
f  IN+, f(1) = 1, f(k) = f(k – 1)k = k!.
Pk : IN+ 
holds. Yet, we must show Pk+1 holds either. By induction hypothesis, we know
f(k) = f(k – 1)k = k!
Multiplying both sides of this equality by k + 1 gives
f(k – 1) · k (k + 1) = k! · (k + 1) = f(k) (k + 1) = k + 1)!.
That is
f  IN+, f(1) = 1, f(k + 1) = f(k) (k + 1) = (k + 1)!
Pk+1 : IN+ 
Hence, Pn is true n  IN+.

EXAMPLE 13 For n  3, Pn : 2n > 2n + 1. Prove that Pn is true for all n  IN+.
Solution 1. For n = 3, P3 : 23 > 2 · 3 + 1 is clearly true.

2. Assuming
Pk : 2k > 2k + 1
is true, we will verify that Pk + 1 is also true. Now, for k  3 it is clear that 2k > 2 and by
hypothesis, we have
2k > 2k + 1.
Adding these two inequalities side by side yields.
2k + 2k > 2k + 3  2k + 1 > 2(k + 1) + 1.
Therefore, Pk+1 is also true. Hence,
n  3, 2n > 2n + 1.
Theorem De Moivre’s Theorem

If z = r(cos  + i sin ) is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then
zn = [r (cos  + i sin ) ]n = rn (cos n + i sin n).
EXAMPLE 14 Prove “De Moivre’s Theorem” by mathematical induction.
Solution 1. For n = 1, [(r cos  + i sin ) ]1 = r(cos (1) + i sin (1) is true.
2. Assuming that the formula
[r(cos  + i sin ) ]k = rk (cos k + i sin k)
is true, we must show that the formula
[r(cos  + i sin ) ]k + 1 = rk + 1 [cos (k + 1) + i sin (k + 1))
also holds. Now, by induction hypothesis, we have
[r (cos  + i sin )k = rk (cos k + i sin k).
If we multiply each side of this equality by r(cos  + i sin ), we obtain
[r (cos  + i sin )]k [r (cos  + i sin )] = rk (cos k + i sin k) [r(cos  + i sin )],
[r (cos  + i sin )]k + 1 = rk + 1 [cos (k + ) + i sin (k + )]
= rk + 1 [cos (k + 1) + i sin (k + 1) ].
Hence, for all positive integer n,
[r (cos  + i sin )]n = rn (cos n + i sin n).

EXAMPLE 15 Prove by mathematical induction that n  IN+, n!  nn – 1.
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : 1!  11 – 1, for n = 2, P2 : 2!  n2 – 1 and for n = 3, P3 : 3!  33 – 1. Thus P1, P2

and P3 are all true.
2. Assume that, for n = k,
Pk : k!  kk – 1
is true.
Now, we will show that
Pk + 1 : (k + 1)!  (k + 1)k
also holds. We know, by induction hypothesis, that k!  kk – 1. Multiplying both sides of this
inequality by k + 1 yields.
k! · (k + 1)  kk – 1 · (k + 1) = (k + 1)!  kk + kk – 1 (I).
By using binomial expansion
k k k
( k  1)k  ( )kk  ( )kk 1  ( )kk  2  ... 1,
0 1 2
we can obtain the following inequality
(k + 1)!  (k + 1)k.
Thus, Pn is true for n = k + 1. Hence, we can conclude that
n  IN+, n!  nn – 1.
Theorem Binomial Theorem

If a and b are real numbers and n is a positive integer, then
n n n n n
( a  b)n  ( )  ( )an 1b  ( )an  2 b2  ...  ( )ab n 1 ( )b n
0 1 2 n 1 n
n n n!
where ( ) is the binominal coefficient ( )  .
k k k!( n  k)!
EXAMPLE 16 Prove “Binomial Theorem” by mathematical induction.
1 1
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : (a + b)1 = ( )a1  ( )b1. Since both coefficients equal to 1, the equation
0 1
1
reduces to (a + b) = a + b.
2. Next, suppose that the formula holds for n = k, i.e.,
k k k k
Pk : ( a  b)k  ( )ak  ( )ak 1b  ...  ( )ab k 1  ( )b k .
0 1 k 1 k

Now we use the property to show that
k  1 k 1 k 1 k k  1 k 1
Pk 1 : ( a  b)k 1  ( )a  ( )a b  ... ( )b .
0 1 k 1
is true. To do this, multiply both sides of the formula for n = k by a + b to obtain
k k k k
( a  b)k 1  ( )ak 1  ( )ak b  ( )ak 1b2  ...  ( )ab k
0 1 2 k
k k k k
( )ak b  ( )ak 1b2  ...  ( )ab k  ( )b k 1.
0 1 k 1 k
k k
Adding like terms, such as ( )ak b and ( )ak b, ak b , using the property
k 0
k k k 1
( )( )  ( )
r 1 r r
gives
k  1 k 1 k 1 k k  1 k 1
( a  b)k 1 )  ( )a  ( )a b  ... ( )b .
0 1 k 1
Hence, Pn is true n  N+.
EXAMPLE 17 Prove that n  N+.

sin 2 n 1 
cos  · cos 2 · cos 4 · ... · cos 2 = .
2 n 1 sin 
sin 211 
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : cos  · cos 2a = ,
211 sin 
sin 4
 cos  · cos 2 = ,
4sin 
 4 · sin  · cos  · cos 2 = sin 4,
 2 · 2 · sin  · cos  · cos 2 = sin 4,
  
sin 2 
 2 · sin 2 · cos 2 = sin 4.

So, P1 is true.

2. Assume that
sin 2 k 1 
Pk : cos   cos 2 ... cos 2k =
2 k 1  sin 
is true, we will prove Pk implies Pk + 1. Multiplying both sides of the equation Pk by cos 2k + 1
yields.
sin 2 k 1   cos 2 k 1 
cos   cos 2  ...  cos 2 k   cos 2 k 1   ,
2 k 1 sin 
1
sin 2  2 k 1 
 2 ,
2 k 1 sin 
sin 2( k 1)1 
 .
2( k 1)1 sin 
Hence, Pk + 1 holds; that is, Pn is true n  IN+.
EXAMPLE 18 Prove that for all n  IN+

n  times

2  2  2  ...  2  2  2 cos .
2 n 1
 2 
Solution 1. For n = 1, P1 : 2  2 cos   cos is true.
211 2 4
2. Assuming for n = k,
k  times

Pk : 2  2  2  ...  2  2  2 cos
2 k 1
is true, we will show that Pk + 1 also holds. Now, by adding “2” to both sides of the equali-
ty given above, we get
k  times

2  2  2  2  ...  2  2  2  2 cos .
2 k 1
Taking the square root of the both sides yields
k 1 times

2  2  2  ...  2  2  (1  cos ),
2 k 1
Since cos 2 = 1

2 (cos 2   cos ).
2 k1

Recall from “Algebra 3” that
x y xy
cos x  cos y  2  cos( )  cos( ).
2 2
By using this conversion formula, we obtain
 
k 1 2  2   k 1
2  2  ...  2  2 2 cos( 2 k 1 )cos( 2 )
2 2
 
 2 2 cos(   )cos(   k  2 )
2k2 2
 
 2 (  cos )(  cos k  2 )
2k 2 2
 
 2 cos 2 k2
 2 cos k2
2 2

 2 cos .
2( k 1) 1
Hence,
n  times

Pn : 2  2  2  ...  2  2  2 cos is true n  IN+.
2 n 1
EXAMPLE 19 Prove by using the Gausian method that n lines, no two are parallel, d1
intersect at most C(n, 2) points in a plane.
Solution Two lines d1 an d2 which are not parallel to each other in tersect at A
most one point, say A. d2
The line d3 which is not parallel to any one of the lines d1 and d2 d1
intersects these lines at most two points, say B and C.
The line d4 which is not parallel to any of the lines d1, d2 and d3 B
A
intersects these lines at most three points, say D, E and F. C
d2
Continuing in this way, for n e IN, the line dn intersects the lines
d1, d2, ... dn – 1 at most (n – 1) points.
d3
If we add the number of all the points formed by the intersection of
d1
the lines given above, then we obtain
( n  1)n A D
1  2  3  ...  ( n  1)   C( n, 2) B
2 E
C
intersection points in a plane. d2
F
d4 d3

EXAMPLE 20 Prove by mathematical induction that by joining n
points, no three are collinear, we can from C(n, 2)
different lines.
Solution 1. For n = 2, C(2, 2) = 1 is true, since there is only one line passing through two points.
2. Assume that n = k points, no three are collinear, we can form C(k, 2) different lines. Now
we will show that for n = k + 1 points C(k + 1, 2) different lines can be formed.
Adding one more point forms k extra lines. So, we will have
k( k  1) k( k  1)  2 k k( k  1)
C( k  2)  k  k    C( k 1, 2)
2 2 2
different lines. Hence, we can form
n( n  1)
C( n, 2) 
2
different lines by joining n points, no three are collinear.
IX
EXAMPLE 21 Prove by mathematical induction that C(n, 3) triangles can be I
VIII
drawn by using the vertices chosen from n points lie on a circle.
II
VII
1. For n = 3, C(3, 3) = 1 is true since only one triangle can be III

Solution
drawn using three points VI
IV
V
2. Assume that C(k, 3) triangles can be formed using k points lie
on a circle.Yet we will show,
C(k + 1, 3)
triangles can be drawn using k + 1 points lying on a circle. By previous problem, we know that
C(n , 2)
different lines can be formed by joining n points, no three are collinear. So adding one
more point forms C(k, 2) extra triangles. That is
C(k, 3) + C(k, 2) = C(k + 1, 3)
triangles can be formed using k + 1 points lying on a circle. Hence,
n( n  1)( n  2
C( n, 3) 
6
triangles can be drawn by using n points lie on a circle. Investigate the Figure 1.2 drawn
for n = 9 points.

EXERCISES 3 .1
1. Use mathematical induction to prove the follow- 1 1 1 1 n
o.   ...  
ing equalities for every positive integer n. 1 3 3  5 5 7 (2 n  1)(2 n 1) 2 n 1
n(3n  1) 1 1 1 n
a. 2  5  8  11  ...  3 n 1  p.   ...  
2 1 4 4  7 (3 n  2)(3 n  1) 3 n 1
3n( n  1) 5 6 n4
b. 3  6  9  ...  3 n  r.   ... 
2 1 2  3 2  3  4 n( n )( n  2
n(3n  1) n(3n  7)
c. 1  4  7  10  ...  3 n  2  
2 2( n  1)( n  2)
d. 1 + 7 + 13 + 19 + ... + 6n – 5 = n(3n – 2)
12 22 32 n2 n( n  1)
s.    ...  
2 1 3 3  5 5 7 (2 n 1)(2 n 1) 2(2 n 1)
e. 12  32  52  72  ...  (2 n  1)2  n(4n  1)
3 t. 1  1! + 2  2! + 3  3! + n  n! = (n + 1)! – 1
3 3 3 3
f. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +...+ (2n – 1) = n (2n – 1) 3 2 2
1 2 3 n 1 1
u. 0      1
n( n  1) 2! 3! 4! n! n!
g. 12  22  32  42  ...  ( 1) n 1 n2  ( 1) n 1
2
h. 21  2 + 22  3 + 23  4 +...+ 2n(n + 1) = n  2n+1

2. Find the truth set of the following propositions,
n( n  1)( n  2) and use mathematical induction to prove them.
i. 1  2  2  3  ...  n( n  1) 
3
a. 2n  n2 b. 3n  1 + 4n
j. 1  2  3  2  3  4  ...  n( n  1)( n  2) 1 1
c. n3 > n2 + 3 d.  n
n( n  1)( n  2)( n  3) n! 2

4
k. 1  2...k  ...  n( n  1)...( n  k 1)
3. Use mathematical induction to prove the follow-
n( n  1)( n  2)...( n  k) ing inequalities for the indicated positive integer

( k  1) values of n.
3n  1 a. 2n  1 + n, n  +
l. 1  3  32  ...  3 n1 
2
b. 2n > 2n + 1, n  +
3n  1
m. 2  5  13  ...  (2 n 1  3 n 1 )  2 n 1 
2 c. 3n  n2n, n  +
1 1 1 1 1
n.    ...  n  1  n d. 4n > n2, n  +
2 22 23 2 2
1 1 1 1 n e. 5n  1 + 4n, n  +
o.    ...  
1 3 3  5 5  7 (2 n  1)(2 n  1) 2 n 1 f. (2n)!  2n (n!)2, n  +
g. n!  nn – 1, n  +

h. For x1, x2, x3 ... xn   and n  + 6. Prove that n  +
|x1 + x2 + ... + xn |  |x1| + |x2| + ... + |xn| n ( n  1)
sin  cos( )
cos   cos 2   ...  cos( n)  2 2 .
i. 2!  4!  6! ... (2n)!  [(n + 1)!]n, n  + 
sin
1 1 1 1 2
j.    ...  n  1, n   
2 4 8 2
1 1 1 1
k.    ...  n  1, n   
3 9 27 3
7. Prove that n  +
sin 2 n
cos   cos 3  ...  cos(2 n 1)   .
2 sin 
4. Use mathematical induction to prove the follow-

ing expressions for every positive ineger n.
n
a. 5 | 6 – 1 b. 6 | 7n – 1
2 3 n 1 ( n  1)n
2n 2n log( )  2 log( )  ...  n log( )  log( ).
c. 2 | 2 + 2 d. 3 | 2 + 2 1 2 n n!
e. 3 | n3 – n f. 7 | 132n + 6
g. 11 | 24n – 5n h. 11 | 12n + 10
n n n
i. 3 | 4 – 1 j. 5 | 5 – 3 n
x  ( x  y)  ...  [ x  ( n  1)y]  [2 x  ( n 1) y].
k. (a + b) | a2n – b2n 2
l. 27 | (25n + 1 + 5n + 2)
m. 6 | (5n3 + 13n – 24) 10. Prove that n  + and a, x, y  +

n. 5 | 174n + 1 + 3 · 92n f(x  y) = f(x)  f(y)  f(an) = [ f(a)]n.
o. 7 | 32n + 2 – 2n + 1
p. 133 | 11n + 2 + 122n + 1

11. Prove that n  + and a, x, y  +
r. (x + y) | x2n – 1+ y2n – 1 f(x  y) = f(x) + f(y)  f(an) = n  f(a).
s. 6 | n(2n + 1) (7n + 1)
12. Prove that a polygon with n-sides (n > 3) has

n( n  3)
diagonals.
2
 1
cos  cos( n  ) 
sin   sin 2   ...  sin( n)  2 2 .
 13. If x1 > 0, x2 > 0, ..., xn > 0, then prove that n  +
2 sin
2 In (x1 x2 x3 ... xn ) = In x1 + In x2 + ... + In xn .

Addition is as fundamental in advanced mathematics as it is in arithmetic. There is a story
often told about the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss. When he was in third
grade, his class misbehaved and the teacher gave the following problem as punishment.
“Add the integers from 1 to 100.”
It is said that Gauss solved the problem in almost no time at all. His method was of course
different. In this section we will study sums of terms of various sequences, learn a special
notation for sums and also for products of their terms.
A. SUMMATION NOTATION
A convenient notation for the sum of the terms of a given function defined as
f : Z  , f(k) = ak
is summation notation or sigma notation, which involves the Greek capital letter sigma ().
Definition
Let : Z  , f(k) = ak and r, n  Z provided that r  n, then

n
a
kr
k  ar  ar 1  ar  2  ...  an
is the sum of (n – r + 1) terms of the function f from r to n where k is the index of summa-
tion, r is the lower bound and n is the upper bound.
n n
Note that, a
kr
k
can also be denoted by 
r  k n
ak or 
k[ r , n ]
ak and is read as
“the sum of ak from k = r to k = n”.

Study the examples given below.
18
a5  a6  a7  ...  a18   ak ,
k 5
7
a3  a2  a1  ...  a7  a ,
k 3
k
n
12  22  32  ...  n2   k2 ,
k 1
n
1  3  5  ...  2 n  1  (2 k  1),
k 1
10
 (2k)  6  8  10  12  14  16 18  20,

k3
n
 k  1  0  1  2  3  ...  n.
k 1

1. Summation Formulas
FORMULA
n
n( n  1) n n
a. k 
k 1 2
b.  (2k  1)  n
k 1
2
c.  (2k)  n( n  1)
k 1
We will prove the first and the third formula, you may work out for the proof of second case
by yourself.
n
Proof 1. Let P   k  1  2  ...  ( n 1)  n.
k 1
Adding n + (n – 1) + ... + 1 to the expression given above, which also equal to P, gives
2 P  ( n  1)  ( n  1)  ...  ( n  1)  ( n  1)
 
n  times
 2 P  n  ( n  1),
n  ( n  1)
P .
2
n
3. Let T   2 k  2  4  6  ...  2 n  2(1  2  3 ...  n
k 1
By substituting the “Formula 1” into the above expression, we get

n
k( k  1)
T  2 k  2   k( k  1)
k 1 2
FORMULA
n
n( n  1)(2 n  1)
k
k 1
2

6
.
Proof In order to derive this formula we will use the expansion

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
It is clear that
(1 + 3)3 = 13 + 3 · 12 · 1 + 3 · 1 · 12 + 13,
(2 + 1)3 = 23 + 3 · 22 · 1 + 3 · 2 · 12 + 13,
(3 + 1)3 = 33 + 3 · 32 · 1 + 3 · 3 · 12 + 13,
..................................................................
..................................................................
(n + 1)3 = n3 + 3 · n2 · 1 + 3 · n · 12 + 13.

Adding all of these equalities side by side yields
(n + 1)3 = 13 + 3 · (12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2) + 3 · (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n) + n · 13 .... (I)
Since
n n
 k2  12  22  32  ...  n2 and
k 1
 k  1  2  3 ...  n,
k 1
We can write the expression (I) as

n n
n3  3n2  3n  1  1  3   k2  3   k  n,
k 1 k 1
n
n  ( n  1)
 n3  3n2  2 n  3 k2  3 .
k 1 2
If we rearrange this equality, we will obtain
n
6  k2  2 n 3  6 n 2  4 n  3 n 2  3 n  2 n 3  3 n 2  n
k 1
 n(2 n2  3n  1)  n( n  1)(2 n  1).

n
n( n  1)(2 n  1)
Hence, k
k 1
2

6
.
FORMULA
n
n( n  1) 2
k
k 1
3
(
2
).
Proof We can prove Formula 1.3 by calculating the area of N M

the square with sidelngth 1 + 2 + ... + n units. In
n An
Figure 1.1, the letters A1, A2, A3, ... , An denote the
areas painted by the same color.
A(KLMN) = A1 + A2 + A3 + ... + An
= (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n)2
n
 1  8  27  ...  n3  (  k)2 3 A3
k 1
2 A2
n( n  1) 2 1 A1
 13  23  33  ...  n3  ( ). L
2 K 1 2 3 n

FORMULA
n
1  rn
r
k 1
k 1

1 r
, r 1
n
Proof Let T   r k 1  1  r  r 2  ...  r n1 ... (I)
k 1
Multiplying both sides of this equality by r, we obtain

r · T = r + r2 + r3 + ... + rn = 1 ... (II)
Now, if we subtract the equality (II) from the equality (I) side by side, we will get
1  rn
T – rT = 1 – rn  T(1 – r) = 1 – rn  , ( r  1).
1 r
FORMULA
n
1 n
 k( k  1)  n  1
k 1
n
1 1 1 1 1
Proof  k  ( k  1)  1  2  2  3  3  4  ...  n ( n 1) .
k 1
1 1 1
Since   , we obtain
k  ( k  1) k k  1
n
1 n
1 1
 k  ( k  1)   ( k  k  1)
k 1 k 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
       ...  
1 2 2 3 3 4 n n 1
1 n
 1  .
n 1 n 1
2. Properties of Summation Notation

Properties 1
Let c   and r  ,
n n
c  n c
k 1
and  c  ( n  r 1)c.
kr
n n
Proof It is obvious that  c  c
k 1
 c  
c  ... c  n  c and  c  c
k 1
 c  
c  ... c  ( n  r  1)  c.
n times ( n  r 1)  times

EXAMPLE 22 Evaluate the given expressions.
17 50 12 13
1
a. 3
k1
b.  ( 2)
p1
c. 5
t 4
d.  (8 )
n7
Solution Here, we will solve only “a” and “c”. Others are left as an exercise to the student.
17 12
a.  3  3  17  51
k1
c.  5  5  (12  4  1)  45
t 4
Properties 2
n n
For c  ,  c  ak  c   ak .
k 1 k 1
n
Proof It is obvious that c a
k 1
k  ca1  ca2  ca3  ...  ca n
 c  ( a1  a2  a3  ...  an )
n
 c   ak .
k 1

11 10 6
a.  2k
k 1
b.  3k
k 1
2
c.  ( 2 p
p 1
3
)
11 11
11  12
Solution a.  2 k  2 k  2 
k 1 k 1 2
 132.
b. and c. are left as an exercise for the student.
Properties 3
n p 1 n
For 1 < p < n and p  , a
k 1
k   ak   ak .
k 1 k p
n
Proof It is obvious that a
k 1
k  a1  a2  ...  ap 1  ap  ap 1  ...  an ,
p 1 n
  ak   ak .
k 1 kp

47
1 20
a.  k( k  1)
k  24
b. 2
k 10
k 1
47
1 47
1 23
1
Solution a.  k  (k  1)   k (k  1)   k ( k 1)
k  24 k 1 k 1
47 23
 
48 24
47 46 1
   .
48 48 48
20 20 9
b. 2
k 10
k 1
 2
k 10
k 1
  2 k 1
k 1
1  2 20 1  2 9
   2 20  29.
1 2 1 2
Properties 4
 notation has distributive property over addition and subtraction, i.e.,

n n n
 (a
k 1
k  bk )   ak  bk .
k 1 k 1
n
Proof It is obvious that  (a
k 1
k  bk )  ( a1  b1 )  ( a2  b2 )  ...  ( an  bn )
 ( a1  a2  ...an )  ( b1  b2  ...  bn )
n n
  ak  bk .
k 1 k 1

5 6
a.  (k
k 1
3
 2k 2 ) b.  (2k  1)
k 1
2
5 5 5
Solution a.  (k
k 1
3
 2k 2 )   k 3   2k 2
k 1 k 1
5 5
56 2 5  6  11
  k 3  2 k 2  ( ) 2   335.
k 1 k 1 2 6
b. It left as an exercise for the student.

Note
 notation does not have distributive property over multiplication and division, i.e.,
n n n n n n
 (a
k 1
k  bk )   ak   bk and
k 1 k 1
( a
k 1
k : bk )   ak :  bk .
k 1 k 1
Properties 5
n nr nr
Let r, p   then  ak 
k p

k pr
ak  r  
k pr
ak  r .
You may work out for the proof as an exercise.
EXAMPLE 26 Evaluate.
7 8 3
a.  (k  1)
k3
2
b.  (2k  4)
k 1
c.  (3k
k0
2
 2)
7 72 5
Solution a.  (k  1)
k3
2
  ( k  2  1)
k  3 2
2
  ( k  1)2
k 1
5
5  6  11 5 6
  ( k2  2k  1)  2   5  90.
k 1 6 2
8 8 2 10
b.  (2k  4)  
k 1 k 1 2
2( k  2)  4 (2 k  4  4)
k 1
10
10  11
  2k  2   110.
k 1 2
c. It is left as an exercise for the student.
Properties 6 Commutativity of 
n m m n
 a
k 1 r 1
kr   (  akr )
r 1 k 1
n m n
Proof  a
k 1 r 1
kr   ( ak1  ak 2  ak 3  ...  akm )
k 1
 ( a11  a12  ...  a1m )  ( a21  a22  ...  a2 m )  ...  ( an1  an2 ...  anm )
m m m
  a1r   a2 r  ...   anr
r 1 r 1 r 1
m m n
  ( a1r  a2 r  ...  anr )  (  akr ).
r 1 r 1 k 1

EXAMPLE 27 Evaluate the following expressions.
5 3 4 3
a.  ( k
k 1 r 1
2
 2r ) b.  ( a  b)
a 1 b  0
5 3 5
34
Solution a.  ( k
k 1 r 1
2
 2 r )   (3k2  2 
k 1 2
)
5 5 5
  (3k2  12)   3k2  12
k 1 k 1 k 1
5  6  11
 3  12  5  165  60  105.
6
3 5 3
5  6  11
Also,  ( k
r 1 k 1
2
 2r )  (
r 1 6
 5  2 r)
34
 55  3  10  165  60  105.
2
b. The solution is left as an exercise for the student.
28 1 x x 2 x 1 x  3
EXAMPLE Find gof (2) if f ( x)   
14 k 1 m 1
(2k  m ) and g( x)   ( p  r ).
p 1 r  0
1 x x 2
Solution f (2)    (2k  m)
14 k 1 m 1
1 2 45 1 2
 
14 k 1
(8 k 
2
)   (8k  10)
14 k 1
1 2 1 4
 
14 k 1
[8( k  2)  10]  (8 k  6)
14 k 1
1 45 1
 (8   6  4)   56  4.
14 2 14
Since g o f (2) = g( f(2)), we need to evaluate g(4).
5 7
g(4)   ( p  r )
p 1 r  0
5 8
  ( p  r  1)
p 1 r 1
5
8 9
  (8  p   8)
p 1 2
5
56
  (8 p  28)  8   28  5
p 1 2
 260.

B. MULTIPLICATIN NOTATION
In the preceding section, we have discussed the sum of the terms of a function given as:
f : Z  , f(k) = ak
Remember that, we used  (sigma notation) in order to denote the sum of the terms of the
function f. Now, we will introduce a new notation,  (pi), used for representing the product
of the terms of the above function.
Definition
Let f : Z  , f(k) = ak and r, n  Z provided that r  n, then

n
a
k r
k  ar 1  ar  2 ... an
is the product of (n – r + 1) terms of the function f from r to n where k is the index of

multiplication, r is the lower bound and n is the upper bound.
n n
 ak can also be denoted by

k r
a
r  k n
k or 
k[ r , n ]
ak and is read as “product of ak’s from k = r
to k = n”
Study the following examples.
40
a3  a4  a5  ...  a40   ak ,
k3
0
a9  a8  a7  ...  a0  a ,
k 9
k
n
1  2  3  ...  n   k,
k 1
20
n
k
k 1
3
 13  23  33  43  ... 
n 1
,
n
k 1 2 3 n
 k  1  2  3  4  ...  n  1 ,
k 1
100
3
k 1
k
 31  32  33  ...  3100.
1. Multiplication Formulas
FORMULA
n n
n!
a.  k  n!
k 1
b.  k  ( p  1)!
k p

n
Proof 1. By definition,  k  1  2  3  ...  n,
k 1
 n!
n
2. Obviously,  k  p  ( p  1)  ( p  2)  ..  n
k p
1  2  3  ...  ( p  1)  p  ( p  1) ...  n

1  2  3  ...  ( p  1)
n!
 .
( p  1)!
FORMULA
n
 log
k p
k ( k  1)  log p( n  1).
Proof Here, we shall use the properties of logarithm.

n
 log
k p
k ( k  1)  log p( p  1)  log p 1( p  2) ... (log n( n 1)
log( p  1) log( p  2) log( n 1)

   ... 
log p log( p  1) log n
log( n  1)
  log p ( n  1).
log p
FORMULA
n
k 1 n 1
 k p k

p
.
n
k  1 n  1 p  2 n 1 n 1
Proof It is obvious that, k p k

p

p 1
...
n

p
.
2. Properties of Multiplication Notation

Properties 7
n n
For c   and r  ¢, c  c
k 1
n
and c  c
k r
n  r 1
.
n n
Proof Obviously,  c  c
k 1
 c  c  ...  c=c n
and  c  c
k r
 c  c ...  c=c n  r 1
.
n  times ( n  r 1)  times

4 9 6 7
1
a. 3
k1
b.  ( 3)
p1
c. 2
k 3
d. 6
k5
4 6
Solution a. 3  3
k1
4
 81. c. 2  2
k 3
6  3 1
 24  16.
The solutions of b. and d. are left as an exercise for the student.
Properties 8
n n
For c  , ca
k 1
k  cn   ak .
k 1
n
Proof Obviously, ca
k 1
k  c  a1  c  a2  c  a3  ...  c  an
n
 c  c  ...  c  a1  a2 3 ...  an  c n  c n   ak .
 c
n  times k 1

3 5 3
1
a.  4k
k 1
b.  2p
p 1
2
c. ( t )
t 1
3 3
Solution a.  4k  4  k  4
k 1
3
k 1
3
 (1  2  3  384.
b. and c. are left as an exercise for the student.
Properties 9
n p 1 n
For 1 < p < n, p  , a
k 1
k   ak   ak .
k 1 k p
n p 1 n
Proof a
k 1
k  a1  a2  ...  ap 1  ap  ...  an   ak   ak .
k 1 k p

7 17
1
a. k
k 4
b.  (1  p )
p 10
7 3 7
Solution a. By property, 3, we have  k   k   k.
k 1 k 1 k 4
3
Dividing both sides of this equality by  k,
k 1
gives
7
7 k 1  2  3  4  5  6  7 7!
k  k4
3

1 2  3
 .
3!
k4
k
k 1
Properties 10
 notation has distributive property over multiplication and divison.
n n n
1. (a
k 1
k  bk )   ak   bk ,
k k 1
n n n
2. (a
k 1
k : bk )   ak :  bk , bk  0.
k 1 k 1
n
Proof 1. (a
k 1
k  bk )  a1  b1  a2  b2  a3  b3  ...  an  bn
n n
 ( a1  a2  a3  ...  an )  ( b1  b2  b3  ...  bn )   ak   bk .
k k 1
n
ak a1 a2 a3 a
2. b
k 1
    ...  n
b1 b2 b3 bn
k
a1  a2  a3  ...  an n n
   ak :  bk , bk  0.
b1  b2  b3  ...  bn k 1 k 1

3 3
k
a. 2
k 1
k
 k2 b. ( 2
k 1
k
)
3 3 3
Solution a. 2
k 1
k
 k2   2 k   k2
k 1 k 1
 (21  2 2  2 3 )  (12  2 2  32 )  2 8  9.
b. This part is left as an exercise for the student.

Note
 notation does not have distributive property over addition and subtraction i.e.,
n n n
 ( ak  bk )   ak   bk .
k 1 k 1 k 1
Properties 11 Rule for Changing Boundaries

n n p np
For r, p  , a
k2
k  a
kr p
kp  a
k r  p
kp .
You may work out for the proof by yourself.

10 7
1 10
a.  log
k 3
k 1 k. b.  (1  k )
k2
c. p
t 0
10 10  2 8
Solution a.  log
k 3
k 1 k  log
k 32
k  2 1( k  2)   log k 3( k  2)
k 1
 log 4 3  log 5 4  log 6 5 ...  log 1110

log 3 log 4 log 5 log10
    ...   log 11 3.
log 4 log 5 log 6 log11
7 1
7
1 1 6
k
b.  (1  k )   (1  k  1)   k  1
k 2 k  2 1 k 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
       .
2 3 4 5 6 7 7
c. are left as an exercise for the student.
Properties 12 Commutative Property of 
n m m n
 ( a
k 1 r 1
kr )   ( akr )
r 1 k 1
n m n
Proof  ( a
k 1 r 1
kr )   ( ak1  ak 2  ak 3  ...  akm )
k 1
 ( a11  a12  ...  a1m )  ( a21  a22  ...  a2 m ) ... ( an1  an2 ...  anm )
m m m
  a1r  ...   a2 r  ...   anr
r 1 r 1 r 1
m
  ( a1r  a2 r  ...  anr )
r 1
m n
  ( akr ).
r 1 k 1

3 2
4 3
2r
a.  ( 3 k
) b.  ( p  t)
t 1 p 1
k 1 r 1
4 3
2r 4
2  22  23 4
26
Solution a.  (
k 1 r 1 3k
)  
k 1 33k
 
k 1 3
3k
246 224
  .
33  36  39  312 330
Properties 13
n
For r  ,
n  ak
r k 1
ak
r k 1
n
Proof Obviously, r k 1
ak
 r a1  r a2  r a3  ...  r an
n
a1  a2  a3  ... an
 ak
r r k 1
.

10 10
3 b. log 64 (  2 3 )
k 1
( k  2)2
a.
k 0 k 1
10 10
10  ( k  2)2 ( k2  4 k  4) 101121 10 11
4  411
Solution a. 3
k 0
( k  2)2
 3 k 0  3k 0 3 6 4
 3385 220  44  3209.
10
10  3k1 10
310  1 log 2 310  1
b. log 64 (  2 3k1
)  log 64 2 k 1
 (  3 k 1 )log 64 2    .
k 1 k 1 2 6 log 2 12
36
n 5
EXAMPLE If  2k   n   k
k 1 k 1
then find the value of n.
Solution The solution is left as an exercise for the student.

EXAMPLE 37 Prove that 12  22  32  ...  n2 
n( n  1)(2 n  1)
6
.
D C
Solution Remember that we have proven
this formula before. But now, 2
An
we will prove it by calculating
the area of the rectangle having
the sides 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
n times
and 2n + 1 units. In Figure 1.2, 2 A3
the letters A1, A2, A3, ..., An A2

2
denote the areas painted by the
same color. 2
A1
1
A 1 2 3 n B
A(ABCD) = A1 + A2 + A3 + . . . + An
 (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n) (2n + 1) = 3 + 12 + 27 + . . . + 3n2
n( n  1)(2 n  1) n
  3(1  4  9  ...  n2  3  k2
2 k 1
n
n( n  1)(2 n  1)
Hence k
k 1
2

6
.
EXAMPLE 38 Prove that 12  22  32  ...  n3  (

n( n  1) 2
2
).
Solution By the Binomial theorem that

(x + )4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4.
Using this expression yields
(1 + 1)4 = 14 + 4 · 13 · 1 + 6 · 12 · 12 + 4 · 1 · 13 + 14
(2 + 1)4 = 24 + 4 · 23 · 1 + 6 · 22 · 12 + 4 · 2 · 13 + 14
(3 + 1)4 = 34 + 4 · 33 · 1 + 6 · 32 · 12 + 4 · 3 · 13 + 14
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
(n + 1)4 = n4 + 4 · n3 · 1 + 6 · n2 · 12 + 4 · n · 13 + 14

Adding these equalities side by side gives
(n + 1)4 = 14 + 4(13 + 23 + ... + n3) + 6(12 + 22 + ... + n2) + 4(1 + 2 + ... +n) + n.
n n n
n 4  4 n 3  6 n 2  4 n  1  1  4  k3  6  k2  4  k  n
k 1 k 1 k 1
Since
n
n( n  1)(2 n  1) n
n( n  1)
k
k 1
2

6
and k 
k 1 2
we get
n
n( n  1)(2 n  1) n( n  1)
n 4  4 n 3  6 n 2  4 n  4  k3  6 4 n
k 1 6 2
By rearranging this equality, we will have
n
4 k3  n4  2 n3  n2  n2  ( n2  2n  1)
k 1
 n2  ( n  1)2 .
n
n2 ( n  1)2
Hence, k
k 1
3

4
n( n  1) 2
( ).
2
EXAMPLE 39 Find the sum –11 – 7 – 3 + 1 + 5 + ... + 63.
3n 2  n
EXAMPLE 40 Prove that 1  4  7  ...  3 n  2 
2
by using summation notation .
n
Solution 1  4  7  ...  3 n  2  (3 k  2)
k 1
n n
  3k   2
k 1 k 1
n( n  1)
 3  2n
2
3 n2  3 n  4 n

2
3 n2  n
 .
2

n
EXAMPLE 41 Find the sum  (4k
k 1
3
 6 k2  2 k).
n
n( n  1) 2 n( n  1)(2 n  1) n( n 1)
Solution  (4k
k 1
3
 6 k2  2 k)  4  (
2
) 6 
6
2 
2
= n2(n + 1)2 – n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + n(n + 1)
= n(n + 1)[n(n + 1) – (2n + 1) + 1]
= n(n + 1)(n2 + n – 2n – 1 + 1)
= n(n + 1)(n2 – n)
= n4 – n2.
n( n  1)  ( n  2)
EXAMPLE 42 Prove that 1  2  2  3  3  4  ...  n  ( n  1) 
3
.
n n
Solution 1  2  2  3  3  4  ...  n  ( n  1)   k ( k  1)  ( k 2  k)
k 1 k 1
n( n  1)  (2 n  1) n( n  1)
 
6 2
n( n  1) 2 n  1
( ) (  1)
2 3
n( n  1) 2 n  4
 
2 3
n( n  1)  ( n  2)
 .
3
10 11 9
EXAMPLE 43 Evaluate (  2   ( 3)) :
k 1 k3
 6.
k 2
n
Solution Since  ( c)  c( n  p  1)
k p
where n – p + 1 is the number of terms, k  [p, n], we get
10 11 9
(  2   ( 3)) :  6  ((2 10) ( 3 9)) : (6 12)
k 1 k 3 k 2
20  27 15
  .
72 2

n( n  1)(2 n  1)(3 n 2  3 n 1)
EXAMPLE 44 Prove that 14  24  34  ...  n4 
30
by using summation notation.
10
EXAMPLE 45 Find the sum  (k
k3
2
 4k ).
10 10  2
Solution  (k
k3
2
 4k )   (( k  2)
k  3 2
2
 4( k  2))
8 8
  ( k2  4k  4  4k  8)   ( k2  4)
k 1 k 1
8  9  17
  4 8
6
 20  32  172.
4
EXAMPLE 46 Evaluate  (2k
k0
2
 3k  7).
4 4 1
Solution  (2k
k0
2
 3k  7)   [2( K 1)
K  0 1
2
 3( K 1)  7]
5
  (2k2  k  8)
K 1
5  6  11 5  6
 2   5 8
6 2
 110  15  40  55.
47
15
EXAMPLE Evaluate 2
k 4
2k
.
15 15 15  3 12
Solution 2
k 4
2k
  4k 
k 4

k 4 3
4k  3   4k 1  44
k 1
1 4 12
4  44 2 32  28 16
  44   .
1 4 3 3

48 1
20
EXAMPLE Evaluate  (1) ( 2 )
k 1
n n 1
.
71
1
EXAMPLE 49 Find the sum  k( k  1) .
k6
Solution First way:

Using the “Formula 1.5”, we get
71
1 71
1 5
1

k  6 k( k  1)
 
k 1 k( k  1)
 
k 1 k( k  1)
71 5 11
   .
72 6 72
Second way:
1 1 1
Since   , we obtain
k( k  1) k k  1
71
1 71
1 1

k  6 k( k  1)
  ( 
k6 k k 1
)
1 1 1 1 1 1
     ...  
6 7 7 8 71 72
1 1 11
   .
6 72 72
50
40
EXAMPLE Evaluate (
k 1
2 k  1  2 k  1).
40
Solution (
k 1
2 k  1  2 k  1)  3  1  5  3  7  5 ...  81  79
 81  1
 9  1  8.
51
4 4
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( (2k  3p  5)).
k 1 p 1
4 4 4
45 4
Solution  ( (2k  3p  5))  (2 k  4  3 
k 1 p 1 k 1 2
 5  4)  (8 k 10)
k 1
45
 8  10  4  80  40  120.
2

52 2
30
EXAMPLE Evaluate  4k
k 1
2
1
.
2 1 1
Solution Since (  ), we get
4k2  1 2k  1 2 k  1
30
2 30
1 1
 4k
k 1
2
1
 (
k 1

2k  1 22 k  1
)
1 1 1 1 1
 (1     ...   )
3 3 5 59 61
1 60
 (1  ) .
61 61
53 2
20
EXAMPLE Evaluate k
k0
2
 3k  2
.
20
2 20
1 20
1 1
Solution 
k  0 k  3k  2
2
 2 
k  0 ( k  1)( k  2)
 2  (
k0 k  1

k 2
)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 2  (1       ...   )
2 2 3 3 4 21 22
1 21
 2  (1  ) .
22 11
54
3 4
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( b  a  3).
a 0 b 0
3 4 3
45
Solution  ( b  a  3)  (
a 0 b 0 a0 2
 a (4  1)  3 (4 1))
3
  (25  5a)
a 0
34
 25  (3  1)  5 
2
 100  30  70.
EXAMPLE 55 Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the quadratic equation x2 – 6x + 8 = 0 provided that x1 < x2.
2
If f(x) = 4x – 1 find the sum  x f ( x ).
i 1
i i
Solution Since the roots of the equation x2 – 6x + 8 are x1 = 2 and x2 = 4, we have

2
 x f (x ) = x
i 1
i i 1 f(x1) + x2 f(x2) = f(2) + 4 · f(4)
= 2 · (4 · 2 – 1) + 4 · (4 · 4 – 1) = 14 + 60 = 74.

56
5 a
EXAMPLE If  (2k
k0
2
 3k  5)  5a, fint the sum t .
t 1
3
5
5  6  11 5 6
Solution  (2k
k0
2
 3k  5)  2 
6
3 
2
 5 6
 110  45  30
 35.
That is, 5a = 35  a = 7. Hence,
7
7 8 2
t
t 1
3
(
2
)  28 2  784.
57
5 x
EXAMPLE If  (2k
k0
2
 3k and g( x)   p2 , then find f o g(5)
p 1
Solution Since f o g(5) = f(g(5)), we obatain

5
5  6  11 55
55  56
f ( g(5))  f (  p 2 )  f ( )  f (55)   k   1540.
p 1 6 k 1 2
58
n
EXAMPLE Prove that  p  p!  ( n  1)! 1.
p 1
n n
Solution  p  p!    ( p  1  1)  p!
p 1 p 1
n n
  (( p  1)  p! p!)  (( p 1)!  p!)
p 1 p 1
= 2! – 1!+ 3! – 2! + 4! – 3! + ... + (n + 1)! – n!

= (n + 1)! – 1.
59 k 1
n
EXAMPLE Prove that  ( k  1)!  1  ( n  1)!.
k 1
n
k n
k  11
Solution  ( k  1)!   ( k  1)!
k 1 k 1
n
k 1 1
 (  )
k 1 ( k  1)! ( k  1)!
n
1 1
 (  )
k 1 k! ( k  1)!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
      ...  
1! 2! 2! 3! 4! n! ( n  1)!
1
 1
( n  1)!

60 1
99
EXAMPLE Evaluate  (1  k  1).
k 1
99
1 99
k
Solution  (1 
k 1 k 1
)
k 1 k  1
99! 99! 1
   .
100! 99! 100 100
61
624
EXAMPLE Evaluate  log
k 5
k ( k  1).
624
Solution  log
k 5
k ( k  1) = log56  log67  log78 ... log624625
= log5625 = log554 = 4.
n 1
62 1
n
EXAMPLE Prove that  (1  k
k 2
2
)
2n
.
n
1 n
k2  1
Solution  (1 
k 2 k2
)  
k 2 k2
n
( k  1)( k  1) n
k 1 n
k 1
  ( )  ( )
k 2 kk k 2 k k 2 k
1 2 3 n 1 3 4 5 n 1
 (    ...  )  (    ...  )
2 3 4 n 2 3 4 n
1 n 1 n 1
   .
n 2 2n
63 3 16 2 x  5
9
EXAMPLE Find the value of x, if ( 4 )
t 1
2t
(
9
) .
Solution By using “Property 7”, we get

9
9
3 16 3  2t 16 3 4
 ( )2t  ( )2 x 5  ( ) t1  ( )2 x 5  ( )910  ( )4 x 10
t 1 4 9 4 9 4 3
3 3
 ( )90  ( )4 x10  90  4 x  10.
4 4
This gives x = –25.

64 k2  3k  2
5
EXAMPLE Evaluate k 1 k2  4k
.
5
k2  3k  2 5
( k  1)( k  2) 5
k 1 5 k  2
Solution 
k 1
2
k  4k

k 1 k( k  4)

k 1

k k 1 k  4
2 3 4 5 6 3 4 6 7 1
 (     )  (    )  6  ( )  1.
1 2 3 4 5 5 6 8 9 6
65
x 1
EXAMPLE Find the value of x, if 4
t2
t
 8 3x  3.
x
x 1 x  ( t 1)
Solution 4
t2
t
8 3x  3
 4
t 1
t 1
8 3x  3
4 t 1
 8 3x  3
x( x 1)
x
4 2
 83 x  3  2 x( x 1) 2 x  29 x  9
 x2 + 3x = 9x – 9  x2 + 3x – 9x + 9 = 0
 x2 – 6x + 9 = 0  (x – 3)2 = 0
Hence, we conclude that x = 3.
66
4 3
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( k  p).
k 1 p 1
4 3 4
Solution  ( k  p)   (k3  3!)
k 1 p 1 k 1
4 4
  6  k3  64   k3  64 (4!)3  213  37.
k 1 k 1
67 i
3 4
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( j ).
i 1 j 1
3 4
i 3
i4 3
i4
Solution  ( j )   ( 4!)   24
i 1 j 1 i 1 i 1
(3!)4 3
 3
 .
24 32
68
10 2
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( a  b).
a 1 b 1
10 2 10 10
Solution  ( ( a  b))  ( a  1) ( a  2)  ( a
a 1 b 1 a 1 a 1
2
 3a  2)
10  11  21 10 11
 3  2 10
6 2
 385  165  20  570.

69
2 100
EXAMPLE Evaluate  ( ( 1)
k 1 n 1
n
 n).
2 100 2
Solution  ( ( 1)
k 1 n 1
n
 n)   ( 
1

k 1
2  3 4  5 6  ...  99
1
100)

1

1 1
2 2
  (1  1  1  ...  1)   50  50 2  2500.
k 1
 k 1
50 times
k 1
70
15 n
EXAMPLE Evaluate   (log
n  2 k 1
n
k
).
15 n
k 1 15
2 3 4 n 1
Solution  ( (log
n2 k 1
n
k
)  (log n  log n  log n ...  log n
n2 1 2 3 n
)
15
2 3 4 n 1
  (log n    ...  )
n2 1 2 3 n
15
  log n ( n  1)
n2
 log 2 3  log 3 4  log 4 5 ...  log 15 16
 log 2 16
 4.
71
x2 x
m 1 x x 1
EXAMPLE If f ( x)    and g( x)    n, find f o g(4)
k 1 m 1 6 12 t 1 n1
Solution Since fog (4) = f(g (4)), we obtain

1 4 3
fog(4)  f (  n)
12 t 1 n 1
1 4
 f(  6)
12 t 1
24
 f( )  f (2)
12
4 2
m
f (2)   
k 1 m 1 6
4
3 4
1
 
k 1 6 k 1 2
1 1
 ( )4  .
2 16

EXERCISES 3 .2
90 1000
A. Summation Notation g  sin
k 1
2
k h.  ( i) ( i
k 1
k 2
 1)
1. Evaluate the indicated sums below. 9
2 50
1
12 10 22 i.  3k j. p
a. 3
k1
b.  ( 2)
k 0
c. 7
p 3
k 1
2
 3k p 3
2
 3p  2
50
k n2
k3 n2
i2
8 3 5 k. k l.  k2   i3
d.  ( 6)
m 2
e.  10
t2
f. e
r 1
k2
3
 k2 k4 i 2
n 89
2 4 2 m. ( k 1  k 1 n. ( sin k  cos k
g. 
k 0
h.  ( n  1)
k 1
i.  ( k  1)
n 2
k2 k 1
100
1 79
1
o.  log k  1
k 1
p.  log (1  p  1)
p2
3
100 50
k
q.  k  k!
k 1
r.  ( k  1)!
k 1
2. Evaluate the indicated sums below. 4 5
50 40 s. k 3
t.  (k 2
 k)
a. k
k 1
b.  (2k)
k3
k 4 r 5
13 13 13
17 7 u.  (2k 3
 3k2  k) v. 2  2 x x 1
c.  (2a  1)
a0
d. k
k0
2
k 13 x 1 x 1
7 7
12 9 w.  (k 2
 2 k)   (2 k  4)
e.  (k
k0
2
 k  1) f.  (3t  2)
t 1
2
k 1 k  1
8 8
1 7 x.  (k 2
 3k2 )   (3k  1)
g.  (2 p  16)
p 7
2
h.  (3
p 3
p
 1) k2 k2
2n 20 10
i.  (2k  1)
kn
j.  (3k)   (2 k  1)
m 1 k 0
3 11
k.  ( k  1)  k!
k0
l.  log a
k3
k
3. Evaluate the indicated sums below. 4. Evaluate the indicated sums below.
21 3 7 5
n 5 4
a.  (1)k a2 b.  ( 1)k1 k2 a.   (2 m  3 )
m 1 n  0
b.  ( n
k 1 n  0
2
 kn  3)
k 1 k 2
4 k 1 5
7 30
n
c.  ( 1)p (2 p  1) d.  (1)n sin 2
c.   (2
k  0 m 1
m
 2) d.   (3a  ab)
a 1 b  2
p 0 k 1
359 267 3 k n
t 2 k r
e.  cos k f.  sin( k  3) e.   2
k 1 n 1 m 1
f.  p
p 1 r 1 t 1
k 180 k  87

n
1 a 4n
5. Prove that  sin 2
k0
n
a
 cot
2
 cot 2 n a. 13. If f ( x) xk , find f(i) where i2 = – 1.
k 0
6. Prove the following expressions. x

 n
n n
 n 14. Let f : +  +, f ( x)   2k  1. Find the value
a.  k    n2 n 1 b.  ( k  1)    ( n  2)2 n 1 k 1
k 1  k  k0 k of f –1(8)
2
 n
n
 2n  n
 r  k   r  n  1
c.       d.   
k0  k   n k0  k   n 
3
15. If f(x) = x + 1, x1 = 1, x2 = 2 and  xi2 f ( xi )  50,
i 1
7. Evaluate the indicated sums below. find f(i) where i2 = – 1.

6
7 60
5  k
a.  k b.  k 

k0   k0 
n
 n 10
 10  16. Let x1 and x2 are the roots of the quadratic equation
c. x k
  d. 2 k
 
k0 k k 5 k x2 + 2x – 3 = 0. If f : +  +, f(x) = 2x + 3 then
2
10
 10 
64
 64  2
e.  k  f. log 2 (  k  ) evaluate  x f ( x ).
k 1  k 
1 i
k0   i 1
6 6
8. If  (2a k  3)  58, find the sum  3a . k n
k 1 k 1 17. If  2a
k 1
k  2 2 n 1, find a4 + a5.
n
9. If  (2k  3)  63,
k0
find n.
30
18. If a1 = 1 and an = an –1 + 2, find the sum a .
k 1
k
n
10. If  log 3
k 1
( k 1)
 9  log 27, find n.
6 7
19. If  (2a
k 1
k  3)  2  ak  2 , find a6.
k 3
20
11. If 1   2  2 k 4 a 1
, find a.
k 1
n
an 2  bn  c
n
 9 
20. If  (6k  2)  2
find the value of
12. If   n
  2  2, find n.
k 1
k  2  k  1 a + b + c.

2 3
27. If x1 = 2, x2 = 4 and f(x) = 2x, g(y) = 2log y then
21. If  (kx  3y)  12 ( px  y)  3,
4
and find the
k 1 p 1 2
value of x – 2y. find the sum  ( gof )( x ).

i 1
i
22. Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the quadratic equation 1

28. Let f : +  , f(x) = log (1  ) and
2
x + (2a + b)x + a – b = 0. Find the value of a x
2 2 1
g : N+  , g(x) = log (1  ) then find the sum
(a  b), if  2x
k 1
k  2 and x
k 1
k
2
5
x
50
[ f ( k)  g( k  1)].
k3
15
23. If A (4k2  2 k) find the sum 2  5 + 4  7 + ...
k 1 3 x
+ 30  33. in terms of A. 29. If   (m

k 1 m  x
3
 k)  30, find x.
n
1 2n
1 n
1
24. If  k  24
k 1
and 
k  n 1 k
 B, then find  2k  1
k 1
30. If
a 3 a 3
 (2k  4)  168, find a.

ka k3
in terms of A and B.
31. If x1 = 2, xn = x2n – 1 –1 and f(x) = x + 1 then find

25. If f(x) = x – 3 and g(x) = x , then find the sum 2
3 3
5
the sum  ( x j  xi ) f ( xi ).
 ( gof )( x).
x 1
j 1 i 1
x k
32. If f ( x)  ( g( m )  m 2 ) and
26. If f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x – 2 find the sum k 1 m 1
5 x 1 p
 ( fog)1( x). g( x)    2, find f(2).

x 1 p 1 t 1

B. Multiplication Notation 35. Evaluate the given expressions below.
3 k 4 5
33. Evaluate the given expressions below. a.   ( 1) b.  ( nr )
k 3 n 1 r  2 n 1
4 5 7
1
a. 5 b.  ( 1) c. ( 3) 180 180 4 3
i2
k1 k 0 t 3
c.  (2) sin kcos k
d.  j
4
3 3 4
3 k 1 k  0 j 1 i 1
d.  (4)
k2
e. 2
r 1
f. (
k 0 2
)
7 5 7
g. e
p 2
h.  ( n  2)
k 1
i.  (2k  1)
n3 x
36. If 3
k 1
k
 81x 1, then find the value of x.
34. Evaluate the given expressions below.

41 7
a. k
k 1
b.  (3r  6)
r 3
2 x 1 1
log 4 (1 ) 3
37. If 2
7 6 p 1
 , then find the value of x.
c. 2
t 0
t
d. 3
k 2
2 t 1
p 1 6
5 14
k
e. k2
k 1
k
f. 3
k 1
k
3 28 x
g.  log
m 1
a 2 m 2 h.  log
k2
k ( k  1) 38. If  log k ( k  1)  log 2(2 x  5), find x.
k2
50 54 1
log(1
k
)
i. j. 2
3
 9k p 1
k 1 p 3
21
1 50
 (1  r  2 ) log  3kk!
n
k. l.
r 3 k 1
39. If 2
k 1
( k3 1)
 128, find n.
6 k 2 5
log 2  4 k
( )
k2
2
m. k n.
k 2 k1
6 k 2 250
( )
o. k2
k 2
k p. (k
k 1
2
 4k  12)
40. Let (k
n
3
 7k2  12 k). Find the smallest value
k 1
75
k2 10
4k  4
q.  r.  (1  k2
) of n which makes A zero.
k 1 k  1 k2
7 89
s. 3
k 8
k3  2 k
t.  tan k
k 1
3 3 6
u.  ( x  1)  ( x 2
 x  1) 41. Evaluate ( f
k 1
1
( k)  1), if f(x) = 3x + 2.
x 1 x0
20
1 20
1
x. log  (1  )  log (1  )
a 1 a a 1 a
50 50 100
w. (k
k 0
2
 3k  2) :  ( k2  2 k)
k 1
42. If f(x) = x, then find [ f ( i)] k
where i2 = –1.
k 1

2x x x 2x
43. If x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3 and f(x) = 2x – 1 then 50. If f ( x)   2 k1 and g( x)    ( 1)k k, find
3
xi k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
evaluate  [ f ( x )] .
i 1
2
g o f (3).
i
x x 1
44. If f ( x)   2 k and g( x)   k, find (g o f)(3).
k 1 k 1
x
51. If f ( x)   2 k 1 and x1 = 2, x2 = 4, find the sum
k 1
2
45. Evaluate the given expressions below.  x f ( x ).
i 1
i i
5 3 10
k
7
a.  2
r 1 k 1
b.  
p 1 k 1 2
5 10
r 7 5
1
c.  k
k 1 r 1
d.  (1  k )
k 1 k 1
5
7 10 2x  (2 k  4)
e.   ( 1) ( 2) k k
f. 2 k3
p 1 k 1 k 1 52. Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the quadratic equation

2
x2 + (a + b)x + b – 2a = 0. If x
i 1
i  5 and
2
3 8
x
i 1
i  6 then find the value of the pair (a, b).
46. If 3 k
 9 2 k  n, then find n.
k 1 k 1
n 4
47. If  xk  2 n  1, then find x
k 1
k
2
k 1 n k 1
53. Evaluate 
k 1 r 1
k 1 g( k)  f ( r ), if f : +  ,
1
f ( x)  and g : +  +, g(x) = x.
x
1 f (x)
1 x
48. If f ( x)   and g( x)   (1  )
k 1 k 1  k p 1 p
find g(63).
7
49. If a   ( k  2)( k  3)( k  4) 54. Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the equation
k 2 2 2
2a x2 – 5x – n = 0. If  (( x k 1
i  xik ))  0 find the
then find  log
ka
k ( k  1).
sum of the values which n can take.
k 1 i 1

1. If the sum of the first 3n positive integers is 150 n
more than the sum of the first n positive integers,

5. If k  M
k 1
then what is the value of the sum
then what is the sum of the first 4n positive integers. 2n + (2n + 1) + (2n + 2) + ... + 3n in terms of M?
A) 270 B) 300 C) 330 D) 360 E) 390 A) M2 + M B) M + 1 C) 3M
D) 4M E) 5M
2. The sum of the cubes of the numbers from 1 to n
is K = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3. How much will K
increase if each of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., n is 3 3 3 3
6. If 1 3 3 3 5 3 ...  (2 n  1)3  199 then what is
increased by 1? 2  4  6  ...  (2 n) 242
the value of n?
A) n B) n3 C) n(n2 + 3n)
n( n  1) 2 A) 9 B) 10 C) 11 D) 12 E) 13
D) n(n2 + 3n + 3) E) ( )
2
14 x
3. What is the value of the sum 7. If k k
k 15 k 15
then the value of x is
m2 + (m + 1)2 + (m + 2)2 + ... + (2m)2 where m
is a natural number? A) 28 B) 25 C) 23 D) 20 E) 19
m( m  1)(14 m  1) m( m  1)(18 m  1)
A) B)
6 6 8. What is the value of the sum
m( m  1)(2 m  1) 2 m( m  1)(12 m  1) 32
 32  n n!
C) D)
12 3  k k  where    ?
k 1    k  ( n  k)! k!
m( m  1)(14 m  3)
E) A) 233 B) 234 C) 235 D) 236 E) 237
3
4. Triangular numbers can be represented by dots 9. The consecutive odd integers are grouped as
that are arranged in the shape of an equilateral follows 1; (3, 5); (7, 9, 11); (13, 15, 17, 19); ... What
triangle, as shown below. The first four triangular is the sum of the numbers in the 10’th group?
numbers are given.
A) 760 B) 897 C) 981 D) 1000 E) 1021
10. What is the value of the sum

t1 = 1 t2 = 3 t3 = 6 t4 = 10
120
1
k
k 4 k  1  ( k  1) k
?
What is the 15’the triangular number?

7 9 11 9 11
A) B) C) D) E)
A) 3 B) 5 C) –5 D) 10 E) 2 9 11 13 22 9

11. What is the value of the sum 15
1
10
 n  7  n   n   n  1
16. What is the value of the sum  (2 n

2 n )2
?
   where       ?
n1
n0  n   r   r  1  r  1 
(215  1)(216  1)
 17   17   18   18   18  A) 30 
A)   B)   C)   D)   E)   3  215
 6  8  7  8 9 (415  1)(416  1)
B) 30 
3  415
12. Consider the triangular array formed by rotating
(415  1)(416  1)
the product in a standard multiplication table, C) 30 
3  415
that is,
(215  1)(216  1)
D) 30 
1 3  215
2 2 (415  1)(416  1)
E) 30 
3 4 3 3  415
4 6 6 4
5 8 9 8 5 x 1
xn
................................................
17. If 
n 1 x
 3 then the value of x is
What is the sum of the elements in the 18 › th A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6 E) 7

row?
A) 1020 B) 1060 C) 1100 D) 1140 E) 1180 27

18. What is the value of the sum  (2n  1)  3
n 1
n
?
n 1
13. If A   ( 1) 1 then the value of
20 20
n 1 n
and B  n
n 11
A) 328 B) 329 C) 330 D) 331 E) 332
A – B is
26 111 126 143 19. What is the value of the sum
A) 0 B) C) D) E)
41 101 107 132 26 + 37 + 50 + 65 + ... + 401?
14. What is the value of the product A) 2796 B) 2818 C) 2848 D) 2856 E) 2872
a 4 a 8 a...1024 a ?
511 1023 2047 1024 2047
20. Define (na)! for n and a positive to be
A) a 512 B) a1024 C) a 2048 D) a1023 E) a 2047
m
( na )!   ( n  ka) where m is the greatest inte-
15. What is the value of the product k 0
(72 8 )!
4 4 4 4 ger for which n > ma. Then the quotient
(1  )(1  )(1  )...(1  )? (18 2 )!
4 9 25 625
is equal to
17 23 27 31 37
A)  B)  C)  D)  E)  A) 210 B) 212 C) 216 D) 218 E) 220
15 25 25 29 25

40 26. The graph of the function f(x) is given below.
21. If i = ò–1, then the sum i n
cos(45  90 n) 2
equals
n0
What is the value of the sum  x  f (x)?
x 2
2 21 2 y
A) B) –10iñ2 C)
2 2
3
2 2
D) (21  20 i) E) (21  20 i) f(x) 2
2 2
1
1 2
2 1 0 x
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ... + (1 + 2 + 3 + 2
... + 20)?
A) 1750 B) 1540 C) 1190 D) 970 E) 875 A) –11 B) –10 C) –8 D) –6 E) –4

24
1
23. If xk 1  xk 
1
for k = 1, 2, ..., n – 1 and  2n  1  2 n  1
?
2 n 1
n
x1 = 1 the value of the sum x
k 1
k
equals A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6
n 1 n3 n2  1
A) B) C) 28. What is the value of the sum
2 2 2 45
D)
n2  n
E)
n2  3n  log(2
n 1
2 n 1
tan(2 n  1))?
4 4
A) 1075 log 2 B) 1375 log 2
C) 1825 log 2 D) 2025 log 2
24. The smallest value of n such that the procut E) 2175 log 2
n k
10
k1
11 exceeds 100,000 is
29. If x1 = –3, x2 = 1 and f(x) = x2 – 4 then what is
A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 10 E) 11 2
the value of the sum (x
n 1
n  4)  f ( xn )?
A) –15 B) –10 C) –5 D) 0 E) 5
25. The roots of the equation x3+4ax2+bx+2 – 3a=0
3 3
are x1, x2 and x3. If x n   (2 xn ) then the 5n
value of a is
n 1 n 1 30. If k
k  3n
3
 an4  bn 3  cn 2 then what is the value
of a + b + c?
4 2 4 4 5
A)  B) C) D) E)
5 5 7 5 4 A) 189 B) 200 C) 216 D) 225 E) 256

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3B
1. a = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 23 5. Which one of the following express the sum
b = 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + 232 1 · 3 + 3 · 7 + 5 · 11 + ... + 21 · 43?
c = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + 233 is given. 11 21
what is the value of the sum

A)  (8n
n 1
2
 6 n  1) B)  (4n
n 1
2
 6 n  5)
1 · 2 · 3 + 2 · 3 · 4 + 3 · 4 · 5 + ... + 23 · 24 · 25 43 11
C)  (3n 2
 2 n  2) D)  (8n 2
 7 n  2)
in terms of a, b, and c? n 1 n 1
11
A) a + 3b + 2c B) a + 2b + 3c E)  (2 n
n 1
2
 n)
C) 3a + 2b + c D) 2a + 3b + c
2 3 4 11
E) 3a + b + 2c 6. A   k   k   k  ...   k
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
29
 log(tan 3 k)?
11 11 11 11
2. What is the result of the product B   2   3   4  ...  11 is given.
k 2
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
A) 0 B) 1 C) log (tan 87°) The value of B – A is

29! 1
D) log(tan ) E) A) 390 B) 410 C) 420 D) 430 E) 450
2  327 log(tan 3 )
n( n  1)( n  2) n
3. 1  2  2  3  3  4  ...  n( n  1) 
3
7. Which one of the following is equal to  (4k
k 1
3
)?
(n  N+) is given.

A) 4n · (n3)! B) ((4n)!)3 C) 64(n!)3
Which one of the following is equal to the sum
(m + 1) (m + 2) + (m + 3) + ... (2m – 1) (2m)? D) 22n(n!)3 E) 4 · (n!)3
( m  1)m(7 m  4) m( m  1)(7 m  4) 5n
A) B)
3 3 8. Which one of the following is equal  (4k  1)?
k2n
( m  1)( m  1)(2 m  3) ( m  1)m( m  1)
C) D) A) 42n2 + 8n – 1 B) 12n2 – 11n – 1
3 3
m( m  1)( m  2) C) 42n2 – 3n D) 42n2 – 3n – 1
E)
3 E) 42n2 + 11n – 1
4. Which one of the following express the sum

9. f : +  +, g : +  +
2 + 7 + 12 + ... + 102? x x
21 21 102 f ( x)   3k and g( x)   k! are given.
A)  (5n  2)
n 1
B)  (5n  3)
n 1
C)  (2 n)
n 1
k 1 k 1
What is the value of fog (4)

102 21
D)  (5n  3)
n 1
E)  (3n  1)
n 1 A) 3501 B) 3511 C) 3526 D) 3541 E) 3561

12
 n x
10. What is the value of the sum   2 ? 17. If f : +  +, k and g : +  
n2   k 1
x
f ( k)
A) 188 B) 202 C) 249 D) 286 E) 304 g( x)   then what is the value of
k2 f ( k)  f ( k  1)
g(17)?
2  4  6  ...  2 n  2n 
11. If     1024 18! 17! 17! 18! 18!
1  3  5  ...  (2 n  1)  n  A) B) C) D) E)
3  217 218 217 218 217
then the value of n is
A) 5 B) 7 C) 8 D) 9 E) 10
9
13 18. What is the value of the product  (3 (2 k )
 1)?
12. If  ( x  k)
k 1
2
 ax2  bx  c, then which one of k 0
31024  1
the following is equal to 4a – 2b + c? A) 31024 – 1 B) 31024 + 1 C)
2
A) 476 B) 493 C) 507 D) 521 E) 546 31024  1 31024  1
D) E)
2 4
25
7
13. What is the value of the product  (1  k
k 5
2
 16
)?
156 163 168 176 191 19. What is the result of the sum
A) B) C) D) E) 10
24 24 25 29 29
 (2k
k 10
3
 5k2  4k  1)?
14
A) 3136 B) 3442 C) 3558
14. If P( x)   ( x  k) then what is the sum of the
k2
coefficients of the terms of P(x) with even powers? D) 3726 E) 3829
A) 53 · 14! B) –53 · 13! C) –56 · 13!
D) 56 · 13! E) –56 · 14! n9

20.  (5k  2)  an
k 8
2
 bn  c then what is the
48
( 1)n numerical value of a – b + c?
15. What is the result of sum 
n4 n 1 n
?
A) 8 B) 14 C) 21 D) 29 E) 34
A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 10 E) 11
4n
16. What is the value of the sum  (( k  1)i k
) where
p 1
i = ò–1 ?
k0
21. What is the value of the product  ( pk
k 1
2
 k3 )?
A) 2 + 2ni B) 2n + 1 C) n + 2i A) [(p – 1)!]2 B) [(p – 1)! ]3 C) (p!)3
D) 2n + 1 – 2ni E) 2n2 + 1 – 2ni D) (p!)2 E) (p!)3 – [(p – 1)!]3
Chapter Review Test 3B 143

25
8  k 1 1 1 1 1
22. What is the value of the sum 
k0  8
? 27. If m  1     ... 
2 3 4

11 12
then what is the

11
4k 2  6 k  5
 33   34   34   18   35  value of the sum  in terms of m?
A)   B)   C)   D)   E)   k0 2k  2
9 8 8 8 9
176  3 m 288  3 m 144  3 m
A) B) C)
2 2 2
192  5 m 224  5 m
D) E)
23. Pentagonal numbers can be represented by dots 2 4
that are arranged in the shape of a pentagon, as
shown below. The first four pentagonal numbers 28. What is the value of the sum
are given. What is the tenth pentagonal number? 1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 22) + ... + (1 + 2 + 22
+ ... + 2n – 1)?
A) 2n B) 2n – n C) 2n + 1 – n
D) 2n + 1 – n – 2 E) n · 2n
t1 = 1 t2 = 5 t3 = 12 t4 = 22 29. If n cords of a circle are drawn, then let tn be the

maximum number of non-overlaping regions that
A) 128 B) 130 C) 145 D) 164 E) 182
can be formed within the circle illustrated below.
100
( 1)k 1
24. What is the value of the product  (1 
k 1 k
)?
A) 1 B) 1,1 C) 1,01 D) 1,11 E) 1,101

1 chord 2 chords 3 chords
t2 = 2 regions t2 = 4 regions t3 = 7 regions
25. If the sum 1 + 2 + 3+ ... + n = M then what is

What is the value of t10?
the value of the sum
n + (n + 3) + (n + 6) + (n + 9) + ... + 4n in A) 52 B) 54 C) 56 D) 58 E) 60
terms of M?
30. Which one of the following is equal to product
A) 3M B) 4M C) 5M D) 6M E) 7M n
n!
 P( n, r )
r 1
where P( n, r ) 
( n  r )!
?
n n n
n
A) k
k 1
n
B)  ( k  1)
k 1
k
C)  k!
k 1
26.  f ( x)  3
x 1
n
then what is the value of f(5)?
n n
A) 27 B) 54 C) 81 D) 162 E) 243
D) n
k 1
k
E) k
k 1
k

y y = f(x)
A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that maps
each element of D to a single element of R.
b
f: D  R f: D ® R
f: x ® y= f(x)
 
domain range
x
For each x in D there exists a single element y in O a
f(a) = b
R such that f(x) = y. x is called the variable of f
b is the image of a
and y = f(x) is called the image of x. The set of
images of all the elements of D is called the image set of f.
Consider the function f: A  B, f(x) = x2. We can write this function in different ways:
f(x) = x2, y = x2 or f: x  x2. All of these mean the same function. A is the domain and B is
the range of f.
A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

Unless stated otherwise, the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real
x-values for which f(x) is defined. The range of the function is a set which includes at least
all the images of the elements in its domain. The domain and range of many functions are
subsets of the set of real numbers. The largest possible range of a function is .
Let us look at the domain and range of some common types of function. In these
examples we will use the letter D to mean the domain of the function. The
notation D( f ) means the domain of the function f.
Type of function Form Domain Examples
polynomial f(x) = anxn+an1xn1+...+a0 f(x) = 2x+5 D( f ): ¡

¡
function n Î ¢+ È {0} f(x) = 2x23x+1 D( f ): ¡
As stated in the table, the domain of any polynomial function f is . The range of the
polynomial function depends on the function itself. For example, let us draw the graph of the
function y = f(x) = xn and find its domain and range when n is odd or even.
y n y y = f(x) = x
n
y = f(x) = x
when when
n is n is
even odd x
x O
O
f: ¡ ® ¡+ Ç {0} f: ¡ ® ¡
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
domain range domain range

2x 3
f(x) = D( f ): ¡ {1}
rational g(x) x+1
f(x) = ¡{x | h(x)=0}
function h(x) x2 + 5
f(x) = D( f ): ¡ {5, 2}
(x 5)(x + 2)
The value of the denominator in a rational expression cannot be zero, so any numbers which
make the denominator zero must be excluded from the domain of a rational function.
1
As an example, let us look at the graph of the function y = x– n = n .
x
y y
1
1 y = f(x) =
when y = f(x) = n when xn
x
n is n is
even odd x
O
x
O
+
f: ¡ {0} ® ¡ f: ¡ {0} ® ¡ {0}
We can see that the domain of a rational function changes according to the function.
Type of function Form Domain Example
radical f(x) = n g(x)

¡ f(x) = 3 x2 + 5x D( f ): ¡
function n is an odd integer
When the index of a radical expression is odd, y

the radicand can be negative, positive or zero.
y = f(x) = n x
Therefore there is no restriction on the value of
x and so the domain is .
x
The figure at the right shows the graph of O
y = n x when n is odd and n > 1. We can see
that the range of the function is the set of real f: ¡ ® ¡
n is odd, n > 1
numbers.
Functions 147
f(x) = n g(x) f(x) = x2 2 D( f ): ¡ (ñ2, ñ2)

radical
n is an even ¡ {x | g(x) < 0}
function f(x) = 4 2
x 3x + 2 D( f ): ¡ (1, 2)
integer
When the index of a radical expression is even, y

the radicand cannot be negative, so we must nx
y = f(x) = ñ
exclude any numbers which make the radicand
negative from the domain.
f : [0, +¥) ® [0, +¥)
As we can see in the graph opposite, since the
radicand is non-negative both the domain and x
O n is even
range of y = x are the set   {0}.
n +
exponential f(x) = ax f(x) = 3x D( f ): ¡

function (a Î ¡+ {1}) ¡ 2
f(x) = 5x +2x D( f ): ¡
logarithmic f(x) = loga g(x) f(x) = log(x2 4) D( f ): ¡ [2, 2]

function +
(a Î ¡ {1}) ¡ {x | g(x) £ 0} f(x) = ln(x2 2x 3) D( f ): ¡ [1, 3]
An exponential function is defined for all real numbers but the logarithmic function is
defined only for positive real numbers. Therefore we must exclude any numbers which make
the function negative or zero from the domain of a logarithmic function.
Look at the following graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions:
y y y y y y
y = f(x) = ax y = f(x) = log ax
x
y =ylog
= f(x)
a
= logax
1 1 1 y =ya=
x f(x) = ax
x x x x x x
O O 1 O O O O1 1
f: ¡ ® ¡+ f: ¡+ ® ¡ f:¡ ®®
f: ¡ ¡+¡+ f:+¡®
f:¡ +
¡¡
®
a>1
0<a<1

EXAMPLE 1 The following table shows some more examples of the domain and range of different
functions. Write the missing values in the table.
Function Domain Range
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 ¡ [0, +¥)
f(x) = x2 2x 3 ¡
f(x) = x3 x2 + x + 1 ¡
1
f(x) = (¥, 0) È (0, +¥)
x+1
x3 1
f(x) = ¡ {2, 3}
x2 5x + 6
f(x) = 1 x2 [0, 1]
f(x) = log (x2 + 5x) (¥, 5) È (0, +¥)
Solution The solution is left as an exercise for you.
EXAMPLE 2 Find the domain and range of the function f ( x) = x2 +5 x +6.
Solution We know that the radicand of a square root function cannot be negative.
Let us look at the sign of the radicand x2 + 5x + 6:
x –3 –2
x2 + 5x + 6 + – +
The radicand is non-negative in the intervals (–, –3] and [–2, +).
Therefore the domain of the function is (–, –3]  [–2, +).
As x increases, the value of y also increases without limit.
So the range is [0, +).
In conclusion, the domain of f is (–, –3]  [–2, +) and the range is [0, +).
Note
If a function f is a sum or difference of different functions then the domain of f is the
intersection of the domains of each function.
Functions 149
EXAMPLE 3 Find the domain of the function f ( x) =
1
x
+ log( x2 + 2 x  8).
1
Solution We can think of this function as the sum of two functions: g( x) = and
2 x
h(x) = log(x + 2x – 8).
1
is defined when 0 < x < +.
x
The logarithmic function is defined in +, so let us look at the sign of x2 + 2x – 8:
x –4 2
x2 + 2x – 8 + – +
We can see that log (x2 + 2x – 8) is defined when x < –4 or x > 2.

The domain of f is the intersection of the domains of g and h, so D( f ) = (2, +).
EXAMPLE 4 Find the domain of f ( x) = x + 3 + 2

5
x 4
+ log 2(4 x  3).
Solution Let us consider the domain of each separate function.

x + 3  0  x  –3
 2  x  2 and x  –2
By solving the inequalities  x – 4  0 , we get 
4x – 3 > 0  3
 x> .
 4
3 
So the domain of f is the intersection of these three intervals: D( f ) =  , +    {2}.
4 
EXAMPLE 5 Find the image set of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 3x + 6, x  [0, +) b. f(x) = x2 – 2x + 8, x  [–1, 2]
c. f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5, x  [–1, 1] d. f(x) = 2x – x2, x  [0, 3]
Solution We can find each range by drawing the graph of the function over the given interval.
a. As we can see in the graph, f(x) is an y

increasing function. The solid line shows the y = f(x) = 3x + 6
graph on the interval x  [0, +). On this
6
The image set I of a interval the minimum value of f is f(0) = 6, min value
function f: A  B is the
set of images of all the and the maximum value goes to infinity.
elements of A, so I  B.
So the image set of f on this interval is
[6, +).
2
x
O

b. The figure shows the graph of the function
y
y = x2 2x + 8
y = f(x) = x2 – 2x + 8. The solid line shows
the graph on the interval x  [–1, 2].
11
Since the extremum (vertex) of a function
max value
b b
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is (– , f (– )), 8
2a 2a
7
the minimum value of the function on this min value
b 2
interval is f (  ) = f (  ) = f (1) = 7.
2a 2
Its maximum value on this interval is
f(–1) = 11.
x
So the image set of f on this interval is 1 O 1 2
[7, 11].
c. The figure shows the graph of y

y = x2 4x 5
y = f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5. The solid line shows
max value
the graph on the interval x  [–1, 1].
On this interval, 1 2 3 4 5
x
2 1 O
min f(x) = f(1) = –8 and
max f(x) = f(–1) = 0.
So the image set of f on this interval is
[–8, 0]. 5
min value
8
9
d. The solid line in the figure shows the graph y

of y = f(x) = 2x – x2 on the interval max value
1
x  [0, 3].
3
On this interval, x
O 1 2
min f(x) = f(3) = –3 and
1
max f(x) = f(1) = 1.
2 min value
So the image set of the function on this
interval is [–3, 1].
3
y = 2x x2
Functions 151
EXAMPLE 6 Find the range of each function for its largest domain.
2
a. f(x) = 2sin x – 3 b. f ( x) =  x2 + 4x +5 c. f ( x) = 5 x +7 d. f ( x) =
3x +1
Solution a. The trigonometric function f(x) = sinx is defined from  to [–1, 1].
For all x  , –1  sinx  1
–2  2sinx  2
–2 – 3  2sinx – 3  2 – 3
–5  2sinx – 3  –1.
Hence the range of f(x) = 2sinx – 3 is [–5, –1].
b. Let us define g(x) = –x2 + 4x + 5 and plot y
its graph (shown opposite). 9
As we can see, the function is positive over

the interval x  [–1, 5].
g(x) ³ 0
So f ( x) =  x2 + 4x +5 is defined on the 5
interval x  [–1, 5]. Also, on this interval the

minimum value of f(x) is 0 and the maximum
value of f(x) is ñ9, so we can write
x
 x2 + 4x +5  ñ9
1 O
0 2 5
0  x2 + 4x +5  3 y = g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5
0  f(x)  3. So the range of f is [0, 3].
c. Since the exponential function g(x) = 5x is y

always positive, the domain of y = g(x) = 5
x
f ( x) = 5 x +7 is . As we can see in the

graph opposite, the value of 5x lies between
0 and .
1
0 < 5x < 
7 < 5x + 7 <  x
O
ñ7 < 5x +7 < 
So the range of f is (ñ7, ).
d. Let us begin by considering the range of 3x: 0 < 3x < .
This gives us 1 < 3x + 1 < +, and when we take the reciprocal of each side, the inequality
signs are reversed.
1 1 2
So we get  x  0, i.e. 2  x  0.
1 3 +1 3 +1
So the range of f is (0, 2).

EXAMPLE 7 Find the domain of f(x) = log5(log5x).
y
Solution The logarithmic function is defined for all positive y = g(x) = log5x
real numbers, so the function g(x) = log5x is
defined from + to . Now we must specify on
which interval g(x) is non-positive (i.e. negative
x
or zero). O 1
As we can see in the graph, g(x) = log5x is
non-positive for 0 < x  1, so (0, 1] must be
excluded from the domain of f. Therefore, the
domain of f is + – (0, 1].
EXAMPLE 8 Find the domain of f ( x) = | x  1|  | x  2|.
Solution The radicand |x – 1| – |x + 2| must be non-negative, i.e.

|x – 1| – |x + 2|  0.
This gives |x – 1|  |x + 2|. Taking the square of both sides gives
us x2 – 2x + 1  x2 + 4x + 4
–6x  3
1 1
x  – . So the domain of the function is (–, – ].
2 2
EXAMPLE 9 Find the domain of f ( x) = 3  12  x .

2
Solution We have the radicands 12 – x2 and 3  12  x2 , and both of them must be non-negative:
12 – x2  0 and 3  12  x2  0
9  12 – x2
2
x – 3  0.
Let us solve each quadratic inequality by constructing its sign table:
x –2ñ3 2ñ3 x –ñ3 ñ3
12 – x2 – + – x2 – 3 + – +
2ñ3 ñ3 O ñ3 2ñ3
The domain of the combined function f ( x) = 3 – 12 – x2 is the intersection of these

intervals: D( f ) = [–2ñ3, –ñ3]  [ñ3, 2ñ3].
Functions 153
EXAMPLE 10 Find the domain of f ( x) = log
5x – 1
x+ 2
.
Solution To find the domain we have to solve three inequalities:

x + 2  0, (1)
5x – 1
>0 (2)
x+ 2
5x – 1
and log  0. (3)
x+ 2
(1) gives x + 2  0, i.e. x  –2.
1
5x – 1 –2 5 1.
(2) gives > 0, i.e. x < –2 or x >
x+ 2 5
+ – +
5x – 1 5x – 1 5x – 1
(3) gives log  0, log  log1 i.e. 1. This gives 3
x+ 2 x+ 2 x+ 2 –2 4
5x – 1 5x – 1 – x – 2 4x – 3
–   0,  0,   + – +
x+ 2 x+ 2 x+ 2
3
The domain is the intersection of the three solution sets: D( f ) = (–, – 2)  [ , + ).
4
EXAMPLE 11 Find the domain of f(x) = arccos (3x + 1).
Solution The trigonometric function cos x is defined from  to the closed interval [–1, 1]. Therefore
its inverse arccos x will be defined from [–1, 1] to . In other words,
cos x:   [–1, 1],
arccos x: [–1, 1]  .
This means that the value of 3x + 1 must lie between –1 and 1:
–1  3x + 1  1
–2  3x  0
2
  x  0.
3
2
So the domain of the function f(x) = arccos (3x + 1) is [  , 0].
3

EXAMPLE 12 Find the domain and the range of f ( x) = arcsin  x + x.
2
Solution First let us find the domain of the function g( x) =  x + x.

2
The radicand must be non-negative, so

–x2 + x  0, x 0 1
–x(x – 1)  0. –x(x – 1) – + –
This is true for 0  x  1, so the domain of g(x) is [0, 1].
Now let us find the range of g( x) =  x2 + x.
Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the equation –x2 + x = 0, i.e. x1 = 0 and x2 = 1.
x1 + x2 0+1 1
For x  [0, 1] the expression –x2 + x reaches its maximum value at x = = =
2 2 2
1 1
which is ( , ) . It reaches its minimum value at x = 0.
2 4
y
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
So g( ) = ( ) +   +   is
2 2 2 4 2 4 2
1/4
the maximum value of g(x).
1
x
Similarly, g(0) = g(1) = 0 is the minimum O 1
2
value of g(x). y = x2 + x
1
Hence the range of g( x) =  x + x is [0, ].
2
2
1
Since the function arcsin x is defined on the interval [0, ], the domain of
2
f ( x) = arcsin x2 + x is also the interval [0, 1].
Now we can find the range of f ( x) = arcsin x + x = arcsin( g( x)).

2
1
We have found that 0   x2 + x  . So the range of the function is the set of angles whose
2
1
sine value is between 0 and . As we can see in the figure:
2
1
for 0°    30°, 0  sin   and
2
y
1
for 150°    , 0  sin   . B(0, 1)
2
P¢ 1/2 P
So the range of f ( x)  arcsin x2 + x is the set
30°
 5 A¢(1, 0) O A(1, 0)
[0, ]  [ , ], and we can write x
6 6
 5
f : [0, 1]  [0, ]  [ ,  ]. B¢(0, 1)
6 6
Functions 155
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the domain of each function.
x
a. f ( x) = 2
b. f ( x) = 3 2 x +1+ x2 – 1 c. f ( x) = 2 x  4 x +1
x +2 x 1
1 x 2
log 3 ( )
d. f ( x) = 2 x  1  3x +1 e. f ( x) = 3 x 2 f. f ( x) = 2 x2  4
 x+ 2 
g. f ( x) = 3  log 2 x h. f ( x) = log 2   i. f ( x) = log 1 (log 2(2 x+1))
 2x + 2  2
 2 x +1  3x +1
j. f(x) = arccos(2x – 3) k. f ( x) = arcsin   l. f ( x) = 2
 x +1  log( x + x +1)  1
2 – cos x
m. f ( x) = n. f ( x) = tan x, x  [0, )
2+ sin x
2. Find the image of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x  [1, 5) b. f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5, x  [1, 3)
c. f(x) = cos x + sin x, x  [0, 2) d. f(x) = log3(x2 – 2x – 8), x  [6, 7]
e. f(x) = 2x+1, x  [–1, 3) f. f ( x) = x2 + 2, x  ( 2, 7]
3. Find the range of each function for its largest domain.

5
a. f ( x) =  x2 +7 x  12 b. f(x) = –3cos x + 1 c. f ( x) =
2x + 3
Answers
7
1. a.  b.  – (–1, 1) c.  – (–1, 1] d. [ , ) e.  – {2} f. (2, ) g. (0, 8] h. (–1, 0]
4
2 –1+ 37 –1 – 37 
i. (0, ) j. [1, 2] k. [ , 0] l.  – { , } m.  n. [0, )
3 2 2 
2. a. [3, 11) b. [–9, –8] c. [–ñ2, ñ2] d. [4 log 3 2, 3] e. [1, 16) f. (2, 3]
1 5
3. a. [0, ] b. [–2, 4] c. (0, )
2 3

B. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
Recall the definition of inverse function: if the function f: D  R is both a one-to-one function
and an onto function then the function f –1: R  D is called the inverse of f.
f(x) = y  f –1(y) = x
A function f: A  B is a To find the inverse of a given function y = f(x)

y
one-to-one function if it is enough to find x in terms of the variable y. y = f(x) = 2x 1
for each x1  x2 in A,
f(x1)  f(x2). For example, let us find the inverse of the y=x
polynomial function f :   , f (x)= 2x – 1:

x+1
Write y = f(x): y = 2x – 1. y = f 1(x) =
2
1
y +1
Express x in terms of y: x = = f 1( y).
A function f: A  B is an 2 x
onto function if for any 1 O 1
y  B there exists an x  A Finally, express the inverse function in terms
such that f(x) = y. 1
of the variable x: f 1( x) = x +1.
2
This is the inverse of f(x) = 2x – 1.
Recall that the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric
with respect to the line y = x.
Let us recall the inverse of some common types of function:
Function Form Inverse
1 xb
linear function f(x) = ax + b f (x) =
a
ax + b dx + b
rational function f (x) = f 1(x) =
cx + d cx a
Remember that the exponential function and the logarithmic function are inverse of each
other:
Function Form Inverse
1
exponential function f(x) = ax (a Î ¡+ {1}) f (x) = logax
logarithmic function f (x) = logax (a Î ¡+ {1}) f 1(x) = ax
Functions 157
As we can see in the figure below, the graphs of the exponential and logarithmic functions are
symmetric with respect to the line y = x.
y y
y = ax
y=x y=x
y = loga x
1 1
y = ax
x x
O 1 O 1
y = logax
a>1 0<a<1
Look at some more examples of inverse functions:

Function Inverse
3x + 1 2x 1
f: ¡ ® ¡, f(x) = f 1: ¡ ® ¡, f 1(x) =
2 3
x + 2
f: ¡ ® ¡, f(x) = 2 3x f 1: ¡ ® ¡, f 1(x) =
3
f: ¡ ® ¡+, f(x) = 3x f 1: ¡+ ® ¡, f 1(x) = log3x
2x + 1 1 1 x+1
f: ¡ {1} ® ¡ {2}, f(x) = f : ¡ {2} ® ¡ {1}, f (x) =
x1 x2
EXAMPLE 13 Find the inverse of the function f : [2, )  [0, ), f (x) = x2 – 4x + 4.
Solution In the given domain and range, f(x) is both y

one-to-one and onto, so its inverse is a function. y = f(x) = x2 4x + 4
We can find this inverse function as follows:
x2 – 4x + 4 = y 4
(x – 2)2 = y
x–2 = ñy
x = ñy + 2 = f –1(y).
x
So the inverse is O 2
f –1: [0, )  [2, ), f –1(x) = ñx + 2.

EXAMPLE 14 Find the inverse of the function f :   (2, ), f (x) = 10x – 1 + 2.
Solution f(x) = 10x–1 + 2 = y

10x–1 = y–2
x–1 = log10(y – 2)
x = log10(y – 2) + 1 = f –1(y)
So the inverse is f –1: (2, )  , f –1(x) = log10(x – 2) + 1 or f –1(x) = log(10x – 20).
EXAMPLE 15 Find the inverse of the function f: (–4, )  , f(x) = –1 + 3log2(x + 4).
Solution f(x) = –1 + 3log2(x + 4) = y

y +1
log2(x + 4) =
3
y+1
( )
x+4=2 3
y+1
( )
x =2 3
– 4 = f –1( y)
x+1
( )
So the inverse is f –1:   (–4, ), f –1(x) = 2 3
– 4.
EXAMPLE 16 The function f:   , f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 1 is given. Find the real number a which
satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a).
Solution To solve the problem we have to find the y

intersection of the graphs of f and f –1. However,
we know that the graph of a function and the y = f(x) y = x
graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect
to the line y = x. In other words, the intersection a 1
y = f (x)
of the two graphs will be on this line. At the
x
intersection point, therefore, y = f(x) = x, and O a
so f(a) = a = f –1(a), as shown at the right.

If f(a) = a then a3 – 3a2 + 4a – 1 = a
a3 – 3a2 + 3a – 1 = 0
(a – 1)3 = 0
a = 1.
Functions 159
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the inverse of each function.
x
a. f :   , f ( x) = 3 
2
5  5x  2
b. f :   {1}      , f ( x) =
2  2x  2
c. f :   +, f(x) = 52x–1
d. f : +  , f(x) = log3(2x + 5)
e. f :   , f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x
f. f :   (1, ), f(x) = 3x–1 + 1
g. f :   (1, ), f(x) = 1 + log(3x + 1)

x 1
h. f :  – {1}  (1, ) – {11}, f ( x) =10 x 1 +1
2. For each function, find the real number a which satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a).
a. f(x) = 3x + 1 b. f(x) = 8x3 – 12x2 + 7x – 1

Answers
2x – 2 1 3x – 5 3
1. a. 6 – 2x b. c. log 5 x + d. e. x – 1 +1 f. log3(x – 1) + 1
2x – 5 2 2
2 1 1
g. log3(10x – 1 – 1) h. +1 2. a. – b.
x–1 2 2
log
10
C. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING

FUNCTIONS
Let f: D  R be a function and let I  D and x1, x2  I and such that x1 < x2.
1. If f(x1) = f(x2) for all x1, x2  I then f is called y

a constant function on the interval I. c y=c
We write a constant function as f(x) = c

(c  ). x
A x1 O x2 B
If f is a constant function,
f(x) is constant on I = [AB]
x1 < x2  f(x1) = f(x2) = c.

2. If f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2  I then f is called y y = f(x)
an increasing function on the interval I.
If f is an increasing function, f(x2)
If x1 < x2 and x1 < x2  f(x1) < f(x2). f(x1)

f(x1)  f(x2) then f is
called a non-d decreasing
function. x
A O x1 x2 B
f(x) increases on I = [AB]
Note
The increasing function f:   , f(x) = x is called the identity function.
3. If f(x1) > f(x2) for all x1, x2  I then f is called y= f(x) y

a decreasing function on the interval I.
If f is a decreasing function,
x1 < x2  f(x1) > f(x2). f(x1)
If x1 < x2 and
f(x2)
f(x1)  f(x2) then f is
x
called a non-iincreasing A O x1 x2 B
function.
f(x) decreases on I = [AB]
EXAMPLE 17 Given that f(x) = (5 – a)x2 + (b + 2)x – 3 is a constant function, find a and b.
Solution Since f is a constant function, the coefficients of x2 and x must be zero:

5 – a = 0 and b + 2 = 0. So a = 5 and b = –2.
EXAMPLE 18 Show that

a. f: [0, )  , f(x) = ñx + x3 is an increasing function.
1
b. f:  – {0}  , f ( x) = is a decreasing function.
x
Solution a. Let x1, x2  [0, ) such that x1 < x2.
For all x1 < x2, x1 < x2 and x13 < x23. So x1 + x13 < x2 + x2 3 and f(x1) < f(x2).
So f is an increasing function on [0, ).

1 1
b. First let x1, x2  (0, ) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 , > and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
1 1
Now let x1, x2  (–0) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 , > and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
In both cases f is decreasing, so f is a decreasing function on  – {0}.
Functions 161
EXAMPLE 19 Determine whether each function increases or decreases on the given interval.
 
a. y = sin x, x  [  , ] b. y = 0.5x – 3x, x   c. y = ln x + x2, x  +
2 2
a. y = sin x is a periodic function. Its y

Solution
graph is shown in the figure opposite. 1 y = f(x) = sin x
We can see that on the interval p 3p

Let t  . If   2 p 2 2p
x
f(x + t) = f(x) [ , ], y = sin x increases. 2p 3p p p O
2 2
then f is called a 2 2
periodic function.
1
x
1
b. y =   +( 3x)
2 y y
Recall that the exponential function
y = f(x) = 3x
f(x) = ax increases when a > 1 and
3
decreases when 0 < a < 1 as shown
in the figure opposite. y = f(x) = ax
1 1
x
1 x x
The exponential function   is O 1 O
The sum of two increasing

2 0<a<1
functions is also an therefore a decreasing function
3
increasing function. The 1
sum of two decreasing because a = <1.
functions is also a
2
decreasing function. We can easily see from the graph of y = –3x that this is also a decreasing function. The
sum of two decreasing functions is also a decreasing function, so f is a decreasing function.
c. y = ln x + x2
lnx is an increasing function because lnx = logex and e  2.71>1.
x2 is also an increasing function in +, so y = ln x + x2 is increasing function.
EXAMPLE 20 Find the interval(s) on which each function decreases and/or increases.
1
a. y = 1 – 2x b. y = x2 – 3x c. y = 2 d. y = cos x
x
Solution We can draw a graph of each function to y
y = f(x) = 1 2x
determine the intervals.
a. We can see from the graph that f(x) = 1 – 2x
decreases on (–, ). 1
x
O 1
2

3 y
b. f decreases on the interval ( , ].
2 y = f(x) = x2 3x
3
f increases on the interval [ ,+).
2 3
2 3
x
O
9
4
c. f increases on the interval (–, 0). y

1
y = f(x) =
f decreases on the interval (0, +). x2
x
O
d. f(x) = cos x is a periodic function, so let us y

y = f(x) = cos x
consider its value in the interval [–, ].
f increases on the interval [–, 0]. p O p
x
2p 2p
f decreases on the interval [0, ].
EXAMPLE 21 Find the value a + b if f ( x) =

( a  2)x2 + bx + 4
3x + 2
is a constant function.
( a  2)x2 + bx + 4
Solution Since f is constant, we can write f ( x) = = k ( k  ).
3x + 2
This gives (a – 2)x2 + bx + 4 = 3kx + 2k.
By the equality of polynomials, we can write
(a – 2) = 0
b = 3k
4 = 2k, which gives
a = 2, k = 2, b = 6. So a + b = 8.
Functions 163
EXAMPLE 22 The function f ( x) =
( a  1)x2 +( b +5)x
2 x +1
is an identity function. Find a and b.
Solution Since f is an identity function, f(x) = x. So

( a  1)x2 +( b +5) x
= x, i.e.
2 x +1
( a  1)x2 +( b +5) x = 2 x2 + x.
By the equality of polynomials, a – 1 = 2 and b + 5 = 1. So a = 3 and b = –4.
Check Yourself 3
3mx +1
1. f ( x) = is a constant function. Find m.
6 x +5
2. f(x) = (m – 2)x + n + 5 is an identity function. Find m + n.
3. Decide whether each function increases or decreases on the given interval.

a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x  
b. f(x) = 1 – x, x  
c. f(x) = –x2 – 8x + 1, x  (–4, )
d. f(x) = –x2 – 2x – 1, x  (–)
e. f(x) = x3 + 1, x  
Answers
1. 2 2. –2
5
D. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Definition even function, odd function
Let f: D  R be a function.
1. If f(–x) = f(x) for all x  D then f is called an even function.
2. If f(–x) = –f(x) for all x  D then f is called an odd function.
For example, the cosine function is an even function because cos (–x) = cos x.
Similarly, the sine, tangent and cotangent functions are odd functions because sin(–x) = –sinx,
tan (–x) = –tan x and cot (–x) = –cot x.

The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Not all functions are even y y y = f(x) = x2

or odd. For example, y = f(x) = cos x
f(x) = x + 1 is neither 1
even nor odd.
3p
p
2 2p
x
2p p p O p 3p

2 2 2
x
1 O
f(x) = f(x) f(x) = f(x)

cos (x) = cos (x) Even functions (x)2 = (x)2
The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.

y y y
y = f(x) = tan x
y = f(x) = x3
The following rules help y = f(x) = sin x
us to calculate the parity 1
(even or odd) of the sum 3p p 3p

and product of even p 2p 2 2 2
x p x x
functions (E) and odd 2p p O O O
functions (O): 2
EE=E 1
OO=O
E  O = neither E nor O f(x) = f(x) f(x) = f(x) f(x) = f(x)
EE=E sin (x) = sin (x) tan (x) = tan (x) (x)3 = x3
EO=O
O  O = E. Odd functions
EXAMPLE 23 Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
2
a. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 b. f(x) = 7 tanx + x3 c. f ( x) = x6 – 28 d. f(x) = 3x + 3–x
x +x
e. f ( x) = x2  6 x +9 + x2 +6 x +9 f. f(x) = |x – 3| + |x + 4| g. f(x) = –3x2 + 2|x| – 5
Solution Let us find f(–x) and compare it with f(x) in each case.
a. f(–x) = x2 – 3x + 2, so f is neither even nor odd.
b. f(–x) = –7 tanx – x3 = –(7tan x + x3) = –f(x), so f is odd.
x2 – 2
c. f (– x) = 6 = f ( x) , so f is even.
x + x8
d. f(–x) = 3–x + 3x = 3x + 3–x = f(x), so f is even.
e. f (– x) = x2 +6 x +9 + x2 – 6 x +9 = f ( x) , so f is even.
f. f(–x) = |–x – 3| + |–x + 4|, so f is neither even nor odd.
g. f(–x) = –3x2 + 2|x| – 5 = f(x), so f is even.
Functions 165
EXAMPLE 24 f:   , f(x) is an odd function such that f(–2) = k + 5 and f(2) = 2k + 3. Find k.
Solution Since f is an odd function, f(–x) = –f(x) and f(–2) = –f(2).

So k + 5 = –(2k + 3)
k + 5 = –2k – 3
3k = –8
8
k= – .
3
y
EXAMPLE 25 Complete the graph of the function if it is
a. even. b. odd.
x
O
Solution a. The graph of an even function is b. The graph of an odd function is symmetric
symmetric with respect to the y-axis. with respect to the origin.
y y
y = f(x)
x x
O O
y = f(x)
f(x) is an even function f(x) is an odd function
Check Yourself 4
1. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = |x| + cos x b. f(x) = x3 + sin x c. f(x) = x4 + x2 + 1
sin x  tan x
x
d. f(x) = cos x4 – x3 sin x e. f ( x) = f. f ( x) = 2 x3
cos( x3 )
2. f is an odd function and g is an even function. f(–2) + g(1) = 8 and g(–1) + f(2) = 6 are given.
Find f(–2) and g(–1).
Answers
1. a. even b. odd c. even d. even e. odd f. even 2. f(–2) = 1, g(–1) = 7

EXERCISES 4 .1
A. Domain and Range of a Function 2– x
i. f ( x) = arccos
x +1
1. State the domain and range of each function.
j. f(x) = arcsin 2x
a. y b. y
y = f(x) x
y = g(x) k. f ( x) = log 1 ( )
2
x2 – 4
x l. f(x) = log2x–5(x2 – 3x – 10)

O 5
x m. f(x) = log(log2 x – 3logx – 10)
O
n. f ( x) = cos 2 x – cos x, x  (0, 2 )
y y
c. d.
3
y = h(x) 2 y = t(x)
4 3 11
3 x
2 1 O
1
3. Find the range of each function over the given
x
O 2 interval.
a. f(x) = 1 – 3x, x  [–2, 4)
b. f(x) = x2 – 2x – 3, x  (2, 4]
c. f(x) = –x2 + 4x + 5, x  [0, 1)
2. Find the domain of each function. d. f ( x) = log 1 (3 x+1) , x  (1, 5)

2
x+ 3
a. f ( x) = 5 e. f(x) = 32x + 5, x  (–1, 1)
x–3
1
b. f(x) = log3(x2 + 5x + 6) f. f ( x) = ( )x+2 , x  [–2, 2)
2
1
c. f ( x) = 5 x+1
d. f ( x) = 9 – | x2 – 4|
x2 – 3x – 4 4. Find the range of each function for its largest

e. f ( x) =
x2 – 1 domain.
2x a. f ( x) = – x2 + 4
f. f ( x) = 3x2 +1+
x–5
b. f(x) = 1 – 2sin x
g. f(x) = ln(x2 – 7x + 10) + x2 – 4 2
c. f ( x) =
1+7 x
1 – 2 sin x
h. f ( x) = , x  [0, 2 ]
2 d. f ( x) = – x2 – 10 x – 9
Functions 167
B. Composite Function D.Constant, Increasing and
Decreasing Functions
5. Given f(x) = ñx, g(x) = x2, and h(x) = x + 1,
write each function. ax2 + 2 x + b
9. f ( x) = is a constant function. Find
a. g(h(f(x))) b. f(h(g(x))) 3x2 + bx + 2b
a and b.
10. Determine whether each function is increasing or

6. Write each function as a composite of elementary
decreasing on the given interval.
functions.
1 a. f(x) = x2 – 6x + 1, x  (3, )
a. f ( x) = 5 –
x +1 b. f(x) = –x2 + 4x – 3, x  (–, 2)
1
b. f ( x) = log 3( 2 ) c. f(x) = –x3 + 3, x
x +5

d. f(x) = sin x, x  (0, )
2
C. Inverse of a Function 11. The function f(x) = 2x2 – 7x – 15 is given.

a. On which interval does the function decrease?
7. Find the inverse of each function.
2x b. On which interval does the function increase?
a. f:   , f ( x) =
5
–2 x – 3
b. f:  – {3}   – {2}, f ( x) =
x+ 3
E. Even and Odd Functions
c. f:   +, f(x) = 2  33x+4
d. f: +  , f(x) = 2 + ln(5x – 4) 12. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or

neither even nor odd.
e. f: [1, +)  [1, +), f(x) = 4x2 – 8x + 5
a. f(x) = x5 + x3 + x
cos x + x2
b. f ( x) =
3+ x4
x  tan x 5
c. f ( x) = ( )
x3 + sin x
8. For each function, find the real number a
which satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a). d. f(x) = sin (tan(x3 + x))
5 x3  x
a. f(x) = 5x – 2 e. f ( x) = e cos x
b. f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 13x – 8 f. f(x) = x4  sin x

A. PIECEWISE FUNCTION
Definition piecewise function
A function that is defined by different formulas on different intervals of its domain is called a
piecewise function.
2 x + 1 if x > 2

EXAMPLE 26 
The piecewise function f :   , f ( x) = x2

if 0  x  2 is given.
 – x2 – 1 if x < 0
a. Draw the graph of f. b. Find f(–5) + f(2) + f(3).
Solution a. When x > 2, we draw the graph of y = 2x + 1, y y = f(x)

when 0  x  2, we draw the graph of y = x and 2
5
when x < 0, we draw the graph of y = –x2 – 1. 4
3
b. When x = –5, f(x) = –x2 – 1. So f(–5) = –(–5)2 – 1 = – 26. 2
When x = 2, f(x) = x2. So f(2) = 22 = 4. 1
x
O 1 2
When x = 3, f(x) = 2x + 1. So f(3) = 2  3 + 1 = 7.
1
Hence, f(–5) + f(2) + f(3) = –26 + 4 + 7 = –15.
y = x2 1 y = x2 y = 2x + 1
EXAMPLE 27 The domain of the function f(x) shown in the figure is y

[0, 3]. Define f(x) as a piecewise function.
y = f(x)
2
Solution The graph consists of three line segments. Working from
left to right: 1
1 0.5
the first line segment is valid for 0  x < 1 and f ( x) = , x
2 O 1 2 3
the second segment is valid for 1  x  2 and f(x) = 1,
and the third segment is valid for 2 < x  3 and f(x) = 2.
So the definition is
1
 2 if 0  x < 1

f ( x) = 
1 if 1  x  2


2 if 2 < x  3.
Functions 169
EXAMPLE 28 Sketch the graph of the piecewise function f:   ,
 x2 – 1 if x < –1 or x > 1

 1 if x = –1 or x = 1
f ( x) =  –
 2
 –x2 if –1  x  1.

y
Solution We draw the graph of y = x2 – 1 for the interval 2
y=x 1 y = x2 1
(– , –1)  (1, ).
1 1
Since f ( 1) =  and f (1) =  ,
2 2
1 1 x
we plot the single points ( 1,  ) and (1,  ) . 1 O 1
2 2
1
We draw the curve y = –x2 for the interval 2
1
(–1, 1).
y = x2
Check Yourself 5  x2 if x > 3


1. The piecewise function f :   , f ( x) = 3 x + 4 if 0  x  3 is given.
 x3 + 2 if x < 0

Calculate f(f(f(–1))).
2. Sketch the graph of each piecewise function.

 x if x  1
a. f :   , f ( x) = 
  x if x  1
 x2 if x  1
b. f :   , f ( x) = 
  x if x  1
2
 2 x  1 if x  0

c. f :   , f ( x) =  1 if 0  x  1

 1  x if x  1
 ln x if 0  x  e
d. f :   , f ( x) = 
 e x if x  0 or x  e
Answers
1. 49

B. ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION
Recall that for any number x, the absolute value of y
y = |x|
x (written |x|) is the distance between x and the
origin on a number line.
 x if x  0 x
|x| =  O
  x if x  0
Definition absolute value function
The absolute value function |f(x)| is defined as
 f ( x) if f ( x)  0
f ( x) = 
 f ( x) if f ( x)  0.
EXAMPLE 29 Draw the graph y = |x – 3|. y y
Solution We begin by drawing the graph 3 3

x
y = x – 3. We then draw the O
graph y = |x – 3| by reflecting x
O 3
3
the negative part of the graph.
y=x3 y = |x 3|
Note
When solving absolute value equations or inequalities or when drawing the graph
of an absolute value function, begin by finding the intervals in which the value
of the function is negative, positive or zero.
EXAMPLE 30 Draw the graph y = |x2 – 1|.
x –1 1
Solution 1 Let us construct the sign table for x2 – 1.
x2 – 1 is positive for x < –1 or x > 1 and x2 – 1 + – +
zero for x = –1 or x = 1.
y
For these values of x, |x2 – 1| = x2 – 1. y = x2 1 y = x2 1
x2 – 1 is negative for –1 < x < 1.
For these values of x, 1
|x2 – 1| = –|x2 – 1| = –x2 + 1.
 x2 – 1 if x  –1 or x  1 x
1 O 1
So|x2 – 1| =  2
  x +1 if – 1  x  1.
y = x2 + 1
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.
Functions 171
Solution 2 We could also graph y y
y = x2 1 y = |x2 1|
y = |x2 – 1| using a different
method: first we graph 1
y = x2 – 1 and then we reflect the

x x
1 O 1 O
negative y-values in the graph 1 1
with respect to the x-axis.
EXAMPLE 31 Draw the graph of f(x) = |x – 1| + |x + 2|.
Solution First we construct a sign table.

x –2 1
y
x–1 – – + y = f(x)
x+2 – + +
3
When x < –2, f(x) = –x + 1 – x – 2 = –2x – 1.
When –2  x < 1, f(x) = –x + 1 + x + 2 = 3.
When x  1, f(x) = x – 1 + x + 2 = 2x + 1. x
2 O 1
So f(x) can be defined piecewise as 1
 2 x  1 if x < 2

f ( x) =  3 if 2  x < 1
 2 x +1 if x  1.

y = 2x 1 y=3 y = 2x + 1
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.
EXAMPLE 32 Draw the graph of each absolute value function.

a. f:   , f(x) = |sinx| b. f: +  , f(x) = |ln x| – 3
y y
Solution a. y = sin x y = f(x) = |sin x|
p 2p
x x
2p p O 2p p O p 2p
b. y y y
y = ln x y = |ln x| y = f(x) = |ln x| 3
x 1 x
O 1 O e3 e3
x
O 1 3

EXAMPLE 33 Draw the graph of f(x) = –x  |x + 2| + 3x.
Solution Since the expression includes an absolute value, let us begin by defining the function in pieces:
x –2  – x(– x – 2)+ 3 x if x < –2
x+2 – + f ( x) = 
|x + 2| –x – 2 x+2  – x( x + 2)+ 3x if x  –2
 x2 +5x if x < 2

f ( x) = 
 – x2 + x if x  2.
To draw the graph precisely, let us find the x-intercepts by calculating the roots of the
equations:
y
x2 + 5x = 0 and –x2 + x = 0 2
y = x + 5x
x(x + 5) = 0 –x(x – 1) = 0
( 1, 1)
x1 = 0, x2 = –5 x3 = 0, x4 = 1. 2 4
5 5 2 1
2
At x = –2, f(–2) = –(–2)2 + (–2) = –6 and also x
O 2
(–2)2 + 5  (–2) = –6.
5 25
The vertex point of y = x2 + 5x is (– , – )
2 4
1 1
and the vertex point of y = –x2 + x is ( , ). y = x2 + x
2 4 6
Now we can draw the graph. 25/4
Check Yourself 6
Draw the graphs.
1. y = |2x – 3| 2. y = |x3| 3. y = |x2 + 2x – 3 |
4. y = |x – 5| + |x + 3| 5. y = |x – 5|  x + 2x – 1 6. y = |2x + 1| + x – 3
Functions 173
EXERCISES 4 .2
A. Piecewise Function 4. Draw the graphs.
1. Given a. y = |–x| b. y = |2 – 4x|
 x – 1 if x> 2 c. y = |x2 – 1| d. y = |x2 – 4x – 5|

 f (0)+ f (2)
f ( x) =  x if 0 < x  2, find . e. y = |log x| f. y = |cos x|
 f (3) – f (1)
 4x if x0 g. y = x|x + 1| + 3 h. y = |5x + 4| + 2x – 1
2. Draw the graph of each piecewise function.

 1 if x >1
a. f ( x) = 
 –2 if x  1
 2 x + 4 if x >1
b. f ( x) = 
 – x if x 1
 x2 +1 if x > 0
c. f ( x) = 
2
 x – 1 if x  0
 cos x if 0 < x < 
d. f ( x) = 
 sin x if   x < 2 
B. Absolute Value Function
3. Write each absolute value function as a piecewise

function.
a. f(x) = |x + 3|
b. f(x) = |x| + x
c. f(x) = |x2 – x – 2|
d. f(x) = |x – 2| + |x – 3|
e. f(x) = |x + 1| + |x – 1|
f. f(x) = |x + 4|  x + x2 – 2x

2x 5. What is the range of f(x) = 2x + 1 for x  (–1, 3)?
1. What is the domain of f ( x) = ?
log 2 x
1 A) (2, 8) B) (1, 16) C) (7, 15)
A)  B) (0, ) C) (0, ) – { }
2
1 D) (2, 16) E) (0, 2)
D) (0, ) – {2} E) (0, )
2
6. Find the inverse of f: [1, ) ),

f(x) = x2 – 2x + 5.
2. What is the domain of f ( x) = | 2x  1|  | 3x +1|? A) x4 B) x – 4 +1 C) x2  2 +1
A) [–2, 0] B) (–2, 0) C) [0, ) D) x  2 +1 E) x  4 1
D) (–, –2] E) 
7. Find the inverse of f:   (1, ),

f(x) = 3x – 1 + 1.
A) log 3 3x B) log 3( x  1) C) log 3 ( x  1)+ 2

2x
x+ 2 D) log 3(3 x  3) E) log 3 x  1
A) [–4, –2) B) [0, 2] – {1} C) (–2, 2)
D) (–2, 2] E) (–2, 0]
8. Which one of the following is an odd function?
x2
A) f ( x) = B) f ( x) = 5  x + 5+ x
| x|
C) f ( x) = x5 D) f(x) = x3 + x
4. What is the range of f(x) = –x + 5 for x  [–5, 5]? 3
x x
A) [–5, 5] B) [0, 5] C) [–5, 10]
x2
E) f ( x) =
D) [5, 10] E) [0, 10] x 1

9. Which one of the following is the graph of an odd 12. What is the domain of f ( x) = 5 x2  4x  12 ?
function?
A) y B) y A) (–6, 2) B) (–2, 6) C)  – (–2, 6)
2 2 D) + E) 
2 2
x x
2 O O 2
2 2
y y
C) D)
2 2 x +1
2 2
x
2
x
4  x2
O 2 O
A) [–2, 2] B) [0, –2] C) (–2, 2)
2
2
D)  – (–2, 2) E) 
E) y
2 2
x
O
2
14. What is the range of f ( x) =  x2 +5 x + 36 for

the largest domain of f ?
9 11 13
A) [0, ] B) [0, ] C) [0, ]
2 2 2
15 17
–2 x + 1 D) (0, ) E) [0, )
10. Given that f ( x) = is a constant function, 2 2
ax + 3
find a.
A) –2 B) –3 C) –4 D) –6 E) –10
15. What is the range of f ( x) = log 1 (3x +1) for the

largest domain of f ? 2
2x
11. What is the domain of f ( x) = log( )?
x +5 1 1
A) (  , ) B) (–1, 1) C) ( , )
A)  B)  – (–5, 2) C)  – [2, 5] 3 3
1
D)  E)   { }
D)  – [–5, 0] E)  – (0, 2) 3

16. Find the inverse of f:   , f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x. 20. Given f: [–a, a]  , which of the following must
be an odd function?
A) 3
x 1 B) 3
x  1+1 C) 3
x +1  1
f ( x)+ f ( x)
A) f(x)  f(–x) B)
2
D) x +1 E) x  1+1
f ( x)  f (  x ) 1
C) D) f ( x)+ f ( )
2 x
1
E) f ( x)  f ( )
x
17. Find the inverse of

f:   (1, ), f(x) = 1 + log(3x + 1).
A) log3(10x – 1 – 1) B) log(x – 1) 21. Which one of the following functions is equivalent

2 x + 2 if x  2
C) log3(x–1) D) 10x – 1 to f ( x) =  ?
2 if x  2
E) log3x – 1
A) g(x) = |x + 2| B) g(x) = |x – 2|
C) g(x) = |x| + x + 2 D) g(x) = x – |x + 2|
E) g(x) = x + |x + 2|
18. Which one of the following is an even function?
A) f(x) = x7 – x3 B) f(x) = 2x
C) f(x) = xsin x D) f(x) = xcos x

cos x
E) f(x) =
x3
19. Given that

3x2  ( a  2)x + 3
f :   {1, 1}  , f ( x) =
1  x2
is an even function, find the value of a2  f(a).
A) 5 B) 10 C) –15 D) –20 E) 25

EXERCISES 1 .1
1. B(0, 8), B(0, –8) 2. A(12, 0), A(–12, 0) 3. F(7, 0), F(–7, 0) 4. A(6, 0), A(–6, 0), B(0, 3), B(0, –3) 5. 18 cm
4
6. e = ; vertices: B(0, 6), B(0, –6); major circle: x2 + y2 = 100; minor circle: x2 + y2 = 36; directrices: x =  25
5 2
15 15 9 9 225
7. major axis = 10, minor axis = 6 8. A( , 0), A(– , 0), B(0, ), B(0, – ); directrices: x = 
2 2 2 2 24
5 106
9. minor axis = 2ò11 cm; foci: F(0, 5), F(0, –5) 10. BB = 2ó106 cm; e =
106
11. minor axis = 4ò21 cm; major circle: x2 + y2 = 100; minor circle: x2 + y2 = 84 12. major axis BB = 18;
27 3 82 69 22 9 66 18 6 78
minor axis AA = 6ñ5; d: y =  13. 14. A( , ), A(– , – ), B( , – ), B(– , )
2 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
x2 y2 x2 y2
15. + =1 16. + =1 17. major axis = 20, minor axis = 8 18. a. 20 b. 16 c. 0.6 d. 12
121 49 25 64
3 x2 y2 x2 y2
19. a. major axis = 0.5, minor axis = 0.4 b. 20. + =1 21. + =1 22. 54 23. 4ñ6 24. 40
5 49 33 36 144
25. (4ñ5 – 5) 26. 28
EXERCISES 1 .2
5
1. e = ; foci: F(5, 0), F(–5, 0) 2. conjugate axis = 6ñ3, e = 2 3. major circle: x2 + y2 = 25;
4
25 34
minor circle: x2 + y2 = 9; directrices: x =  4. transverse axis = 4; conjugate axis = 8ñ2;
34
25
vertices: A(2, 0), A(–2, 0) 5. conjugate axis = 4ò11 cm; distance between the foci = 24 cm; directrices: x = 
3
5 13 3
6. asymptotes: y =  x ; directrices: x = 4 7. a. b. y =  x 8. transverse axis = 30 cm,
2 2 2
5 25
conjugate axis = 72 cm 9. transverse axis = 24 cm; conjugate axis = 18 cm; e = 10. transverse axis = 48 cm, e =
4 24
2 2
13 144 29 8 29 x y
11. a. F(0, 13), F(0, –13) b. c. y =  12. e = ; directrices: y =  13. – =1
12 13 2 29 16 36
5 16 5
c. d : x = 
14. transverse axis = 24, conjugate axis = 16 15. a. transverse axis = 16, conjugate axis = 8 b. ;
2 5
1
asymptotes: y =  x 16. transverse axis = 14; conjugate axis = 6; distance between the foci = 2ò58
2
178 Answers to Exercises

2 2
17. transverse axis = 2; conjugate axis = 8; e = ò17 18. a. transverse axis = , conjugate axis =
9 3
10 5
b. y =  19. distance between the foci = 14ñ2; angle = 45° 20. a. transverse axis = 6, conjugate axis = 8 b.
90 3
x2 y2
21. – =1 22. 18
4 9
EXERCISES 1 .3
1. x = –5 2. F(–3, 0) 3. 12 4. F(3, 0), d: x = –3 5. a. y2 = 24x b. x2 = –8y c. y2 = –16x d. x2 = 32y
8 3 3 1 1
6. a. y2 = –6x b. x2 = – y c. y2 = 4ñ3x d. x2 = 3y 7. a. F( , 0), d : x = – b. F(– , 0), d: x =
5 2 2 6 6
3 3 1 1 9 9
c. F( , 0), d : x = – d. F(0, –9), d: y = 9 e. F(0, – ), d : y = f. F(0, ), d : y = –
20 20 4 4 8 8
9 9
8. 4ñ2 9. x2 = y; F(0, ) 10. 12 11. 10
4 16
EXERCISES 2 .1
 7 3  –1
 –2 0      c21 = –9 c23 = 59
1. a. A+ B=   b. A + B =  1 9  c. A + B =  8  2. 3.
 6 3  –2 15   1 c13 = 26 c32 = 56
   
 
A – B =  4 0  5 –5   7
 –2 –1    
A – B =  3 –1 A – B =  –4 
2 4  –4 –5   –3
2A =      
4 2 12 –2   6
   
  2A =  4 6 2 A =  4
2 A – B = 5 6 
0 0   –6 10   –2 
   
 11 –6  10 
   
2A – B =  5 1 2 A – B =  –2 
 –7 0   –4 
   
1
4. a = 3, b = 2, c = 1 5. k = –1, m = – , n = –2 6. a. a = 4; b = –1; c = 3; d = 1 b. a = –1; b = 1; c = 2
2
6 –21 15 
 –3 3      
7. a.   b.  0 –10  c.  4 2  d. 8 –23 19  e. [12]
12 –12  10 0  –2 4  4 7 5
 
Answers to Exercises 179

 3  –1 19  3 0 0 0 0 0 
       
8. a. undefined b. 10  c.  4 –27  d. 0 –4 0  e. 0 0 0  f. undefined g. undefined
26   0 14  0 0 –10  0 0 0 
       
 1 0  1 0  –5 2     cos(  + ) – sin(  + ) 
b. 2 –1
29 30
9. a. A =   b. A =   10. a.   11. AB =  
0 –1 0 1  3 5  3 –2   sin(  + ) cos(  + ) 
cos(  + ) – sin(  + ) 
BA =  
 sin(  + ) cos(  + ) 
 1 1 –1  –13 6 4 
 7 –2         
13. a.   b.  –3 2  c. no inverse d. 0 –1 e.  –3 2 –1 f.  12 –5 –3 
 –3 1  3 –3 2   –5 2
 –2 1  1 11
 1
 
53
14. a. – 15. –3 16. 14
25
EXERCISES 2 .2
3
1. a. –2 b. 42 c. 25 d. 201 e. 1 f. –4 2. a. –2 b. –8 c. 8 d. 1 e. f. –2 3. M12 = –6,
2
M23 = –29, M31 = –5 4. C12 = –11, C23 = 19, C31 = –4 5. a. –4 b. –11 c. –3 d. –27 e. 0 f. 0 6. a. 0
1
b. 0 7. a. b. 1 c. 2 d. x = 0, x = 2
2
EXERCISES 3 .1
1. a. 36 b. –22 c. 140 d. –42 e. 60 f. 7e g. 3 h. 4n + 4 i. 5k – 5 2. a. 1275 b. 1634 c. 324
2
d. 140 e. 585 f. 2061 g. 1140 h. 3272 i. 3n + 4n + 1 j. 60k + 99 k. 13 l. 63log a 3. a. –a2 b. 3
91 3 48 49 n
c. –8 d. –1 e. –1 f. 0 g. h. 0 i. j. k. l. – m. 1 + ñ2 – ñn – ón+1 n. 0
2 5 49 50 n 1
1
o. –log 101 p. 3 q. 101! – 1 r. 1  s. 0 t. 110 u. 4914 v. 1 – 214 w. 285 x. 784 4. a. 371 b. 240
51!
3 1 a n n n n
c. 32 d. 0 e. 5t f. k  ( k  1) 5. Hint :  cot  cot a 6. a. Hint : ( )  ( ) b. Hint : ( )  ( )
2 sin a 2 k nk k nk
n n n n n n 1 n 1 66
c. Hint : (1  x) n  ( )  ( ) x  ( ) x2  ...  ( ) xn d. Hint : ( )  ( ) ( ) 7. a. 127 b. ( ) c. (x + 1)n
0 1 2 n r r r 1 60
20
d. 310 – 34 e. ( ) f. 69 8. 60 9. 6 10. 6 11. 5 12. 9 13. 1 14. 2 15. 3 16. 14 17. 240 18. 900
10

8 10
19. 9 20. 16 21.  22. –1 23. A + 480 24. A + B 25. 10 26. 27. 6 28. 0 29. 2 30. 5
5 3
1 3 3 5
31. 118 32. 46 33. a. 625 b. 1 c. d. ( )7 e. 32 f. (  ) g. e6 h. (n + 2)5 i. (2k – 1)5
243 4 2
14! 24
34. a. 41! b. 29160 c. 228 d. 345 e. 5!215 f. g. 5!(loga2)5 h. 0 i. 0 j. 8 k. l. (51! – 1)  log 3
3105 5
75! 21
m. 720  280 n. 110 o. 291/2 p. 0 q. r. 0 s. 1 t. 1 u. 504
w. 102 35. a. 1 b. (5!)3  (4!)5
v.
76 20
35 7! 2
c. 1 d. 36. 8 37. 5 38. 6 39. 2 40. 3 41. 6 42. –1 43. 44. 65! 45. a. 40 b. 1410
2 3 5
555 9 1 16
c. d. 42 e. (211 – 2)7 f. 122x 46. 47. 81 48. 7 49. log90181 50. 224 51. 260 52. (  )
5! 8 3 3
1
53. 1  54. 7
( k  1)!
EXERCISES 4 .1
1. a. f:    b. g:  – {5}   c. h:  – {0}   – {3} d. t: (–4, ) – {1}  (–2, 3] 2. a.  – {3}
 5
b.  – [–3, –2] c. (–1, ) d. [–ò13, ò13] e. – [–1, 4) f. – (0, 5] g. – (–2, 5] h. [0, 2 ] – ( , )
6 6
1 – 17 1+ 17  3
i. [ 1 ,  ) j. (–, 0] k. ( , 0)  ( , ) l. (5, ) m. (0, 0.01)  (100000, ) n. [ , ] 3. a. [–11, 7]
2 2 2 2 2
1
b. (–3, 5] c. [5, 8) d. (–4, –2) e. (27, 2187) f. ( , 1] 4. a. [0, 2] b. [–1, 3] c. (0, 2) d. [0, 4] 5. a. (ñx + 1)2
16
1
b. x2 +1 6. a. g(x) = x + 1, h(x) = ñx, t(x) = , r(x) = 5 – x, f(x) = r(t(h(g(x)))) b. g(x) = x2 + 5,
x
1 –3x – 3
h(x) = , t(x) = log3x, f(x) = t(h(g(x)))) 7. a. f –1:  , f –1(x) = 2 – 5x b. f –1: – {2}  – {3}, f –1(x) =
x x+ 2
x x– 2
x – 1+ 2
c. f –1: +  , f –1(x) = log 3 3 d. f –1:   +, f –1(x) = e + 4 e. f –1: [1, +)  [1, +), f –1(x) =
162 5 2
1 3 7
8. a. b. 2 9. a = , b = 4 10. a. increasing b. increasing c. decreasing d. increasing 11. a. (– , ]
2 2 4
7
b. [ ,  ) 12. a. odd b. even c. odd d. odd e. neither even nor odd f. odd
4
EXERCISES 4 .2
1. 2 2. a. y b. y c. y d. y
y = f(x)
y = f(x) 1 3p
1 y = f(x)
6 y = f(x) p 2 2p
x p x
1 O
O 1 2
x 1
4 O
1
1
2
1
x
O
1
 x + 3 if x  –3  2 x if x  0  x2 – x – 2 if x  (–1, 2)
3. a. f ( x) =  b. f ( x) =  c. f ( x) = 
 – x – 3 if x  –3  0 if x  0  – x2 + x + 2 if x  (–1, 2)
 –2 x +5 if x2  –2 x if x  –1
  2 x2 + 2 x if x  –4
d. f ( x) =  1 if 2  x  3 e. f ( x) =  –2 if –1  x  1 f. f ( x ) = 
   –6 x if x  –4
 2 x – 5 if x3  2 x if x 1
4. a. y b. y c. y d. y
y = |x2 4x 5|
y = |x| y = |2 4x| y = |x 1|
2
9
2 1 5
x
O x x
O 1 1 O 1
21 x
1 O 5
e. y f. y g. y h. y
y = x|x + 1| + 3
y = |log x| y = |cos x|
1 3
3 y = |5x + 4| + 2x 1
x
4
x 3p p O p 3p
2 2 2 2
O 1 5
x x
3 2 1 O 2 O
2
3

TEST 1A TEST 2A
1. D 9. D 17. B 25. A 1. B 9. A 17. C
2. C 10. A 18. E 26. D 2. E 10. C 18. A
3. E 11. E 19. A 27. E 3. E 11. B 19. D
4. E 12. B 20. D 28. C 4. D 12. A 20. D
5. A 13. A 21. E 29. C 5. C 13. D 21. C
6. C 14. D 22. D 30. B 6. E 14. E 22. -
7. B 15. B 23. B 31. E 7. A 15. B 23. -
8. D 16. D 24. A 32. - 8. C 16. E 24. -
TEST 2B TEST 3A
1. E 9. B 1. B 9. D 17. E 25. C
2. D 10. E 2. D 10. D 18. - 26. A
3. E 11. C 3. A 11. D 19. D 27. B
4. B 12. B 4. C 12. - 20. D 28. D
5. A 13. A 5. E 13. A 21. D 29. B
6. D 14. A 6. B 14. B 22. B 30. C
7. E 15. B 7. D 15. C 23. E
8. D 16. D 8. D 16. B 24. E
TEST 3B TEST 4A
1. D 9. E 17. E 25. C 1. C 9. B 17. A
2. A 10. D 18. C 26. D 2. A 10. D 18. C
3. A 11. A 19. E 27. B 3. D 11. D 19. D
4. B 12. C 20. E 28. D 4. E 12. E 20. C
5. A 13. D 21. B 29. C 5. B 13. C 21. E
6. D 14. B 22. - 30. E 6. B 14. C 22. -
7. D 15. C 23. C 7. D 15. D 23. -
8. E 16. D 24. A 8. D 16. B 24. -

A
conic section: a geometric figure which results from a
plane intersecting a pair of right circular cones
positioned vertex to vertex. The standard conic
absolute value: the non-negative difference of a number sections are the circle, the ellipse, the parabola and the
x and zero, written |x|. For example, |8| = 8 and hyperbola.
|–8| = 8. conjugate axis of a hyperbola: the axis of a hyperbola
which passes through the midpoint of the foci and
absolute value function: the function |f(x)| defined as
which is perpendicular to the transverse axis.
follows: if f(x)  0 then |f(x)| = f(x), and if f(x) < 0
coefficient: a constant multiplier of the variable(s) in an
then |f(x)|= –f(x).
algebraic term. For example, the coefficient of 2xy is 2.
adjoint matrix: the transpose of a cofactor matrix.
coefficient matrix: a matrix which is obtained from
antisymmetric matrix: If the entries on the main the coefficients of a system of linear equations. For
diagonal of a square matrix are all zero and the sums of example, the coefficient matrix for the system
the symmetric entries with respect to the main diagonal 2 x  y =1 2 1
are zero then this matrix is called an antisymmetric is  .
3x  y = 9  3 1
matrix. communication matrix: a matrix which shows the
asymptote of a hyperbola: a line (or a curve) that a possible paths of communication between different
hyperbola gets closer and closer to but never touches. things, places or points.
axis of a parabola: the line which passes through the consistent system of equations: a system of linear
focus of a parabola perpendicular to its directrix. equations which has either one solution or infinitely
many solutions.
axis of symmetry: a line that divides a figure into two
symmetric parts. column (of a matrix): a vertical array of numbers in a
matrix.
C cofactor: The cofactor of a matrix entry aij is

Cij=(–1)i+ j Mij, where Mij is the minor of aij.
canonical equation of an ellipse: the equation of an cofactor expansion: a way of calculating the determinant
of a matrix by using some of its cofactors.
ellipse which is not rotated or translated and whose cen-
ter is at the origin of the coordinate plane. cofactor matrix: The cofactor matrix of a matrix A is
the matrix which consists of the cofactors of all the
center of an ellipse: the point of intersection of the axes
entries of A.
of an ellipse.
Cramer’s rule: a method for solving a system of n
center of a hyperbola: the point of intersection of the linear equations in n unknowns by using matrices.
transverse and conjugate axes of a hyperbola.
composite function: a function which is formed by
circle: the set of points in a plane whose distance from composing two or more elementary functions, for
a fixed point in the plane is constant. A circle is a conic example: f(g(x)).
section whose eccentricity is zero. constant function: a function of the form f(x) = c,
circle of the directrix of an ellipse: a circle whose radius where c is constant.
is the major axis of the ellipse and whose continuous function: a function whose graph contains
center is at the focus of the ellipse. no breaks or gaps.

continuous function at a point: a function which is ellipse: the set of points in a plane whose distances
defined at a point and whose right-hand and left-hand from two fixed points in the plane have a constant sum.
limits at the point are equal to the image of the point. elliptical: having the shape of an ellipse.
continuous function on an interval: a function which is elementary matrix operation: one of three basic matrix
continuous at every point on an interval.
operations: multiplying a row or column of a matrix by
crucial point: a point at which we need to check the a scalar, adding a scalar multiple of another row or
right-hand limit and the left-hand limit. column to a given row or column, or transposing two
D
rows or columns.
elimination method: a method for solving a system of
linear equations in which equations are added together
determinant: a real number which is associated with a to eliminate one or more of the variables.
square matrix. Every square matrix has one determinant. entry: one of the numbers in a matrix. We write aij to
decreasing function: A function y = f(x) is a decreasing mean the entry in the ith row and jth column of a
function on an interval I if y decreases as x increases on matrix A.
I. f(x) = 6 – x is a decreasing function in . equal matrices: Two matrices are equal matrices if they
directrices: the plural form of directrix. have the same dimension and their corresponding
directrix: a fixed line in a conic section which, along entries are all equal. A = B means that two matrices A
with the focus or foci, defines the section. and B are equal. Note that
discriminant: the quantity b2 – 4ac in the quadratic  1
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
[1 2 3]  2  , since the dimensions are different.
dimensions (of a matrix): the number of rows and  3
columns in a given matrix (also called the order of the  
matrix). For example, the matrix [1 2 3] has one row -n
neighborhood of a number: for  > 0, the open interval
and three columns, so its dimensions are 1×3. (x0 – , x0 + ) is the -neigborhood of the number x0.
discontinuous function: a function whose graph
even function: a function f: D  R for which f(–x) = f(x)
contains breaks or gaps.
for all x  D. The graph of an even function is
discontinuous function at a point: a function which is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
not continuous at a given point.
exponential function: For a  + – {1}, the function
domain of a function: the largest set of real x-values for
which a function f is defined. f:   + , f(x) = ax is called the exponential function.
Extreme Value Theorem: Let f be a function defined
E from [a, b] into . If f is continuous on [a, b] then it has

a maximum and a minimum on the interval [a, b].
F
eccentricity of an ellipse: the ratio of the distance
between the foci of an ellipse to the length of its major
axis. It is a number between 0 and 1.
eccentricity of a hyperbola: the ratio of the distance foci: the plural form of focus.
between the foci of a hyperbola to the length of its
focus: a fixed point in a conic section which, along with
transverse axis. It is always greater than 1.
the directrix or directrices, defines the section.
eccentricity of a parabola: the ratio of the distance
between a point on a parabola and its focus to the floor function: the function f(x) defined as follows: if
distance between the same point and the directrix. It is f(x)   then f(x) = f(x), and if f(x)   then f(x)
always 1. is the greatest integer which is smaller than f(x).

function: a rule that maps each element of a set D infinite discontinuity: If at least one of the right-hand
(called the domain) to a single element of a set R (called or left-hand limits of a function f at a point x0 tends to
the range). infinity then f has infinite discontinuity at x0.
H
Intermediate Value Theorem: Let f be a function which
is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] with f(a)  f(b).
Let k be any number between f(a) and f(b). Then there
exists at least one real number c  (a, b) such that f(c) = k.
hyperbola: the set of points in a plane whose distances
from two fixed points in the plane have a constant inverse function: The inverse of a function f: A  B is
difference. the function f –1: B  A such that f –1(f(x)) = x for every
f(x)  B. The inverse of f can only exist if f is a one-to-one
homogeneous linear system: a system of linear
and onto function.
equations in which the right-hand side of every
J
equation is zero.
I jump discontinuity: If the right-hand and left-hand

limits of the function f are not equal at a point x0 then
identity function: a function which is of the form f has jump discontinuity at x0.
f(x) = x.
identity matrix: a diagonal matrix in which every entry
on the main diagonal (from top left to bottom right) is
1 and whose other elements are all 0. The n × n
L
identity matrix is denoted by In. linear equation in n variables: an equation that can be
written in the form a1x1 + ... +anxn = b, where a1, ..., an
imaginary axis of a hyperbola: another name for the
conjugate axis. and b are real numbers and x1, ..., xn are variables.
image of a function: For a function f: D  R, the image left-h
hand limit: the limit of a function f(x) at a point x0 as
I (also called the image set) of f is the set of images of x approaches x0 from the left (x < x0).
all the elements in D: I  R. limit of a function: Informally, a function f has a limit
image of a point: For a function f and a point c, f(c) is L at a point x0 if the value of f(x) gets closer and closer
the image of c. to L as x approaches x0.
image set: see image of a function. linear function: a function which is of the form
isosceles hyperbola: a hyperbola whose transverse and f(x) = ax + b for a, b .
conjugate axes are congruent to each other. logarithmic function: For a  + – {1}, the function
inconsistent system of equations: a linear system which f: +  , f(x) = logax is called the logarithmic function.
has no solution.
inverse matrix: A matrix B is the inverse of a matrix A
if AB = I, the identity matrix. A–1 means the inverse of A. M
invertible matrix: a matrix which has an inverse.
main diagonal (of a matrix): the sequence of elements
increasing function: A function y = f(x) is an increasing of a square matrix that run from the top left to the
function on an interval I if y increases as x increases on bottom right of the matrix.
I. f(x) = x + 6 is an increasing function in . matrix: an ordered rectangular array of elements set
indeterminate form: a limit of a function which is not out in rows and columns. An m × n (pronounced
defined or not bounded at a point. ‘m by n’) matrix has m rows and n columns.

major axis of an ellipse: the longer axis of an ellipse, odd function: a function f: D  R for which
which contains the two focii. f(–x) = –f(x) for all x  D. The graph of an odd function
major axis of a hyperbola: another name for the is symmetric with respect to the origin.
transverse axis. one-ssided limit: the right-hand limit or left-hand limit
major circle of an ellipse: the circle whose center is the of a function at a point.
center of the ellipse and whose diameter is the major onto function: A function f: A  B is an onto function
axis of the ellipse. if for any y  B there exists an x  A such that f(x) = y.
major circle of a hyperbola: the circle whose center is
one-tto-oone function: A function f: A  B is a one-to-one
at the center of the hyperbola and whose diameter is
function if for each x1  x2 in A, f(x1)  f(x2).
the transverse axis of the hyperbola
P
minor axis of an ellipse: the shorter axis of an ellipse.
minor circle of an ellipse: the circle whose center is the
center of the ellipse and whose diameter is the minor
axis of the ellipse parabola: a set of points in a plane that are equidistant
minor circle of a hyperbola: the circle whose center is from a fixed point and a fixed line.
at the center of the hyperbola and whose diameter is parameter of a parabola: the length of the line segment
the conjugate axis of the hyperbola. between the focus and the directrix of a parabola.
minor: If A is a square matrix then the minor of an parametric equations: a pair of equations which
entry aij is the determinant of the square matrix formed define a point on a curve in terms of a third variable, for
by deleting the ith row and jth column of A. Mij means example t.
the minor of aij. point of tangency: the point at which a tangent to a
curve touches the curve.
N periodic function: a function f which satisfies f(x + t) = f(x)

for some t .
normal: a line which passes through a point of piecewise function: a function which is defined by
tangency perpendicular to the tangent line. different formulas in different intervals of its domain.
non-ddecreasing function: A function y = f(x) is a polynomial function: a function of the form
non-decreasing function on an interval I if y does not anxn + an–1xn–1 + ... + a1x + a0, where n is a positive
decrease as x increases on I.
integer and an  0.
non-iincreasing function: A function y = f(x) is a
non-increasing function on an interval I if y does not
increase as x increases on I. R
O radical function: a function which contains one or
more radical expressions such square roots, cube roots,
etc.
orbit: a curved path in space that is followed by an
range (of a function): the set which includes at least all
object that is moving round a planet, a moon or the
the images of the elements in the domain of a function f.
Sun.
P( x)
origin: the intersection point of the x-axis and the rational function: a function of the form where
P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials. Q( x)
y-axis in the coordinate plane. Its coordinates are (0, 0).
orthogonal: perpendicular. removable discontinuity: A function f has removable
order of a matrix: another name for the dimension of a discontinuity at a point x0 if the limit of the function f
square matrix. at x0 exists but is not equal to f(x0).

T
right circular cone: a cone whose base is a circle and
whose altitude passes through the center of this circle.
right-h
hand limit: the limit of a function f(x) at a point x0
as x approaches x0 from the right (x > x0). tangent: a line in a plane which touches a curve in the
same plane at a single point, called the point of tan-
row (of a matrix): a horizontal line of numbers in a
gency.
matrix.
transverse axis of a hyperbola: the axis of a hyperbola
row echelon form: A system of linear equations is in row
which includes the foci.
echelon form if the leading coefficient (i.e. the first
non-zero coefficient from the left) of each equation is triangular matrix: a square matrix which has all zero
always strictly to the right of the leading coefficient of the entries either above or below the main diagonal.
equation above it. transpose of a matrix: the matrix which is obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of a given matrix.
S For example, the transpose of

a b
  is 
a c 
.
slope of a line: the tangent of the angle between a line  c d b d 
and the x-axis in the coordinate plane. In the line trivial solution: the solution of a homogeneous linear
equation y = mx + c, m is the slope of the line. system in which all variables are zero.
standard equation of a parabola: the equation of a
parabola in the form y = ax2 + bx + c or x = ay2 + by + c.
scalar matrix: a diagonal matrix whose entries are all
V
equal.
vertex: an intersection point of a conic section and one
singular matrix: a square matrix whose determinant is of its axes.
equal to zero (and which therefore has no inverse).
vertices: the plural form of vertex.
square matrix: a matrix which has the same number of
rows and columns.
substitution method: a method for solving a system of Z
linear equations in which we substitute a variable in an
equation with an equivalent expression from a different zero matrix: a matrix whose entries are all zeros. We
equation. write 0 to mean a zero matrix.
symmetric matrix: If all the entries in a square matrix
are symmetric with respect to the main diagonal (i.e. aij
= aji for all possible i and j) then the matrix is called a
symmetric matrix.
system of equations: a set of equations that need to be
solved simultaneously, i.e. the solution must fit every
equation in the set.
sign function: the function sgn(f(x)) defined as follows:
if f(x) is positive then sgn(f(x)) has value 1, if f(x) is 0
then sgn(f(x)) = 0 and when f(x) is negative,
sgn(f(x))= –1.
square root function: a function of the form
f ( x) = g( x ).

11 Applied Maths

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11 Applied Maths

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A.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELLIPSE

2. Axes and Vertices

3. Lengths of the Axes of an Ellipse y

By the Pythagorean Theorem we can write b2 + c2 = a2 , i.e. c2 = a2 – b2 . For an ellipse

By the properties of the axes of an ellipse, B 4

Solution 2b = 6 cm so b = 3. We are also given c = 3. So

e=0 e = 0.4 e = 0.6 e = 0.9

distances from a fixed point F and a fixed line d have a d d¢

Solution If F(6, 0) is a focus then c = 6.

EXAMPLE 7 The major axis of an ellipse measures 10 cm and lies along

the y-axis. The eccentricity of the ellipse is 0.4. Find the

Solution Length of the major axis: 2b = 10 so b =5. 2 F

Solution If the foci are F(0, 3) and F(0, –3) then c = 3. y

PF = ( x – c)2 + y2 and PF = ( x + c)2 + y2 . F¢(c, 0) F(c, 0)

So ( x – c)2 + y2 + ( x + c)2 + y2 = 2 a, i.e.

( x – c)2 + y2 + 2 ( x – c)2 + y2  ( x + c)2 + y2 +( x + c)2 + y2  4 a 2 (take the square of both sides)

2  (x2 + y2 + c2 – a2)  2a2 = 4x2c2 (b2 + c2 = a2, so c2 = a2 – b2)

4a2(x2 + y2 + a2 – b2 – a2) = 4x2(a2 – b2)

a2x2 + a2y2 – a2b2 = a2x2 – b2x2.

equation of the ellipse, which means the equation of an

its center at the origin.

The x-intercepts are (a, 0).

Solution 9x2 + 16y2 = 144

a. the lengths of the major and minor axes.

EXAMPLE 13 9x2 + 16y2 =1 is an ellipse. Find

4. 9x2 + 25y2 =1 is the equation of an ellipse. Find

5. 9x2 + 4y2 =36 is the equation of an ellipse. Find

Solution From the given equation we get a = 6 and b = 4. So the

Solution From the equation we get a = 12 and b = 9.

5. What is the area of the ellipse defined by 9x2 + y2 = 9?

Ellipses appear elsewhere in nature, too. The electrons in an atom move

3. The vertices of an ellipse are A(25, 0), A(–25, 0),

4. The lengths of the major and minor axes of an

7. An ellipse has a focus at F(4, 0). If the eccentricity

21. From each point on the circle x2 + y2 = 144 we

d. the distance between the foci.

26. Find the area of the y

shaded region in the 4

2. Axes and Vertices

Now look at the figure opposite. It shows a circle of y

transverse axis is AA = 2a and the

Remember: coordinate plane, the transverse axis b

EXAMPLE 18 The foci of a hyperbola are F(5, 0) and F(–5, 0) and

Solution c = 5 and AA= 6 cm so a = 3.

Solution By the definition of a hyperbola we have

EXAMPLE 21 F(0, 15) is a focus of a hyperbola. Given that the length

Solution Since the focus is on the y-axis, the transverse axis of

e@1 e>1 e®¥

Solution If the vertices are A(3, 0) and A(–3, 0) then a = 3.

Solution If F(8, 0) is a focus then c = 8.

PH  d2. Suppose that H and H are such that

If the transverse axis of a hyperbola lies along the

Solution length of the transverse axis: 2a = 8 so a = 4

and taking the square of both sides gives us

x2c2 – 2xca2 + a4 – a2x2 + 2xca2 – a2c2 – a2y2 = 0.

Solution transverse axis: 2a = 14 so a = 7

a. the lengths of the axes.

Solution a2 = 144 so a = 12; b2 = 25 so b = 5.

c. the distance between the foci.

d. the equations of the directrices and the asymptotes.

4. 4y2 – 18x2 = 1 is the equation of a hyperbola. Find

a. the lengths of the axes. b. the eccentricity.

PF = ( x – c)2 + y2 and PF = ( x + c)2 + y2 . F¢(c, 0) F(c, 0)

Remember: coordinate plane, the transverse axis b