Glossary

A Avogadro’s constant (NA ) the number of entities in 1 mol

absolute temperature a measurement of the average kinetic
energy of the entities in a substance; unit symbol K
absolute zero the theoretical temperature at which the
entities of a material contain no kinetic energy and
therefore transmit no thermal energy; equal
to 2273.15 °C
acid a compound that produces hydrogen ions when
mixed with water, forming a solution that conducts
electricity, tastes sour, turns blue litmus red, and
neutralizes bases
acidic oxide an oxide that forms an acidic solution when
dissolved in water; a non-metallic oxide
activity series a list of elements arranged in order of their
observed reactivity in single displacement reactions
actual yield the amount or mass of product actually
collected during an experiment or industrial process
air pollution chemicals and particles in the atmosphere that
harm living organisms or damage the environment
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) a numerical scale used to
indicate overall air quality based on concentrations of
air pollutants including ozone, particulate matter, and
nitrogen dioxide
alloy a solution of two or more metals
alpha particle a product of nuclear decay emitted by
certain radioisotopes; a positively charged particle with
the same structure as the nucleus of a helium atom
amalgam an alloy (solution) of mercury with other metals
amount (n ) the quantity of a substance, measured in moles
amount concentration (c ) the amount (in moles) of solute
dissolved per litre of solution; unit symbol mol/L
anion a negatively charged ion formed by the addition of
one or more electrons to a neutral atom
aqueous solution a solution in which water is the solvent
aquifer a layer of underground rock that holds a considerable
quantity of water; an important source of fresh water
atmospheric pressure the force per unit area exerted by
air on all objects
atom the smallest particle of an element
atomic mass the weighted average of the masses of all the
naturally occurring isotopes of an element
1
atomic mass unit a very small unit of mass defined as 12
the mass of a carbon-12 atom; unit symbol u
atomic number (Z ) the unique number of protons in one
atom of an element
atomic radius a measurement of the size of an atom,
usually expressed in picometres (pm); the distance
from the centre of an atom to the outermost electrons
of a substance
Avogadro’s law the statement that the volume of a gas
is directly related to the amount of gas, when the
temperature and pressure of the gas remain constant;
equal volumes of gases, under identical conditions,
contain the same number of entities
B
base a compound that produces hydroxide ions when
mixed with water, forming a solution that conducts
electricity, tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue, and
neutralizes acids
basic oxide an oxide that forms a basic solution when
dissolved in water; a metallic oxide
beta particle a product of nuclear decay emitted by certain
radioisotopes; a negatively charged particle identical to
an electron
binary ionic compound a compound that consists of ions
of only two elements
biodegradable capable of being broken down (decomposed)
rapidly by the action of moisture, heat, and micro-
organisms
bioremediation the process of using organisms to treat
contaminated land or water
bonding capacity the number of covalent bonds that an
atom can form
bonding electron an electron, in the valence shell of an
atom, that is available to form a covalent bond with
another atom
Boyle’s law the statement that as the volume of a gas
is decreased, the pressure of the gas increases
proportionally, provided that the temperature and
amount of gas remain constant; the volume and
pressure of a gas are inversely proportional
Brownian motion the random movement of microscopic
particles suspended in a liquid or a gas
burette a calibrated tube used to deliver variable known
volumes of a liquid during a titration
C
carbon sequestration the process of removing carbon
dioxide and other forms of carbon from the
atmosphere, and then storing it
catalyst a substance that makes a chemical reaction occur
faster without itself being consumed in the reaction
cation a positively charged ion formed by the removal
of one or more electrons from the valence shell of a
neutral atom

678 Glossary NEL

Charles’ law the statement that as the temperature of
a gas is increased, the volume of the gas increases
proportionally, provided that the pressure and amount
of gas remain constant; the volume and temperature of
a gas are directly proportional
chemical bond the force of attraction between two atoms
or ions
chemical reaction a process in which one or more
substances change into one or more new substances
combined gas law the statement that the product of the
pressure and volume of a gas sample is proportional
to its absolute temperature in kelvins
combustion a chemical reaction in which a fuel burns in
oxygen to produce combustion products and, often,
a flame
complete combustion of a hydrocarbon the combustion
(burning) of a hydrocarbon in a plentiful supply of
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy
compostable the ability of a material to decompose
naturally, resulting in a product that is able to sustain
plant life
concentrated solution a solution with a relatively large
quantity of solute dissolved per unit volume of solution
concentration the ratio of the quantity of solute to the
quantity of solution or solvent; usually quantity of
solute per unit volume of solution
covalent bond the bond that results from the sharing of
a pair of electrons by two atoms
D filtrate the clear liquid (solvent and any dissolved
Dalton’s law of partial pressures the statement that the
total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting gases
is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
individual gases
decomposition reaction a reaction in which a large or
more complex compound breaks down to form two (or
more) simpler products; general pattern: AB → A 1 B
diatomic made up of two atoms
dilute solution a solution with a relatively small quantity of
solute dissolved per unit volume of solution
dilution the process of reducing the concentration of a
solution; usually done by adding more solvent
dipole–dipole force an intermolecular force of attraction
that forms between the slightly positive end of one
polar molecule and the slightly negative end of an
adjacent polar molecule
dissociation the separation of individual ions from an
ionic compound as it dissolves in water
double displacement reaction a reaction in which
elements in two compounds displace each other or
trade places, producing two new compounds; general
pattern: AB 1 CD → AD 1 CB
NEL
E
effective nuclear charge the net force experienced by
an electron in an atom due to the positively charged
nucleus
electrolyte a compound that dissolves in water, producing
a solution that conducts electricity
electron a negatively charged particle in an atom or ion
electron affinity the energy change that occurs when an
electron is added to a neutral atom in the gaseous state
electronegativity the ability of an atom to attract bonding
electrons to itself
electronegativity difference (∆EN ) the difference in
electronegativities of two bonded atoms or ions
empirical formula a formula that shows the simplest
whole-number ratio of elements in a compound
empirical knowledge knowledge that comes from
investigation and observation
endpoint the point during a titration when a sudden
change in an observable property of the solution
occurs, usually a change in colour of an acid–base
indicator or a significant change in pH
energy level a theoretical sphere around an atom where
electrons exist; electron orbit
equivalence point the point in a titration when
neutralization is complete
excess reagent a reactant that is still present after the
reaction is complete
F
substances) collected after a mixture is filtered to
remove any solid components
flame test a diagnostic test used to identify a specific
element
flash smelting a fairly new technology for separating a
metal from its ore by heating ore in an atmosphere of
almost pure oxygen
formula equation a chemical equation in which all
compounds are represented by their chemical formulas
formula unit the smallest repeating unit in an ionic crystal
full or stable octet an electron arrangement where the
valence shell is filled with 8 valence electrons (2 for
hydrogen and helium)
G
gamma ray a form of high-energy electromagnetic
radiation emitted by certain radioisotopes
Gay-Lussac’s law the statement that as the temperature
of a gas increases, the pressure of the gas increases
proportionally, provided that the volume and amount
of gas remain constant; the temperature and pressure
of a gas are directly proportional
Glossary 679
greenhouse effect a natural process whereby gases and
clouds absorb infrared radiation emitted from Earth’s
surface and radiate it, heating the atmosphere and
Earth’s surface
greenhouse gas any of several atmospheric gases (such
as water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane) that
allow solar radiation to pass through the atmosphere
but absorb infrared radiation emitted by Earth,
thereby trapping thermal energy and making Earth
warmer
group a column of elements in the periodic table;
sometimes referred to as a family
H Celsius temperature scale
hard water water that has a relatively high concentration
of Ca21 and Mg21
heterogeneous mixture a mixture that contains two or
more phases
hydrate an ionic compound that contains water as part of
its crystal structure
hydration the process in which ions are surrounded by
water molecules
hydrogen bond an unusually strong dipole–dipole force
between a hydrogen atom attached to a highly
electronegative atom (N, O, or F) and a highly
electronegative atom in another molecule
I law of definite proportions the statement that a compound
ideal gas a hypothetical gas composed of particles that
have no size, travel in straight lines, and have no
attraction to each other (no intermolecular forces)
ideal gas law the statement that the product of the
pressure and volume of a gas is directly proportional
to the amount and the absolute temperature of the gas;
pV 5 nRT
immiscible unable to mix to form a solution; usually
describing liquids that do not readily mix
incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon the combustion
(burning) of a hydrocarbon in a limited supply of
oxygen; products may include carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, soot, water, and energy
intermolecular force the attractive force between molecules
ion a charged entity formed when an atom gains or loses
one or more electrons
ionic bond the electrostatic force of attraction between
a positive ion and a negative ion; a type of chemical
bond
ionic compound a pure substance composed of positively
charged ions and negatively charged ions in a fixed
ratio
ionic radius a measurement of the size of an ion, usually
expressed in picometres (pm); the distance from the
centre of an ion to the outermost electrons
680 Glossary
ionization the formation of ions from uncharged molecules
ionization energy the quantity of energy required to
remove an electron from an atom or ion in the
gaseous state
isotope a form of an element in which the atoms have
the same number of protons as all other forms of that
element, but a different number of neutrons
isotopic abundance the percentage of a given isotope in a
sample of an element
K
Kelvin temperature scale a temperature scale that includes
absolute zero and the same-sized unit divisions as the
kinetic energy energy possessed by moving objects
kinetic molecular theory the idea that all substances are
composed of entities that are in constant, random
motion
L
law of combining volumes the statement that, when
measured at the same temperature and pressure,
volumes of gaseous reactants and products of chemical
reactions are always in simple ratios of whole numbers
law of conservation of mass the statement that, during a
chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals
the total mass of products
always contains the same proportion of elements by
mass
leachate a liquid contaminated with dissolved or
suspended substances picked up as the liquid passed
through old mines or dump sites
Lewis structure a representation of covalent bonding
based on Lewis symbols; a model in which shared
electron pairs are shown as lines, and unshared
electrons are shown as dots
Lewis symbol a representation of an element consisting of
the chemical symbol and dots to represent the valence
electrons; electron dot diagram
limiting reagent the reactant that is completely consumed
in a chemical reaction; the reactant that determines
how much product will be formed
London dispersion force a weak attractive force acting
between all entities, including non-polar molecules
and unbonded atoms, caused by the temporary
imbalance of electrons within entities
lone pair a pair of electrons that is not involved in
covalent bonding
M
mass number (A ) the sum of the protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom
NEL
mass spectrometer a measuring instrument used to
determine the mass and abundance of isotopes
matter anything that has mass and takes up space
metalloid an element that has properties of both metals
and non-metals
metallurgy the science and technology of separating
and refining metals from their ores and subsequent
processing
mineral a naturally occurring solid that has a definite
crystal structure and chemical composition
miscible able to mix to form a solution; usually describing
liquids that mix with each other in all proportions to
form a solution
molar mass the mass of 1 mol of a substance; unit
symbol g/mol
molar volume the volume that one mole of gas occupies
at a specified temperature and pressure
mole a unit of amount; the amount of substance
containing 6.02 3 1023 entities; unit symbol mol
mole ratio the ratio of the amounts of the entities in a
chemical reaction
molecular compound a pure substance composed of
molecules made up of two or more non-metallic
elements
molecular element a pure substance composed of
molecules made up of two or more atoms of the same
element
molecular formula a formula that shows the element
symbols and exact number of each type of atom in a
molecular compound
multivalent the property of having more than one possible
valence
N petrochemical a compound manufactured from a fossil
net ionic equation a chemical equation that includes only
the entities that react during the reaction
neutralization reaction the reaction of an acid and a
base in which the resulting solution has a pH closer
to 7 than either of the reactants; a type of double
displacement reaction that produces water and an
ionic compound
neutron a neutral particle in an atom’s nucleus
non-polar covalent bond a covalent bond formed
between atoms with identical (or very similar)
electronegativities
non-polar molecule a molecule in which the electrons are
equally distributed among the atoms, resulting in no
localized charges
non-renewable resource a natural resource that cannot be
replaced as quickly as it is consumed
nuclear radiation energy or very small particles emitted
from the nucleus of a radioisotope as it decays
NEL
O
octet rule a generalization stating that when atoms
combine, they tend to achieve 8 valence electrons
off-gassing the release of one or more gases from a
substance or product at normal temperatures and
pressures
ore rock containing a relatively high proportion of a
desirable mineral
organic compound a molecular compound that contains
one or more carbon–carbon bonds and, often, one or
more carbon–hydrogen bonds
oxide a compound composed of oxygen and one other
element
oxyacid an acid that includes oxygen in its formula
oxyanion a negatively charged polyatomic ion that
contains oxygen
P
partial pressure the pressure that a gas in a mixture
would exert if it were the only gas present in the same
volume and at the same temperature
particulate matter the mixture of very small solid and
liquid particles found in the atmosphere
percentage composition the percentage, by mass, of each
element in a compound
percentage yield the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of
the actual yield to the theoretical yield
period a row in the periodic table
periodic law a rule, developed from many observations,
stating that when the elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number, their properties show a
periodic recurrence and gradual change
fuel
photochemical smog a hazy cloud of air pollutants formed
by the reaction of emissions of factories and vehicles
with sunlight
phytoremediation the process of using plants to treat
contaminated land or water
polar covalent bond a covalent bond formed between
atoms with significantly different electronegativities
resulting in a bond with localized positive and
negative charges or poles
polar molecule a molecule in which the uneven
distribution of electrons results in a positive charge at
one end and a negative charge at the other end
polyatomic ion an ion, made up of more than one atom,
that acts as a single entity
polyatomic ionic compound a compound that consists of
ions of more than two elements
potable water water that is suitable for drinking
Glossary 681
precipitate a solid produced as a result of the reaction of
two solutions
pressure (P ) force per unit area; unit is the pascal, unit
symbol Pa; 1 Pa 5 1 N/m2
primary standard a highly pure and stable chemical used
to determine the precise concentration of acids or
bases
proton a positively charged particle in the atom’s nucleus
Q stoichiometric amount an amount of reactants that is in
qualitative analysis the process of identifying substances
present in a sample; no measurements are involved
quantitative analysis the process of measuring the
quantity of a substance in a sample, providing
numerical data
R strong acids have strong acidic properties (e.g., low pH
radioactive having the potential to emit nuclear radiation
upon decay
radioactive decay the spontaneous disintegration of
unstable isotopes
radioisotope an isotope that spontaneously decays to
produce two or more smaller nuclei and radiation
recycling converting a product back into material that can
be used to make new goods
remediation the process of treating contaminated land or
water so that it is safe for use again
renewable resource a natural substance that replenishes
itself as it is used
S and a hydrophilic part
saturated solution a solution that contains the maximum
quantity of solute at a given temperature and pressure
single displacement reaction a reaction in which an
element displaces another element in a compound,
producing a new compound and a new element;
general pattern: A 1 BC → AC 1 B
smelting the chemical process that extracts a metal from
its ore using heat and chemicals
soft water water that has a relatively low concentration of
Ca21 and Mg21
solubility the quantity of solute that dissolves in a given
quantity of solvent at a given temperature
solubility curve a graph of the solubility of a substance
over a range of temperatures
solute the substance that dissolves in a solvent
solution a homogenous mixture of two or more substances
solvent the substance that dissolves the solute
spectator ions ions that are not involved in a chemical
reaction
682 Glossary
standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP) 25 °C
and 100 kPa
standard pressure 101.325 kPa (often rounded to 101 kPa)
standard solution a solution for which the precise
concentration is known
standard temperature and pressure (STP) 0 °C and
101.325 kPa
stock solution a concentrated solution that is used to
prepare dilute solutions for actual use
the same proportion as the reactant coefficients in the
balanced chemical equation
stoichiometry the study of the mass and amount
relationships between reactants and products in a
chemical reaction
strong acid a substance that ionizes completely in water;
and vigorous reactivity)
structural formula a representation of the number, types,
and arrangement of atoms in a molecule, with dashes
representing covalent bonds
supersaturated solution a solution that contains more
than the maximum quantity of solute that it should at
a given temperature and pressure
surface tension a phenomenon, caused by forces of
attraction between molecules, that leads to the
formation of a skin-like film on the surface of a
liquid
surfactant a compound that can reduce the surface tension
of a solvent; surfactants have both a hydrophobic part
synthesis reaction a reaction in which two reactants
combine to make a larger or more complex product;
general pattern: A 1 B → AB
T
temperature a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
entities of a substance
theoretical knowledge knowledge that explains scientific
observations
theoretical yield the amount or mass of product predicted
based on the stoichiometry of the chemical equation
theory an explanation or model based on observation,
experimentation, and reasoning
thermal pollution an increase in water temperature, usually
as a result of warm water being added to an aquatic
ecosystem
titrant the solution in the burette during a titration
titration a procedure used to determine the concentration
of a solution using a standardized solution
NEL
total ionic equation a chemical equation in which all
highly soluble ionic compounds are written as
dissociated ions
transpiration the evaporation of water from the leaves of
a plant
U and London dispersion forces
universal gas constant (R ) the constant in the ideal gas law
equation that relates the pressure, volume, amount,
and temperature of an ideal gas
unsaturated solution a solution in which more solute can
dissolve at a given temperature and pressure
upcycling the process of converting an industrial material
or product into something of similar or greater value
V
valence the charge of an ion; the combining capacity
of an atom determined by the number of electrons
that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with
other atoms
NEL
valence electron an electron in the outermost energy level
or orbit
valence shell the outermost energy level or orbit of an
atom or ion
van der Waals forces the weak forces of attraction
between molecules, including dipole–dipole forces
W
water cycle the flow of water on, above, and below the
surface of Earth
weak acid a substance that only partially ionizes in water;
weak acids have weak acidic properties (e.g., moderate
pH and mild reactivity)
Z
zero-sum rule the statement that the sum of the positive
charges equals the sum of the negative charges in an
ionic compound
Glossary 683