Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Comprehensive overview on diesel additives to reduce emissions, enhance MARK

fuel properties and improve engine performance
⁎
Ahmad Fayyazbakhsh, Vahid Pirouzfar
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The present review investigates modification of diesel fuel formulation and development of a new model to
Diesel fuel enhance engine performance, improve fuel properties and reduce exhaust emissions. Emissions arising from the
Engine performance fuel can be controlled by blending an oxygenated fuel (renewable fuel) with the diesel fuel. The blending
Fuel properties oxygenated fuels namely Methanol, Ethanol, and n-Butanol are examined in addition to their effects. This
Oxygenated additives
review paper studies the implication of different torques and various engine speeds. In some conditions, it can
Reduced emissions
even cause an increase in the content of carbon monoxides (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxides. This
review showed that the engine speed has a negative effect on all of the air pollutants, so that increasing of the
engine speed leads to reduction of the air pollutants. However, the engine load gives rise to most exhaust
emissions. Adding the oxygenate fuels increases brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), while brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) decreases. In some researches, a nano-metal additive has been used in the fuel for improving
the engine performance. In case of using the nano-metal additives to the diesel fuel (a nano-metal with small
thermal conductivity coefficient), the engine performance is seen increased.

1. Introduction of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO).

There is a growing demand for energy due to the increasing
population which can lead to greater air pollution. On the other hand,
it is clear that there are limited sources of fossil-based fuels as a
sustainable energy. As a result of world industrialization, the demand
for oil-based fuels (fossil fuels) has increased dramatically [1–3]. Apart
from the economic matters, the widespread use of fossil fuels is
responsible for a long-term environmental problem in the form of
climate changes and the global warming. The main source of energy in
different forms originates from the combustion. Recently, depletion of
the fossil fuels due to their continuous use has become the first priority
concern for all people in the world whose lives depend on this source of
energy for all their activities. Diesel engines have a considerable share
of transportation. At the same time, along with the large-scale use of
the diesel fuels, lung diseases and cancer invasion have been increased
dramatically [4–6], such that a comprehensive study on this issue
seems necessary. Today, the fossil fuels constitute about 80% of the
total needed energy with almost 50% of it being related to the local
transportation [7]. The diesel fuel mainly contains aliphatic hydro-
carbons of C8–28 with boiling temperatures varying from 130 to 370 °C
[8]. The exhaust emissions from the diesel engines contain various
types of air pollutants such as total hydrocarbon content (THC), oxides
The oxides of nitrogen and sulfur which are emitted by internal
combustion engines can result in acid rains [6,7]. The main source of
greenhouse gas emissions are the fossil fuels [9–11]. The worldwide
concern of the environmental pollutants has triggered intensified
researches for new alternative sources of energy. Widespread applica-
tions of the fossil fuels and the environmental issues associated with
their use have directed us to replace them with reasonable price, high
efficiency and renewable sources [10–13]. To find a proper convincing
answer to this question how to select, distribute and use the data, one
needs to focus on both engine technology and fuel efficiency [14–19].
However, the blended renewable bio fuels or the oxygenated fuels with
the capability of reduction of the exhaust emissions are among the
most important topics in the literature [20–25]. Alcoholic fuels are of
potential capability for being used as oxygenated fuel additives with
fossil-based fuels (such as gasoline to improve the octane number and
to reduce the air pollutant emissions, as well as diesel fuels to control
the soot emissions) for the diesel engines. They can be an alternative
source of environment friendly fuels to reduce the exhaust gas
emissions using the renewable energy in different countries of the
world. Previous researches and studies were just focused on addition of
vegetable oil, cooking oil, bio diesel, methanol and ethanol to the oil-
based fuels. The vegetable oil, cooking oil and biodiesel were all useable

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: v.pirouzfar@iauctb.ac.ir (V. Pirouzfar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.046
Received 16 October 2016; Received in revised form 2 January 2017; Accepted 8 March 2017
Available online 11 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901

Nomenclature BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

THC Total hydrocarbon content
HC Hydrocarbon BTE Brake thermal efficiency
NOx Nitrogen oxides CI Cetane Index
PM Particle matter PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
CO carbon monoxides GHG Greenhouse gas
CO2 carbon dioxide MXEE 2-methoxy ethyl ether

in the diesel engines [26–33], while the methanol and ethanol could be
used in most of the oil-based engines and have the potential to be used
as an additive in most of the fossil fuels [34–39]. Butanol can also be
added to the diesel fuel with no need to incorporate other additives,
due to high cetane number and great molecular weight of the n-
butanol. Moreover, in case of blending with diesel fuel at any
temperature, a two-phase composition does not form. Pirouzfar et al.
[8] studied the influence of various tertiary additives (nitro methane,
nitro ethane and 2-methoxy ethyl ether) blended with the ethanol-
diesel on the exhaust emissions (CO, CO2, HC and NOX). The results
were obtained from the blended fuels through the free acceleration test.
They showed that the nitro ethane has a negative effect on all of the air
pollutants as compared to the other additives. However, they reported
that increasing of the ethanol to the diesel-ethanol blend causes poorer
chemical-physical properties of the fuel. This paper reviews the latest
tests on the additives which are present in the diesel fuel. The effect of
additives is compared in two aspects: reduction of the emissions and
improvement of the fuel efficiency. Moreover, the effect of adding
different alcohols and various nitrogenated fuels will be investigated on
the fuel chemical-physical properties which include direct and indirect
effects on the particles dispersed from the exhaust emissions. The
current study concentrates on the fuel properties (cetane number and
viscosity), exhaust emissions (CO, CO2, HC, NOX and soot) and engine
performance (brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal
efficiency) in various speeds and engine loads. The oxygenated fuel in
advantageous in terms of the BSFC, but has a negative impact on the
brake thermal efficiency. However, the oxygenated fuel are also
effective on all the fuel properties (density, viscosity, flash point and
cetane number). The engine load and engine speed have no effect on
the fuel properties. For improving the engine performance, one can add
the nano-metal additives to the diesel fuel. Due to the lower thermal
conductivity coefficient of the nano-metal additives as compared to that
of the fuel blend, a nano-metal with a low thermal conductivity
coefficient such as silica, alumina, manganese and cerium must be
used. This review study, tried to demonstrate the effect of different
additives on the engine performance, fuel chemical-physical properties
and the exhaust emissions. The other purpose of this research is to
review the effect of adding various additives on the diesel fuel at the
same time.
2. Fundaments of using alcohol
be said that the incoming air improves the efficiency of the internal
combustion engines [65]. Taking into account the significant latent
heat of vaporization, increasing of the oxygen content of the fuel
containing methanol increases the amount of NOX (in some tempera-
ture conditions, especially at temperatures than needed for combina-
tion of nitrogen and oxygen) [19–21].
2.2. Ethanol
Ethanol is a fuel that is produced from biological materials and is
known as a renewable fuel [40]. Ethanol can be produced in various
ways such as distillation fermentation of natural materials [41] or
sugar beet. Due to its high octane number, ethanol can be added to
gasoline in order to increase its octane number [42,43]. Therefore,
some studies have been carried out for the application of ethanol as a
fuel in the spark ignition engines or even as an additive in the diesel
fuels [5,44]. Different methods have been developed so far for adding
the ethanol to the diesel fuel, for example: ethanol suspension (making
an emulsifying dilution) [45–47], spraying of the ethanol to the diesel
fuels [48–52], and bilateral injections [53]. The advantage of ethanol in
comparison with the case where just the pure diesel fuel is used,
ethanol can add to the heat of the combustion chamber and increase
the output heat from it. The combination of various alcohols including
ethanol and diesel fuel, leads to make a clean fuel [54]. In the past,
there was not a stable and single-phase diesel-ethanol fuel by direct
injection of the ethanol [55]. However, this problem was solved to
some extent by adding ethyl ester [56], octyl nitrate [57], methyl esters
[58], nitro methane, nitro ethane and 2-methoxy ethyl ether [8] as
other additives or stabilizers.
2.3. Butanol
Butanol is a four-carbon alcohol. This alcohol can also be blended
as an additive with the diesel fuel. The main advantage of butanol over
the other alcohols is that butanol has higher cetane number. The
corrosion caused by the additives in the butanol is lower than the one
in the other alcohols (i.e. ethanol and methanol), because the ratios of
oxygen to carbon and also oxygen to hydrogen are rather small in
butane with a greater heat capacity as compared to that of the ethanol
and methanol [59,60]. The properties of butanol are close to those of
the base fossil fuel to some extent: its ignition temperature is lower

Alcohol contains hydroxyl groups which are attached to a carbon Table 1

atom. Chemical and physical properties of a neat diesel fuel and alcohol Chemical and physical properties of neat diesel fuel and alcohols.
are listed in Table 1.
Properties Pure Ethanol n-Butanol Methanol
diesel
2.1. Methanol
Cinematic viscosity at 40 °C 3.35 [11] 1.2 [80] 3 [11] 0.75 [3]
Methanol is more oxygenated in comparison with butanol and (cm2 /s.10-6)
Density at 20 °C (kg/m3) 837 [68] 788 [68] 810 [48] 790 [3]
ethanol, due to its higher ratio of oxygen to carbon and also oxygen to Cetane number 50 [68] 5–8 [68] 25 [48] 3–5 [3]
hydrogen. Methanol is produced from fossil fuels (by syn-gas process) oxygen molecules 0 [68] 34.8 [68] 21.6 [48] 50 [3]
and biomass. Gas fuel including hydrogen, CO and a little CO2, are C/H 0.45 [3] 0.33 [3] 0.4 [3] 0.25 [3]
used to produce ammonia or methanol. A great deal of research work is Flash point (°C) 45 [52] 13–14 [5] 35–37 [5] 11 [3]
Boiling point (°C) 180–360 78 [67] 118 [47] 64.7 [3]
done recently to produce methanol by reacting CO2 and hydrogen
[67]
retrial, which is not affordable [62–64]. Because of the significant heat Latent energy (kj/kg) 250 [67] 840 [67] 585 [47] 1100 [3]
of vaporization, temperature of the incoming air may decrease, so it can

892
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar
than that of ethanol and, methanol (about 385) [61]. Additionally,
butanol can burn much simply when blended with the diesel fuel.
Butanol has a lower latent heat of vaporization as compared to those of
ethanol and methanol, while the percentage of wasted energy in
butanol is lower than that of the other alcohols. Moreover, butanol
can be added to the diesel fuel through fermentation of the biomass
particularly disposable residues of trees which are rich of cellulose [61].
3. Tertiary and nano-metal additives
When blending the oxygenate fuels with the diesel fuels, the
chemical-physical properties of the fuel including flash point, density,
viscosity and actually cetane number might be altered. The oxygenate
fuels has a low cetane number, flash point, viscosity and density [1–4].
For solving this problem and especially increasing the cetane number,
one needs to use tertiary additives which are known as the cetane
number improvers. The main and most important tertiary additives
available are nitro methane, nitro ethane, 2-methoxy ethyl ether,
methyl ester and octyl nitrate. Tertiary additives have high perfor-
mance improving the cetane number and preventing formation of a
two-phase blend. However, the tertiary additives can enhance the flash
point, viscosity and density as well. Goldsborough et al. [161] worked
on effect of an alkyl nitrate that is 2-ethyl-hexyl nitrate as a cetane
number improver and finally showed that these nitrogenate additives
promote the cetane number significantly.
Blending of the oxygenated fuels and the tertiary additives causes a
poor brake power, but may increase the brake specific fuel consump-
tion on the other hand. For increasing of the brake power, one should
use a nano-metal additive. Adding the nano-metal additive to the fuel,
thermal conductivity coefficient of the fuel is decreased, so that
blending with a metal with lower thermal conductivity would be a
promising alternative for improving the brake power. The main
potential nano-metal additives are: manganese, cerium, alumina and
silica. Chandrasekaran et al. [62] studied the effect of using nano
additives on the diesel fuel. They used Mahua oil methyl ester as a nano
additive and concluded that 20MEOM fuel blends can improve the
brake power of a diesel engine. Soukht Saraee et al. [63] worked on the
impact of blending cerium oxide and cerium dioxide on the engine
performance. Their research showed that the brake specific fuel
consumption, HC emission and NOX emissions were decreased by
adding the nano additives, but the engine power is enhanced by adding
both of the nano additives. This enhancement was affected from
increasing of the hot spot value in the engine. Basha [64] presented a
research that used di-ethyl ether as nano additives. He said that the
nano additives could increase the engine power.
In recent years, the use of nano metal as additives in diesel fuel
improves the chemico-physical properties, such as high thermal
conductivity, mass diffusivity, and ratio of surface area/volume, when
blended in any base fluid medium. Based on the previous research, it is
found that nano metal additives with biodiesel, diesel and blends
improve the kinematic viscosity, flash point, and other properties,
owing to upon the volume of the nano metal additives [163].
Selvan et al. [162] research the experimental investigation in two
phases, to study emission characteristics and the performance of a CI
engine, when using cerium oxide nano particles as nano additives in
diesel–biodiesel–ethanol blends and pure diesel. In the first phase of
their experiments research, the stability of diesel– biodiesel–ethanol
fuel blends and pure diesel with the blending of cerium oxide nano
particles was analyzed, and in the other phase, the performance
characteristics were studied. The improvement in brake thermal power
and reduction in ignition delay are reported.
Goldsborough et al. [161] worked on effect of an Alkyl nitrate that is
2-ethyl-hexyl nitrate as a Cetane number improver. They showed that
this nitrogenate additives has a high effect on improve of Cetane
number.
893
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901
4. Methods for combination of alcohol and diesel fuel
As discussed earlier in this section, there are different methods to
add ethanol to the diesel fuel. One of these methods is direct injection
in which the ethanol is added to the diesel fuel directly. Combination of
the diesel with the alcohol (ethanol) incorporates no physical problem,
but at temperatures lower than 10 C°, integration is not reached
properly which creates a two – phase dilution. However, as noted
earlier, the ethanol could be added to the diesel fuel without producing
any two – phase composition [61,65]. In another method, one should
blend the ethanol droplets as a kind of emulsion with a novel emulsifier
[45,66], so the fuel efficiency and combination stability increase. Chen
and colleagues [67] worked on an emulsion fuel having 15% glucose
and found this combination more stable and discovered that distribu-
tion of the fine particles is decreased significantly, while according to
the following stoichiometry formula, it was observed that the CO2
content is increased considerably.
C6 H45 O6 → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2
Moses et al. [68] worked on a micro – emulsion aqueous ethanol
containing 5% of water and diesel fuel. They finally reported that this
compound is very stable and it burns a while after the diesel fuel base.
The spraying method could be considered for combining the alcohol
with the diesel fuel. In this method the alcohol is sprayed into the diesel
engine by injection. In a typical engine with a diesel blend – alcohol
fuel, the combustion takes place in spite of the intake air [68]. The
advantages of this method over the other methods could be cited with
the following reasons:
1. The composition of diesel – alcohol fuel obtained from this method
is more stable in comparison with the same combination produced
from the previous conventional techniques [68,69].
2. The amount of the injected alcohol into fuel is controlled according
to the engine need [70–74]
3. Aqueous alcohols could be blended with the diesel fuel [75–78]
Yao et al. [79] worked on a composition of diesel – methanol fuel.
They used the spraying method to blend the methanol and the diesel
fuel and finally concluded that the method reduces the amount of
particulate matter (PM) and NOX, but the HC and CO contents
increase.
Zhang et al. [80] focused on a diesel engine with natural direct
injection. They used the spraying method for combination of the
methanol with the diesel fuel. In two tests by this method they
concluded that the contents of PM and NOX decrease, while the
amount of HC and CO increase. However, reduction of NOX takes
place as compared to the combination of methanol-diesel which are
combined using a method other than spraying [74,80,81].
As discussed previously, to combine some alcohols (especially
methanol and ethanol) with the diesel fuel, one should add another
additive to the composition, so by using this method it is possible to
produce a stable composition and improve auto ignition properties of
the fuel. This additive could act as an interface between the diesel fuels
to prevent creation of a two-phase composition.
Pirouzfar et al. [8] worked on the ethanol diesel fuel with the help of
three different types of an additive like 2-methoxy- ethyl ether, nitro
methane and nitro ethane, and their obtained results revealed fuel
stability, as well as improvement of the cetane number and BSFC. If the
n-butanol (normal butanol) is used as an additive, it will be impossible
to use another additive, because the n-butanol has greater cetane
number and molecular weight as compared to the other alcohols. These
properties make cetane number acceptable without transformation to a
two-phase compound.
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901

5. Discussion

0.248g/kwh
0.272g/kwh

0.32g/kwh
−1.70%
79 kW
0.253

0.257
75 Ps
Adding alcohol to the diesel fuel needs a balance between the

BTE

−7%

0.33

3%
emission reduction and engine power in order to reach the optimal

–
–

–
–
point. Emissions from the diesel fuel are the most critical problem

218g/kwh
340g/kwh
165g/kwh
470g/kwh

300g/kwh
345g/kwh

305g/kwh
294g/kwh

272g/kwh

187g/kwh

238g/kwh
using this kind of fuel. In this study it was tried to address some

BSFC

0.36
236

4%
researches that blended the alcohols with the gasoline to control the air

–
–

–
pollution and improve the engine performance (Table 3). It was also

g/kwh

g/kwh

g/kwh

g/kwh
g/kwh
g/kwh
focused on the emission reduction, improvement of the fuel properties

CO emission

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm
and enhancement of the engine power by adding various alcohols. The

%
most important incentives using alcohol for the purpose of emission

~+0.03

0.225
0.235

1250
0.18

22.7

85.5

0.18
−13
reduction are: production of oxygenated alcohols, reaching small

275

580

380

450

420
0.7

3.5
–

–
molecular weight and the most importantly, achieving shorter mole-
cular chain in comparison with that of the diesel fuel.

g/kwh

g/kwh

g/kwh
g/kwh
PM emission

HSU
ppm

BSU
FSN

FSN
%

%
5.1. Engine performance

20.03

0.025
0.21

1.05
0.43

0.71
0.72

0.82
−18

−23
20
The effects of various additives on the engine performance are

–
–

–
–
discussed below.

NOx emission

g/kwh

g/kwh

g/kwh

g/kwh
g/kwh
g/kwh
ppm

ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm

ppm

ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
5.1.1. BSFC

%
BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption) is affected by three para-

5.85

1.55

13.5

3.15
meters: 1) oxygen content of the additive. 2) Useful output power. 3)

−12
580

175
676
180
540

840

503
830
804
100
800
2.8

14
8
Engine speed. When the oxygenated fuels are added to the diesel fuel,
the BSFC increases because blending of such fuels with the diesel fuel

rpm

rpm
rpm
rpm
rpm

rpm
rpm
rpm
rpm

rpm
rpm
rpm
rpm
rpm
rpm
leads to greater oxygen content that contributes to a more complete

at brake mean effective pressure 2.57 bar

ignition. Rakopoulos [82] in his article about the impact of combina-
Engine speed
tion of normal butanol with fuel efficiency concluded that adding the

at brake power 3 kW
200,000%
alcohol to the diesel fuel improves the fuel efficiency in the engine.
They have also shown that as a result of increasing the power of the fuel 1900

2200
1500
2000

1600
2000
1400
1600

3000
1500
1700
1400
1200
3000
used, thermal efficiency of the fuel is decreased in the engine. In
–

–
another study, Rakopoulos et al. [82] worked on adding ethanol to the
diesel fuel. Their results indicated that increasing of the engine speed

at bmep:0.5 MPa
at bmep:3.56 bar
Nm

Nm

Nm
Nm

Nm
Nm

Nm

inlet temp 360 K

%
has a direct effect on the BSFC, and the BSFC can be improved by
Engine load

increasing the engine speed. Most studies using the biodiesel blends

carbonat
report improved BSFC for all operating conditions. Once the engine
2000%

25.4%
50%

speed increases, the fuel will get more chance to have a more complete
250

370

135
43
96

80
–

–
–
–

–
ignition. This means improved efficiency of the fuel in the engine that is

Ethyl acetate+Diethyl
at peclete number 4

also equal to greater BSFC [83–88].

Tertiary additive

Methyl ester 20%

Summary of emissions, fuel properties and performance test results from additive–diesel blends.

Balamurugan and Nalini [89] investigated enhancement of the

CLZ emulsifier
Nitro methane
Methyl soyate

Diethyl ether
engine performance by using both normal butanol and normal
propanol alcohols. Their observations indicated that the engine fuel
efficiency increases by adding each additive. Improvement of the
engine output power causes a substantial decrease in the fuel efficiency.
–
–
–

–
–
–

–
–
–
–

In addition, they showed that almost at any percentage of the engine

load percentage, when the level of fuel efficiency in the pure diesel is
isoButanol 10%
Methanol 10%

BHA 500 ppm

halved, then the fuel efficiency in the pure diesel will be greater than
Methanol 5%
Ethanol 20%

Ethanol 10%

Ethanol 20%

Ethanol 10%

Ethanol 20%

Ethanol 10%

Ethanol 50%
Butanol 16%

Butanol 10%

Butanol 10%

Butanol 10%
percentage

Ethanol 5%

Ethanol 5%
Butanol 4%

that of various combinations of the diesel-alcohol. In their experi-

Methanol
Alcohol

ments, the effect of the normal butanol and propanol was more than
that of the normal butanol for improvement of the fuel efficiency. If the
fuel could be burnt completely, it would then be possible to increase the
fuel efficiency in the engine. This definition indicates that when the
alcohol is oxygenated more and gets shorter branches, it's properties
Single cylinder
single-cylinder

single-cylinder
single cylinder

single cylinder
single cylinder

single cylinder

single cylinder
application

improve the fuel efficiency in the engine at similar situations. Table 3

4-cylinder

4-cylinder
4-cylinder
4-cylinder

4-cylinder
4-cylinder

4-cylinder
6-cylinder
4-cylinder
6-cylinder

4-cylinder

summarizes results showing that the alcohols can have different effects
Engine

on the BSFC. However, it is clear that when blending the alcohols with
the gasoline, the amount of BSFC could be significantly increased.
[122]

[142]

[101]

[102]

[146]
[137]

Since the alcohols give rise to the oxygen content of the fuel, they
Ref.

[99]
[82]
[90]
[61]

[93]

[53]

[84]
[84]
[95]
[96]
[83]

[66]
[8]

contribute the fuel to have complete combustion.

Gnanomorthi et al.
Rakopoulos et al.

Rakopoulos et al.
Karabektas et al.

Bang-Quan et al.

5.1.2. Brake thermal efficiency

Research group

Sahin and Akso

Ileri and Kocar

Pirouzfar et al.

Jincheng et al.
Andres et al.

Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is one of the most important and

Sayin et al.

Cenk sayin
Cenk sayin
Choi et al.

Choi et al.

Jilin et al.

effective factors in selecting an additive.

Liu et al.
Shi et al.

Adding the oxygenated additives causes degradation of the brake

Table 2

Seyfi

thermal efficiency, because the latent heat of vaporization of the

oxygenated fuels is greater than that of the diesel fuel. Therefore, by

894
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901

Table 3
Summary of emissions and performance test results from additive–gasoline blends.

Researcher Ref no. Oxygenate additive Additive (%) speed Pressure Power BSFC CO HC NOX
(kPa) (kW)

Najafi et al. [157] Ethanol 5 2000 – 20.5 260g/kw 4.8 v.d% 235 ppm –
Ethanol 15 2000 – 23.5 255g/kw 2.35 v.d% 148 ppm –
Ethanol 5 3500 – 35.7 257g/kw 4.68 v.d% 175 ppm –
Ethanol 15 3500 – 38 250g/kw 2.55 v.d% 137 ppm –

Li et al. [158] Isopropanol 0 – 300 22.5 370g/kw – 310 ppm 1400 ppm
+But+Eth
Isopropanol 30 – 300 23.5 395g/kw – 282 ppm 1230 ppm
+But+Eth
Isopropanol 0 – 500 26.5 330g/kw – 343 ppm 1720 ppm
+But+Eth
Isopropanol 30 – 500 27.8 355g/kw – 295 ppm 1490 ppm
+But+Eth

Alfasakhany [159] N-Butanol 0 2700 – 1.33 – 8.7% 365 ppm –

N-Butanol 3 2700 – 1.265 – 6% 301 ppm –
N-Butanol 10 2700 – 1.3 – 5.5% 275 ppm –
N-Butanol 0 3400 – 1.66 – 3.9% 252 ppm –
N-Butanol 3 3400 – 1.52 – 3.5% 238 ppm –
N-Butanol 10 3400 – 1.57 – 2.25% 220 ppm –

increasing the percentage of the oxygenated additives, the minimum
size of droplet needed for the micro-explosion of the oxygenated fuel,
require a higher boiling temperature and shorter time for dispensation
before the evaporation occurs. Sayin et al. [90] worked on the impact of
methanol on both the engine emissions and performance. Their results
revealed reduction of the brake thermal efficiency in comparison with
that of the pure diesel fuel. They also stated that by increasing the
useful output power or torque, the brake thermal efficiency increases as
well. They noticed little improvement of the thermal efficiency in the
longer injection times. Rakopoulos et al. [83] worked on the impact of
adding butanol to the diesel fuel in a diesel engine. Adding butanol to
the diesel fuel does not incorporate much effect on the thermal
efficiency. They also declared that increasing of the pressure leads to
significant improvement of the engine thermal efficiency.
From Table 1 it can be understood that the difference between the
latent heats of vaporization for the butanol and the diesel fuel are
smaller than those of the other alcohols. Hence it's expected that the
brake thermal efficiency grows a little by adding the butanol. An
opposite trend is seen for the methanol (and ethanol to some extent).
According to Table 1 it can be observed that there is a big difference
between the latent heat of evaporation for the pure diesel fuel and the
methanol. The figures listed in Table 3 show that all the alcohols have
positive effect on the power generated in a gasoline engine.
5.2. Emissions
The effect of different nitrogenate fuels and various oxygenated
fuels on exhaust emissions is studied in this section.
5.2.1. CO
Generally speaking, addition of the alcohols to the diesel fuel
provides an excess oxygen in the fuel blend that contributes the inner
cylinder to produce CO and also to oxide CO to CO2. Increasing of the
oxygen content in the fuel leads to completion of the fuel combustion.
However, because of the high oxygen content in the fuel, qualification
for production of CO has become rather difficult. Carbon monoxide
appeared due to the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (especially
diesel fuel). Most studies showed increasing of the oxygen content by
combining the oxygenated fuels causes further distribution of the CO
[91–101]. In fact, the effect of adding various additives is different
from each other. For example, the effect of butanol is lower as
compared to that of ethanol and methanol, because the ratio of oxygen
to carbon is smaller in the n-Butanol [102–105]. Since in comparison
between methanol and ethanol, the oxygen content of the methanol
oxygen is greater than the others, the methanol can thus contribute to
the diffusion process [92–94,106]. Actually increasing of the rotation
speed of the engine adds to the engine temperature which gives rise to
the CO2 production [97–101]. Because combustion is the basic step for
production of the CO [65]. Byunchul et al. [61] studied the effect of
butanol (5, 10 and 20 vol%) blended to the diesel fuel on the exhaust
emissions and engine performance. They reported that increasing of
the butanol (i.e. oxygen content) has led to greater emissions of the
carbon monoxide.
5.2.2. GHG
A greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas in the atmosphere that emits and
absorb radiation through the thermal infrared range. This mechanism
is the basal cause of the greenhouse effect. Increasing of greenhouse
gases (GHG) is a result of indirect land-use change affected by crop-
based biofuels as one of the most important aspects of the biofuels in
terms of energy security and environment policy. The main greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere of the earth are nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides,
ozone, methane, and water vapor. Without the greenhouse gases, the
earth temperature would be about −18 °C instead of the present
average temperature of 15 °C. Ebner et al. [160] studied the effect of
a novel mechanism for converting the food waste to the ethanol. They
showed that when the landfill emissions are avoided, the process shows
an improvement over the conventional gasoline or ethanol in terms of
the GHG emissions.
Emissions from the engine exhausts were believed causing signifi-
cant reduction of the greenhouse gases (CO2). The European
Environment Agency has set as target for its state members the use
of bio-fuel in the transportation system fuel minimum for 2% by the
end of 2005 and 5.74% by the 2011. The use of biofuel especially
alcohols, could partly be replaced with the fossil fuel which can reduce
the noxious emission and mitigate the CO2 emissions. CO2 is one of the
most important pollutants and it's the most abundant air pollutants in
the temperature because of the so-called greenhouse effect phenom-
enon. The amount of this gas increases by using more oxygen-gases,
especially the alcohols [105,107]. However, it is reduced with adding
the oxygenated material to the diesel fuel in some situations [78,103]
because the carbon is lower than the oxygen. Due to the alcohol
combination it could be said that the ratio of carbon to hydrogen is
smaller [103].

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A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar
5.2.3. HC
HC is one of the main pollutants produced from incomplete
combustion which enter into the air with the other combustion
products [10]. Increasing of the HC degrades the efficiency of the
diesel engines as well [108]. Adding the oxygenated materials to the
diesel fuel adds to the HC amount [109–113] because the oxygen
content in the diesel fuel to complete the combustion is rather high
[114,115]. This finding could be confirmed by investigation on how the
radicals react with each other. When the engine temperature comes
down, the amount of all air pollutant especially HC also decreases
significantly. The temperature is decreased by using a emulsifyer such
as water, so the amount of HC production is decreased as well [67,116].
Choi and Reitzr [21] worked on the emissions reduction by using a
combination of normal–butanol diesel. They reported that when the
normal-butanol is added to the fuel (at various percentages), the
distribution of unburned hydrocarbons in low percentages of normal
butanol (up to 5%) reduces, but at higher percentages they attributed
this effect to the minimum amount of droplet needed for micro-
explosions of the natural butanol. As a result, these blends would
require higher temperatures to boil in addition to longer times for
being sprayed prior to evaporation.
However, in another work which was conducted by Choi et al. [61]
in the same year, it was not mentioned and they noted that in any
percentage of adding the oxygenated combinations to the diesel fuel,
the amount of HC is decreased and some of them are transformed to
straight chain hydrocarbons. Therefore, the generation rate of HC
increases as discussed earlier. This in turn reduces the thermal
efficiency of the engine and contributes to the formation of HC and
CO in hot spots emerged in the engine. Of course, when we use the net
diesel fuel, these two pollutants are made similarly in using of the pure
diesel, when the required heat was prepared for their formation.
Kannan et al. [164] studied the effect of blending ferric chloride as a
nano additives to diesel fuel on emissions. They reported that blending
this nano additives cause to decrease of smoke, UHC and carbon
monoxide emissions, but increase of NO and carbon dioxides emis-
sions.
5.2.4. Soot emission
Oxygenated fuels are known to reduce particulate matter (PM)
emissions. Composition of the particle components changes with
engine technology, fuel quality and combustion conditions. The
particles are of different size. The smaller the particles, the more
dangerous they are. The main cause of cancer (particularly lung and
blood cancer) is PM [6]. Therefore, it must be tried to reduce the
spread of the exhaust gases coming from the diesel engines, because
this is the most dangerous part of their output soot. Meanwhile, it
could be said that the key factor in dangerous features of the engine
exhaust is PAH which the main reasons for PM formation itself. Using
the alcohol-diesel organic fuel is of little importance to develop OH
radicals and inert H2O2. There is a possibility of forming poly aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) throughout this test. The carbon ratio per
hydrogen of the diesel fuel is higher than that of ethanol, and it
mitigates formation of the soot less than what happens in the fuel rich
conditions. The particulate matter is composed of two components: 1-
soot; which has carbon and is solid; 2- organic solvents have this
property that adsorb the hydrocarbons and release them into the
atmosphere [117–121]. In general, oxygenation of the fuel by using an
oxygenated material is applied to reduce the PM distribution. Many
researchers have tried to use methanol, ethanol, butanol and other
alcohols and even add vegetable or animal fats into the diesel fuel
[122–124]. The effect of various additives on the amount of PM
reduction is variable, so when the ratio of oxygen to carbon or oxygen
to hydrogen is high, the amount of PM reduction is even greater. For
example, the PM reduction in the methanol fuel [12,78,94] is more
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901
than that of the ethanol fuel [88,90] and this reduced rate is greater
than the time n-butanol is used in the fuel [83–96]. Since the alcohols
have lower C/H, the soot emissions are reduced. The soot emissions
increase for the greater engine loads, but the soot emission decrease
with more ethanol and higher load.
5.2.5. NOX
Nitrogen oxides are mainly composed of nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The nitrogen oxides are considered as an
important factor in creation of acid rain, chemical fog and smoke in
urban air. While the dust is rich of nitrogen oxides in the urban air. The
creation of NOX is dependent on the engine temperature and ignition
delay [125], so the NOx forms in hot spots of the diesel engine. The
three chief reactions producing thermal NOx was shown in Zeldovich
Mechanism as below:
N2 + O→NO + N
N + O2 →NO + O
N + OH →NO + H
The temperature should be about 1600 °C for the oxygen and the
nitrogen to react with each other, so if the temperature doesn't exist,
the NOX won't form at all. So it's clear that in any case, an enhancement
in the engine speed (engine temperature decreases and its emissions as
well), reduces the amount of NOX [53,98–101]. By adding further
oxygenated materials to the diesel fuel, the amount of NOX distribution
is also increased [91,98–118]. However, in the additives where the
ratio of oxygen to hydrogen and also that of oxygen to carbon is higher
(e.g. methanol), generation of NOX is also greater. The NOX production
has direct relation with the high pressure. So, greater amount of NOX is
produced at the high pressure [87]. The high evaporation enthalpy of
alcohols reduces the temperature during combustion, so this reduction
of NOX occurs, though just to a limited extent [119,120]. By adding
more alcohol to dilution, the combustion process occurs in shorter time
and can't reduce the combustion heat [44]. Increasing of NOx by
further addition of oxygenated additives reduces the cetane number
which has direct and significant effect on ignition [51]. The successful
method of NOX reduction is via lowering the peak cylinder pressure
among retarded injection timing or using exhaust gas recirculation. In
practical applications, the exhaust gas recirculation reduces the nitro-
gen oxide emissions for sure as reported in the literature [121–125].
On the other hand, considering the engine performance, soot and other
exhaust emissions, lower local temperature and oxygen centralization
in the cylinder faces the fuel to incomplete combustion and further
results in a lower brake thermal efficiency and higher emissions of PM,
PAHs, HC and CO [126–128]. In support to the previous researches,
Table 2 summarizes the results from all Ethanol, normal Butanol and
Methanol blended to diesel fuel studies on PM, nitrogen oxides, carbon
oxides emissions and engine performance (brake thermal efficiency
and brake specific fuel consumption). Moreover this table showed the
effect of tertiary additives on all responses. This table showed that the
oxygenated additives have a positive effect on the BSFC and the
emissions of nitrogen oxides but have a negative effect on the emissions
of BTE and PM. The effect of butanol on CO emissions is lower as
compared to that of ethanol and methanol, because the amount of
oxygen to the carbon in the n-Butanol is smaller. The effect of various
additives on the amount of PM reduction is variable, so when the ratio
of oxygen to carbon or oxygen to hydrogen is high, the amount of PM
reduction will thus be the greatest. In the work of Mirzajanzadeh et al.
[165] mixture (homogenous) amide-functionalized MWCNTs were
applied as support for CeO2 as the catalytic and the hybrid catalyst
(CeO2-MWCNTs) was blended to the diesel–biodiesel blends (B5and
B20) at three different concentrations. CeO2 nano particles owing to
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar
their decreasing impact on peak temperature in the combustion
chamber resulted in decreased production of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
5.3. Fuel properties
A number of physical-chemical fuel properties are essential for
adequate combustion of a diesel fuel. Blending of the alcohols with the
diesel fuel changes certain key properties such as viscosity, density,
flash point and cetane number. This study focuses on of the effects the
alcohols blended with diesel have on cetane number and viscosity. The
cetane number is one of the most important properties of a diesel fuel,
very similar to the octane number that is associated with the gasoline
fuel. A high cetane number brings about a good starting ability in a cold
weather, in addition to low combustion noise and long life of the
engine. Viscosity of the fuel is one of the important characteristics of a
liquid fuel. It also plays a key role in lubrication of the fuel injection
systems. Blending of the alcohols to the diesel fuel causes a slight
reduction in the fuel viscosity. De cardo et al. [46] studied the impact of
blending the ethanol with the diesel fuel on the physic-chemical
properties of a fuel. They reported that ethanol, causes the cetane
number stays above 45. The relation between the reduction of the
cetane number and the ethanol blending was linear. Moreover, they
found that with the ethanol contents of 10–20%, the viscosity does not
meet the minimum requirements for the diesel fuels.
Numerous techniques have been proposed to increase the cetane
number of diesel fuels owing to smaller soot emission. Flash point is
the lowest temperature that a fuel will ignite when exposed to an
ignition source. Blending the alcohols with the diesel lowers the fuel
flash point, but increasing of the tertiary additives can increase of the
fuel viscosity.
Pirouzfar et al. [8] concluded that the effect was positive on the
tertiary additives (especially, nitrogenate fuel) and this fuel can give
rise the cetane number and other mentioned properties. They showed
that the nitrogenated fuels can enhance the cetane number to 57. They
used three different cetane number improvers for this purpose. The
cetane number improvers were 2-methoxy ethyl ether (MXEE), nitro
methane and nitro ethane. However they showed that the nitro
methane was more effective than the other two tertiary additives.
The boiling temperature of a substance is the temperature at which
the liquid changes to vapor [4] and the vapor pressure of the liquid
Fig. 1. Engine noise generation [129].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901
becomes equal to the pressure surrounding the liquid. The boiling
point of a liquid difference is due to the surrounding environmental
pressure. A liquid with high pressure has a higher boiling temperature
than a liquid at atmospheric pressure and vice versa.
The latent energy is the internal energy a system requires to
undergo a phase transition. Its volume is specific to the substance
under study. The volume can also vary with pressure and temperature
[4]. A higher latent energy of the alcohols causes an increase in the
energy needed to start.
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density of a
substance is its mass per unit volume. The difference of density
between the alcohols and the diesel fuel especially methanol is one of
the main character that could lead the fuel to 2-phase compositions [1–
4].
6. Combustion
6.1. Combustion noise
Sound noise in the air-pressure fluctuations is really small. The
understanding from the sound intensity is based on the ratio of
difference in the pressure. A logarithmic scale is used in this respect
as formulated below [129].
⎛ P ⎞2 ⎛ P ⎞
Sound pressure = 10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 20log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Pref ⎠ ⎝ Pref ⎠
Where the reference pressure is the lowest audible sound from the
order of 20 µPa. The three primary sources of noise generation in a
diesel engine are listed in Fig. 1.
• Gas-flow
• Combustion
• Mechanical process
Generally speaking, the diesel engine, being a very intricate system
comprising various dynamic forces acting on a structure of varying
hardness, modifying and response characteristics, remains by far
inferior to its gasoline correlate. Particularly for the diesel-engine
vehicles, the unbecoming combustion knock might also be a matter of
irritation for passengers and pedestrians. Gas-flow noise, usually low
A. Fayyazbakhsh, V. Pirouzfar
frequency reined, is dependent on the intake and exhaust processes,
including a turbocharger and a cooling fan. Mechanical noise, on the
other hand, contains the contribution of both rotating and reciprocat-
ing engine ingredients. It emanates from gears, tappets, valve trains,
timing drives, fuel injection instruments and bearings, and also from
gas forces creating piston slap. The low cranking speed appeared to
have the dominant impact on combustion noise development and its
absolute values [130–137]. The bio-fuels blends have small effect on
continuous performance of the engine and the overall combustion
noise radiation. Combustion behavior and stability among the first
transient cycles were mainly affected by the bio-diesel blend and
reduced by the alcohols blend [138]. Giakoumis et al. [14] reported
that during transient, the value of radiation noise at the early cycles of
the transient event is higher than its value during the steady-operation
at the same fueling and speed conditions.
The impact of the small match between the cylinder wall tempera-
ture and that of the operating conditions is responsible for a consider-
able value of the noise development during the steady-state operation
[139]. During a cold start in particular, due to the lower cylinder wall
temperatures, the above phenomena are even more significant so that
the engine makes sound more than its warm-up condition. Slow
increase of the engine speed on start contributes to elevated noise
levels. When the alcohols are blended into the fuel blend, a longer
ignition delay is caused, due to their lower cetane number that is
reliable for a further rise in the combustion noise over the pure diesel
fuel operation. According to the limited tests on both genres of biofuels
performed so far, more researches seem necessary, with wider variety
of the biofuels and higher blending ratios, in order to attain more clear
results [140–142]. Dhaenens et al. [141] reported that increasing the
engine speed cause higher sound pressure level. Rakopoulos et al. [143]
reported that the bio-fuel blends have limited impact on the transient
performance of the diesel engine and the combustion noise radiation.
However, the low cranking speed appeared to have a dominant effect
on development of the combustion noise and its absolute amount.
6.2. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate
The combustion process of a typical diesel engine is partially
premixed combustion (the first heat release unit) and partially diffusive
[144–150]. These phenomena are complex mechanisms to identify and
they actually depend on the compression ratio, fuel, fuel injection
timing engine load, temperature and intake boosting the pressure.
Gnanamoorthi and Devaradjane [95] showed that a high ratio of
ethanol-diesel blend occurs in the premix stage and just a few part of
this blend occurs during the diffusive stage. Wei et al. [105] reported
that, when methanol is injected at the intake port, methanol starts to
vaporize and absorb the heat of intake gas leading to lower gas
temperature and hence lower pressure of the inner cylinder at the
compression stroke. The dissimilar physical-chemical properties of
each fundament of the blends result in transformation of the fuel
delivery, dynamic injection timing [148], fuel fumigation dispersion,
wall impingement rate, ignition timing (delay), as well as fuel
evaporation and blending rates [151]. As a result, the premixed and
diffusion parts of combustion modify, while the presence of oxygen in
the bio-fuel blends is accounted for various local fuel–air equivalence
ratios, triggering or prevention of the combustion. Fang et al. [152]
studied the effect of pilot injection and exhaust gas recirculation on the
combustion and the emissions in a combustion engine with homo-
geneous charge compression ignition-direct injection. The diesel
engine used in their study was a heavy duty four-cylinder engine with
a common rail injection system. The impact of exhaust gas recircula-
tion and pilot injection quantity on inter-cycle mutability is investi-
gated in this section. The inter-cycle variability was discussed in terms
of the coefficient of variation of the indicated mean effective pressure
and also peak pressure. They showed that raising the pilot quantity
reduces the inter-cycle variability to a certain threshold and then with
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 891–901
more pilots the inter-variability will increase. In all instances the
exhaust gas recirculation reduced inter-cycle variability [153–156].
7. Major issues and further research requirements
Reduction of the air pollutions is the main subject for future the
researches. New models that can lead to much lower soot emissions
should be studied in the future researches. The following are also topics
which are of great potential for the future studies in this respect:
Optimization of energy and cost Use new nitrogenate and nano
additives to diesel fuel for improving the chemical-physical properties
and also engine performance.
Effect of preheating the fuel on the combustion characteristics,
pollutions and engine performance. Influence of the nitrogenate
additives or additives known as cetane number improvers on the
engine performance and air pollutions.
8. Conclusion
The following are the main conclusions which can be made from the
current review:
1) Adding the alcohols is necessary to reduce the soot content and to
reduce the soot content even more, an alcohol of higher oxygen
content must be used.
2) Adding the alcohols at certain temperatures creates a two-phase
composition. To solve this problem one should use additives which
act like an interface between the pure diesel fuel and the alcohol
and prevent formation of a two-phase fuel at any temperature.
3) In case it is not possible to use another additive, one can use normal
butanol, because the n-botanol has a higher cetane number. These
properties cause the n-botanol combined with the diesel fuel not
experience transformation to a two-phase composition.
4) If the produced fuel has high percentage of oxygen, the distribution
of NOX grows, and of course if the percentages of oxygen is low, the
amount of soot spread increases. In order to control the dispersion
ratio, it should be tried to make a proportion between the oxygen
and these two pollutants, but it must be said that the first priority is
still the soot reduction.
5) In addition to application of the alcohols for the purpose of soot
reduction, it is possible to use the low-percent alcohols to reduce
the HC dispersion ratio, because the low-percent alcohols increase
the required temperature for occurrence of the micro-explosions.
6) Combustion noise radiation during an acceleration transient event,
like the one experienced continuously during a daily driving, has
been found to be enhanced when a normal blend is used, although
no experimental result is available for the methanol and ethanol.
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