Society for American Archaeology

The Geoarchaeology of Place: The Effect of Geological Processes on the Preservation and
Interpretation of the Archaeological Record
Author(s): Michael R. Waters and David D. Kuehn
Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Jul., 1996), pp. 483-497
Published by: Society for American Archaeology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/281836
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 THE GEOARCHAEOLOGY OF PLACE: THE EFFECT OF GEOLOGICAL
PROCESSES ON THE PRESERVATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Michael R. Watersand David D. Kuehn

Because the landscape on which prehistoric people lived was dynamic and continually changed, the record of prehistoric
activities across the landscape has been differentiallypreserved and destroyed. Insightful reconstructions of human organi-
zational (settlement)systemsfrom the archaeological record require a full understandingof the geologicalforces and history
that have shaped that record. The landscape histories of the North Dakota Badlands and the stream systems of southern
Arizona illustrate these points and the importanceof geoarchaeological investigations to properly interpretthe archaeologi-
cal record.

Debido a que las formaciones terrestresque grupos prehist6ricos ocuparon eran dindmicasy siempre cambiantes,el registro
de actividades prehist6ricas en el paisaje ha sido diferencialmentepreservado y destruido. Reconstrucciones significativas
de los sistemas organizacionales humanos (de asentamiento) requieren un entendimientocompleto de lasfuerzas geol6gicas
y la historia que le dio forma a dicho registro. La historia de las formaciones terrestres de los "Badlands"de Dakota del
Norte y de los sistemas fluviales del sur de Arizona ilustra estos puntos y la importancia que guardan las investigaciones
geoarqueol6gicas para interpretarpropiamente el registro arqueol6gico.

T he importanceof knowing how prehistoric
people utilized places on the landscapefor
different activities and the need to realize
that activities change at any specific place
through time are widely appreciated (Binford
1980, 1982; Rossignol and Wandsnider 1992;
Stafford 1994). Ideally, archaeologists hope to
reconstruct from the archaeological remains at
these places the networkof sites thatwere used by
people at any specific time. However,there is one
key factorthat is underappreciatedin the study of
places-that is, the landscape changes!
Landscapes are not static but ratherare dynamic
and continuallychanging.This has two important
implications for the interpretationof site pattern-
ing across the landscape.First,sites thatwere part
of a prehistoricculturalsystem are destroyedover
time, thus fragmentingthe record of human set-
tlement and activity for any time period. Second,
these varied sites were situated on a landscape
thatwas probablydifferentfrom the modernland-
scape; thus, change in the use of a place through
Michael R. Waters * Departmentof Anthropology,Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352
David D. Kuehn * Center for EnvironmentalArchaeology, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352
time may be the result of change to the landscape
or other environmentalvariables (e.g., climate,
flora, and fauna). While this second point is
important,the focus of this paperis on the preser-
vation of sites andthe resultantimplicationsto the
interpretationof the behavioral organization of
sites-that is, is the preservedpatternof sites rep-
resentative of the actual prehistoric pattern of
activity? Have geological processes affected site
preservationand biased our perceptionabouthow
the landscapewas utilized?We addressthis issue
by examiningtwo areas where the archaeological
recordand geological historyhave been studiedin
detail: (1) the North Dakota Badlandsand (2) the
drainages of southern Arizona (Figure 1). The
first case study shows how the geological history
of erosion and deposition in differentareasof the
landscape have temporally and spatially segre-
gated the archaeological record of hunters and
gatherers and led to false conclusions about
human utilization of the Badlands. The second
study illustrates how the geological history of

American Antiquity, 61(3), 1996, pp. 483-497.

Copyright? by the Society for American Archaeology

483
484 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996

0
^rvsO@#
r i

_____

Figure 1. Map of the western United States showing the two study areas. The Badlands are indicated by hatching along
the Little Missouri River. Symbols on the Arizona map are as follows: SR, Salt River; GR, Gila River; SCR, Santa Cruz
River; CC, Cienega Creek; SPR, San Pedro River; WWD, Whitewater Draw.

four adjacent valleys in southern Arizona has
influenced our perception of utilization of inter-
valley landscapes. Both studies clearly illustrate
the need for detailedgeoarchaeologicalinvestiga-
tions to accurately interpret the archaeological
record.
The Link between Geological Processes and
the Archaeological Record
Regardless of environment, the archaeological
recordhas in large part been shaped by the same
processes that have molded the landscape
(Albanese 1978a; Bettis 1995; Butzer 1982;
Davidson 1985; Mandel 1995; Schiffer 1987;
Thompsonand Bettis 1982; Waters1992). People
decide where to place sites, but once people aban-
don a site, the geomorphicconditionscharacteriz-
ing the landscapedeterminewhetherit is initially
preservedor destroyed.If the landscapeis stable
(i.e., if it is characterizedby negligible erosion or
deposition), an archaeologicalsite may remainat
the surface without becoming either buried or
eroded. However,if the site is situatedin an area
that is, or that becomes, subjectto erosional con-
ditions, all or part of the site will be destroyed.
Similarly,if the site is situatedin an areaof active
deposition,or if depositionbegins sometime after
abandonment,the site will be buried.
Even if sites areinitiallypreserved,laterdegra-
dationof the landscapeaffects theirchance of sur-
viving into the present. If the landscape enters a
degradationalmode, previously preserved sites
may be destroyed.For example, if a river down-
cuts into its flood plain and widens its channel,
previouslypreservedsites in the zone of entrench-
ment will be eroded. Each subsequent degrada-
tional event diminishesthe completenessof those
portions of the geological and archaeological
record that have survived into the present. The
greaterthe number,duration,and intensityof ero-
sional events, the greaterthe destruction.
In some cases, regional erosional events com-
pletely removeolder sedimentsand soils thatmay
containarchaeologicalremains.In these cases, no
deposits or soils of a certaintime intervalare pre-
sent anywherein a given region, creatinga break
Waters and Kuehn] EFFECT OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD
a RIVERDALE
IL 0-4500
w PICK CITY
x 4500-8500
< AGGIE BROWN
0 8500-11,800
PLEISTOCENE ALLUVIUM I O- I "IF
_ _.Iw
> 24,000B.P., Mb.W,W C
800-2700
150-400 B.P. \
EOLIAN SAND U LOESS
Figure 2. Generalized late Quaternary geology of the South Unit of Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Loess, although
shown only on the PT4 surface, occurs on all Pleistocene terraces.
in the stratigraphicrecordand correspondinglyin
the archaeologicalrecord.
In short, the nature and completeness of the
buried archaeologicalrecord parallels the nature
and completenessof the geological sequence.The
structureof the geological sequence is determined
by the number,magnitude,duration,areal extent,
and timing of periods of deposition, erosion, and
stability. These factors control how many sedi-
mentary units, paleosols, and erosional surfaces
are present, their spatial distribution and
sequence, and the amount of time they represent.
These same factors are importantin creation of
the archaeologicalrecordbecause deposition,ero-
sion, and stability work in concert to preserve,
arrange, and fragment the evidence of human
activity on the landscape.Therefore,how well the
preservedsites of a region approximatethe origi-
485
,1
B.P.
B.P.
B.P.
.-"
1
PT2
4i 500-5500 B.P.
B.P.
L SLOPEWASH/ o ALLUVIUM
FAN
nal universe of archaeological sites that once
existed must be evaluated before meaningful
archaeological interpretations can be made
(Albanese 1978a; Bettis 1995; Butzer 1982;
Davidson 1985; Mandel 1992; Schiffer 1987;
Thompson and Bettis 1982; Waters 1992).
Archaeologists must consider to what extent the
observed patterns of occupation within and
between areas accuratelyreflects the distribution
of human activity or the biases of geological
preservation.
Geoarchaeological Interpretation of Site
Patterning in the North Dakota Badlands
The Little Missouri Badlands are a deeply
entrenched erosional terrain situated in western
North Dakota (Figure 1). Encompassingan area
of over 5,400 km2,the Badlandswere createddur-
486 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
ing the late Quaternarywhen the Little Missouri
River down-cutinto the poorly induratedTertiary
deposits underlying the Missouri Plateau. The
Little Missouri River, which now flows through
the centralaxis of the Badlands,is on average90
m below the prebadlandPleistocene surface.The
information presented below is derived from
extensive archaeological and geoarchaeological
studies undertaken in Theodore Roosevelt
National Park,which lies in the centralportionof
the Badlands(Kuehn 1993, 1995).
The landformswithin the Badlandsare divided
into threelandscapecategories:upland,intermedi-
ate, and lowlandlandformassociations(Figure2).
The upland landscapes include all flat-lying sur-
faces (buttes, ridges, and knobs composed of
Tertiary sediments) above the Little Missouri
Riverand its tributaries.These landformsarecom-
monly overlain by a mantle of late Quaternary
loess. Lowland landscapes include all landforms
that occupy the valley lowlands adjacent to the
Little MissouriRiverand its tributariescreatedby
alluvial processes. This includes all late
Quaternaryterraces, flood plains, stream chan-
nels, and alluvial fans. Intermediatelandscapes
include the slopes and hills that lie between the
uplands and lowlands where bedrock is either
exposed or coveredby a thin veneer of colluvium.
Of these threeareas,the uplandsand lowlandsare
the most importantdepositionalsettings.
The upland landforms are capped by late
Quaternaryage eolian silt and sand deposits with
multiple buried soils (Figure 2). These sediments
are assignableto the Aggie Brown,Pick City, and
Riverdalemembers of the Oahe formation(Artz
1995; Clayton et al. 1976). Fifteen radiocarbon
ages indicatethat eolian depositionbegan around
12,000 B.P. and continues to this day (Aggie
Brown, 11,800 to 8500 B.P.; Pick City, 8500 to
4500 B.P.;Riverdale,4500 B.P to present).While
the composite late Quaternary stratigraphic
sequence of the uplands is fairly complete, the
stratigraphic composition of individual loess
sequences varies widely because wind deflation
has periodicallyremovedthe older loess deposits.
Some sections contain only one member of the
Oahe formation, some contain two, and others
contain all three. The most complete sections are
located in small uplandbasins, or bedrockdepres-
[Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996
sions, which have trappedand preservedthe sed-
iments of each member.The Riverdale member
(4500 B.P.to present)is the most widespreadand
is present at virtually every outcrop of loess.
Sedimentsolder than Riverdalewere encountered
at only eight stratigraphicsections where the
small basin trapsare located. Of the linear 24 km
of upland edges examined,the visible horizontal
extent of all Aggie Brown and Pick City member
sedimentstotal less than 550 m or 2.3 percent of
the total length of the escarpments.
The lowland landforms consist primarily of
alluvial terracesand fans (Figure2). Geomorphic
studies have shown that the valleys within the
Badlands had a similar geological history. Four
depositionalterraceslabeledT4 to T 1, fromoldest
to youngest, are found along the drainageswithin
the Little Missouri Badlands (Kuehn 1995).
Seventeen radiocarbonages indicate that the ter-
race 4 fill was depositedbetween about 7000 and
6000 B.P.,terrace3 between 5500 and 4500 B.P.,
terrace2 between2700 and 800 B.P.,andterrace1
between400 and 150 B.P.The modernflood plains
of the Little Missouriand its tributarieswere cre-
ated within the past 150 years. Terrace4 and ter-
race 3 are poorly preservedwithin the valleys of
the Badlands, while terrace 2 and terrace 1 are
common. Along the Little Missouri River, the
maindrainagethroughthe Badlands,99 percentof
the alluvial landformsare composed of terrace 1
and the modernflood plain (with two very minor
remnantsof terrace2). Alluvial fan and slopewash
sediments commonly interfingerwith the terrace
deposits. No alluvial sediments older than 7000
B.P.have thus far been identified in the Badlands.
Along the Little Missouri River, with the excep-
tion of the two remnantsof terrace2 and associ-
ated alluvium, no sediments older than 400 B.P.
are present in the areas investigated.The frag-
mented nature of the terraces illustrate the
dynamicerosionalprocesses in the lowlands.
An intensive archaeologicalsurvey of 25 per-
cent of the South Unit of Theodore Roosevelt
National Park(n = 4840 ha) resultedin the iden-
tification of 178 sites (Kuehn 1990, 1995).
Seventy-seven percent (n = 137) of the sites
within the Parkare found in uplandsettings, usu-
ally within the loess, while only 14 percent (n =
25) of the sites are found in the lowlands and 9
Waters and Kuehn] PROCESSESON ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EFFECTOF GEOLOGICAL RECORD 487

percent (n = 16) are found on the intermediate 16

slopes. The unequal natureof landformsetting is

evident when sites from a larger portion of the 14
Badlands are statistically analyzed by chi-square
and discriminantfunction analysis. These analy- 12
ses indicatethat sites are not randomlydistributed
across the landscape but instead show that site W
I- 10-
densities are greatest in upland settings (Kuehn
1990, 1995). U.
In
O
Of the total number of recorded sites, 29 can 8-
be assigned to a specific time period based on the a
presence of diagnostic artifacts, stratigraphic zP 6

position, or associated radiocarbonages (Figure z

3; Kuehn 1990). The oldest components
(Paleoindian,EarlyArchaic, and Middle Archaic)
dating before 3500 B.P. are all located on upland
landforms in association with loess deposits
(Figure 4). In contrast, the percentage of Late
Archaic components in uplands decreases to 43
percent,while sites occur on the intermediateand
lowland landscapes for the first time, composing
43 and 14 percent of the sample, respectively
(Figure 4). Late Prehistoricsites dating between
2000 B.P.and historiccontactabout200 years ago
(grouped here as including Plains Woodland,
Plains Village, and unclassified Late Prehistoric
groups) are found most frequentlyin upland set-
tings (50 percent), then in lowland locations (38
percent), and finally in intermediatesettings (12
percent). Late Prehistoric site locations show a
markedincreasein the numberof sites in lowland
settings.
One of the first observationsthat can be made
from these distributionsis thatthere is an increase
in the number of sites with decreasing site age
(Figure 3). This may reflect increased utilization
of the Badlands over time. In fact, Loendorf and
others (1982:46-8) suggested that the Badlands
received little human utilization during the late
Pleistocene and early Holocene because of a
decline of local resource potential resulting from
deterioratingpostglacial climatic conditions and
associated landscape instability. Loendorf sug-
gests thatthe MiddleArchaic representedthe ear-
liest intensiveuse of the Little MissouriBadlands.
Beckes and Keyser (1983) and Simon and Keim
(1983) also suggest that the absence of early sites
could be attributed to cultural preference; the
Badlands were avoided because the region was
4.
2-
z
a o
E
z I- c
w
-I UJ
1-
IL
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY
Figure 3. Number of time-diagnostic sites in the South
Unit of Theodore Roosevelt National Park.
made largely uninhabitableby extensive down-
cutting and people preferredto live in the larger
valleys like those found along the MissouriRiver.
However, the last four authorsprovided another
explanation: perhaps the absence of early sites
was due to erosion.
Comparing the late Quaternary geological
record with the archaeological record provides
insights into the noted increase in the frequency
of sites over time. In the lowlands, there is virtu-
ally no potential for Paleoindian sites and mini-
mal potential for Early Archaic sites because of
the absence of fluvial deposits or landformsdat-
ing to this time period. Likewise, there is a corre-
spondence between the presence of younger
landforms and deposits in the lowlands and the
increases in archaeological sites over time.
Similarly, hill-slope retreat and erosion on the
488 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996

TIME (YEARS B.P.)

12,000 10,000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

I a 1

LOWLAND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITION

,-T4- I--T3 -- - T2'--- ITIl

UPLAND LOESS DEPOSITION --

10-
rn
w
u, 8-

cr 6-
a
0 4-
Z 7I /J
2 -

a-4
p7i
W,
I--r - m-A _'v ..
- . . - - -I r- .I. !. - 1
m
PALEOINDIAN EARLY ARCHAIC MIDDLE LATE LATE
I ARCHAIC ARCHAIC PREHISTORIC

a UPLAND O INTERMEDIATE b LOWLAND

( a VERY RARE DEPOSITS )

Figure 4. Association of time-diagnostic sites and landforms within Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Periods of depo-
sition of eolian and fluvial units are indicated.

intermediateslopes has removed all but the very
latest portions of the archaeological record
(Kuehn 1995).
However,the trend of increased utilization of
the Badlandsover time shouldbe preservedin the
uplands where deposits from 12,000 B.P. to pre-
sent are preserved, even though older loess
depositsare less commonthanlaterunits. It seems
logical to assume that even if the older loess was
removed by wind erosion, older archaeological
materialshould occur on a deflatedsurfaceunder-
lying the younger loess. However,anotherfactor,
hill-slope retreat,also must be considered. Over
time, this process may have influencedthe tempo-
ral archaeologicalrecordof the uplands.
Based on the location of Middle Archaic
through Late Prehistoric sites, it appears that
these groups concentratedtheir upland activities
along the edges of ridges andbuttes,ratherthan in
the interiors,in orderto take advantageof supe-
rior views (Kuehn 1990:192). If this were true of
Paleoindian and Early Archaic groups as well,
hill-slope erosion surelyaffectedthe early archae-
ological record. Clayton and Tinker (1971) stud-
ied hill-slope retreat in Theodore Roosevelt
National Parkand documentedthe averagemod-
ern rate of slope retreatto be .36 to 1.04 cm/year.
It cannot be assumed that these rates were con-
stant through the late Quaternary;indeed, they
may have been even greater during the more
severe periods of middle Holocene aridity.Nor
were all areas similarly affected by hill-slope
retreat.However,given the erosionalnatureof hill
slopes and evidence for widespreadmodernslope
retreat, the paucity of Paleoindian and Early
Archaic sites in the uplands appears to be the
result of geological erosion and not culturalfac-
tors. Thus, the pattern of increased site density
throughtime is more likely the result of geomor-
phic processes and not a culturalphenomenon.
The next patternto consider is the distribution
of sites across the upland,intermediate,and low-
Waters and Kuehn] PROCESSESON ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EFFECTOF GEOLOGICAL
land landscapes(Figure4). When site location and
age are considered,there is no use of the lowlands
until after 3500 B.P., starting with the Late
Archaic. Meanwhile, upland landforms contain
evidence of extensive use from ca. 5000 B.P.
(Middle Archaic) through the Late Prehistoric.
Previous explanations for the site-landformpat-
terns in the Badlandshave again centeredon cul-
tural preference and settlement system
characteristics,includinghypothesesthatridgetop
landforms were used as travel corridorsthrough
the ruggedBadlandsterrain(Simon 1982:60);that
Middle Archaic groups concentratedtheir activi-
ties on ridgetopsbecause of a combinationof fac-
tors, including ecological diversity, view, and
proximityto resources(Beckes and Keyser 1983);
and that Late Prehistoricgroups made greateruse
of major riverine settings than did earlier groups
because of changing climate (Beckes and Keyser
1983; Hill 1988). These previousexplanationsare
based on the premise that the extant archaeologi-
cal record is an accuratereflection of prehistoric
settlementpatterns.This assumptionfails to con-
sider the effect of geological processes on the
archaeologicalrecord.We will now reexaminethe
archaeological database in light of the late
Quaternarystratigraphicframework.
Recall that the oldest sediments preserved in
the lowlands are associated with terrace4, which
was deposited from 7000 to 6000 B.P.Thus, there
are no alluvial sediments older than 7000 B.P. in
the lowlands, which precludesthe preservationof
Paleoindian and most Early Archaic sites.
Furthermore,the poor preservation and limited
distributionof terrace4 (due to erosion) suggests
that Early Archaic sites are likely to be rare.
Terrace 4 remnants occur at only 10 localities
within two tributarydrainages and do not occur
along the Little Missouri River (Kuehn 1995).
The absence of Middle Archaic sites from the
lowlands is again relatedto the age of fluvial sed-
iments. Within the study area, potential for
Middle Archaic sites in the lowlands is limited to
the surfaces of terrace4 and terrace3 and within
the fill of terrace 3, which is dated between 5500
and 4500 B.P. However,as alreadystated,terrace
4 has a very limited spatial distribution.Terrace3
is somewhat more widespread but is still rare
compared to the younger terraces, comprising
RECORD 489
<10 percent of the total alluvial landscape.
Remnants of terrace 3 occur primarily along
majortributariesof the Little Missouri River.No
terrace3 remnantsoccur along the Little Missouri
River. Thus, the potential for older sites on or
within the lowland settings is nil (Paleoindian,
EarlyArchaic) to poor (Middle Archaic).
The emergenceof Late Archaic settlementson
the lowlands is not surprisingwhen consideredin
the context of the regional geology (Figure 4).
LateArchaic sites could be located on the surface
of the olderterrace3 andterrace4. However,more
importantly,Late Archaic sites can be situatedon
and within terrace2, which was deposited during
the Late Archaic period. Terrace2 is widely dis-
tributed along the tributary streams in the
Badlands (Kuehn 1995). Correspondingly,most
lowland Late Archaic sites occur on or in the ter-
races along the tributariesof the Little -Missouri
River. Only one Late Archaic site is known from
the segmentof the Little MissouriRivertraversing
Theodore Roosevelt Park. The paucity of Late
Archaicsites along the Little MissouriRiveragain
is explained by geological processes. Along the
section of the Little Missouri River traversing
TheodoreRoosevelt Park,there are only two very
small remnantsof terrace2. Thus,thereappearsto
be a very low volume of sedimentof LateArchaic
age along this main streamcourse.
Late Prehistoric components (i.e., Plains
Woodland,Plains Village, and unclassified Late
Prehistoricgroups) are most diverse in terms of
landformsetting;these sites occur in upland,low-
land, and intermediate areas (Figure 4). In the
uplands, loess of Late Prehistoricage is ubiqui-
tous. Likewise, in the lowlands the high number
of sites is a directreflectionof the widespreadter-
race 1 fill. These sediments are present in all the
tributarystreams and within the main valley of
the Little Missouri River. Late Prehistoric sites
occur within the terrace 1 fill and on the surfaces
of older terraces, which make up the rest of the
lowlands. In summary,the pattern of increased
utilization of the lowland landscape over time
more than likely is a direct reflection of the geo-
logical history of the Badlandsfluvial system and
not a culturalphenomenon.
Now that the significant temporal and spatial
biases in the archaeological record have been
490 AMERICANANTIQUITY
identified,we turnour attentionto an examination
of the completeness of hunter-gatherersite pat-
terning within the Badlands. First we determine
the relationship between natural site formation
processes and site type; then we consider the
implications of this relationshipto the study of
prehistoric settlement and subsistence in the
Badlands.
The site type classifications utilized in our
analysis follow the logistical land-use strategies
identified by Binford (1980, 1982) for hunter-
gatherer collector groups. While all five of
Binford's (1980) collector site types (residential
bases, field camps, locations, stations,caches) are
identified in the Badlands,we concentrateon the
three that are most prevalent in the Badlands
archaeologicalrecord. These are locations, field
camps, and residentialbases.
Locations, or resourceprocurementareas, are
common throughoutthe Badlands. In the study
area,they accountfor 43.3 percentof the total site
assemblage. These sites are primarilyassociated
with outcrops of Tertiaryand Pleistocene river
gravels in the uplands where materials for tool
manufacturing were obtained. No temporally
diagnostic artifacts have been recovered from
these sites, although their presence elsewhere in
the uplands outside the study area suggests that
they were used since Paleoindiantimes.
A curious and potentiallysignificant aspect of
the locations in the study area is the paucity of
sites associated with floral and faunal procure-
ment. Only two such sites were identified:a bison
kill site and an eagle trappingpit (Kuehn 1995).
The absence of such sites is puzzling given the
fact that the Badlands contain abundantnatural
resourceswithin a varietyof ecosystems. The dif-
ferent ecosystems, which include riparianwood-
lands, hardwood draws, and upland grasslands,
are the result of the Badlands high topographic
relief. The landscapeof the Badlandsis especially
dramaticwhen comparedto the relativelyfeature-
less terrainof the surroundingMissouri Plateau.
Ethnographic evidence indicates that Plains
Village groups living along the Missouri River in
west-central North Dakota frequently ventured
into the Badlands on hunting forays because of
the abundance of game (Bowers 1948, 1965;
Wilson 1928). Small groups occasionally spent
[Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996
entire winters there, as the Badlands are
extremely well sheltered (Bowers 1948). In his-
toric times, the Badlands were considered some
of the richest game hunting territory in the
Northern Great Plains (Nelson 1946; Simon
1982). In additionto the abundanceof game ani-
mals, such as bison, deer, elk, and bighorn sheep,
the Badlands were also rich in floral resources
such as chokecherry,wild plum, gooseberry,and
buffaloberryto name but a few. Why then is there
a lack of evidence for floral and faunal procure-
ment sites? One reason may be that the target
resourcesthemselves are organicand are not con-
ducive to preservation in the archaeological
record. If processing implements, such as grind-
ing stones or scrapers,were curated and carried
away from the site the only evidence remaining
would be the rapidly deterioratingorganic waste
(e.g., seeds and bone fragments).If maintenance-
related flint knappinghad been conducted at the
location, flaking debris very well could be the
only materialremaining.
Factors of material preservation and artifact
curationaside, the stratigraphicand geomorphic
data also provide clues for a second explanation.
Of all the targetfloral and faunal resourcesmen-
tioned,only bison were likely to be found in abun-
dance on the grass-covered buttes and ridge
systems in the Badlands. Floral resources were
and still are concentratedin intermediateand low-
land landform settings, particularly wooded
slopes, hardwood draws (i.e., heavily vegetated
sloping valleys), and streamside riparian areas.
These shelteredlocationsand slopes were also the
preferredhabitatfor deer, elk, and bighornsheep.
Whatdo we now know aboutthe geomorphichis-
tory of areas such as these? They are all dynamic
landscapessubjectto the degradationalprocesses
of hill-slope erosion, gullying, piping, slumping,
and down-cutting. Likewise, while the frequent
occurrenceof bison in the uplandstoday is testa-
ment to the likelihood that they were abundantin
similar settings prehistorically,with a few excep-
tions (Frison 1978) it is unlikely that they were
dispatched by hunting groups in such exposed
areas. On the contrary, the evidence from
throughoutthe NorthwesternPlains suggests that
bison were driven off cliffs and cutbanks and
trapped in the head-wall portions of gullies,
Waters and Kuehn] EFFECTOF GEOLOGICAL
PROCESSESON ARCHAEOLOGICAL
arroyos, and natural sinks (Albanese 1978b;
Frison 1978; Frison et al. 1976; Loendorf et al.
1982). These settings are also geomorphically
unstable. It is thereforeprobablyno coincidence
thatthe only bison procurementsite located in the
study area is associated with Late Prehistoric
Plains Village artifacts and is situated in slump
deposits at the toe of the Little Missouri escarp-
ment. Older sites in similar settings are not likely
to have survived to become part of the extant
archaeological record. For these reasons, the
absence of floral and faunalresourceprocurement
sites very well could be a reflection of the geo-
morphic setting of the localities where the pro-
curementwas conducted. In a region as dynamic
as the Badlands,such geomorphicsettings are not
conducive to archaeological site preservation.
This possibility has implications for future
researchin thatextantfloral or faunallocations, if
identified, are likely to date to the late Holocene.
The largest category of site type in the study
area,field camps (which comprise56.2 percentof
the site assemblage in the study area) are also
conducive to reexaminationwithin a geomorphic
context. Field camps are found in virtually every
landformsetting and major depositionalenviron-
ment in the study area. Because it has been
demonstratedthat the ages of the landforms and
environmentsare highly disparate,so then are the
ages of the field camps associated with them.
Camp sites located in the eolian uplandshave the
potential to date back to Paleoindian times, but
the stratigraphicdata suggest that the majorityof
intact sites are going to be younger than ca. 5500
to 4500 B.P.(i.e., youngerthanthe last episode of
middle Holocene drought and erosion). In the
alluvial lowlands, no field camps older than ca.
7000 B.P. are to be expected, and the vast major-
ity are likely to date from the late Holocene (i.e.,
in association with Late Prehistoricgroups).This
is a reflection of the temporaland spatial pattern
of the extant sedimentologicaland archaeological
records, a patternthat has two implications that
are very importantto the study of prehistoricset-
tlement and subsistence in the Badlands region.
First, it limits archaeological knowledge about
Paleoindian, Early Archaic, and Middle Archaic
lifeways to those activities conducted in upland
settings. Consequently, archaeologists are not
RECORD 491
likely to gain an understandingof the natureand
extent of field camp use by these groups in the
lowlands.
The second importantimplication of the spa-
tial and temporal pattern of the archaeological
and geological records concerns seasonal utiliza-
tion of the region. It has been arguedby previous
researchers(East et al. 1985; Kuehn 1990) that
field camps located in the high, exposed uplands
were not likely to have been occupied duringthe
winter months, given the normal severity of win-
ters in the Northern Plains. Winter occupation,
like that ethnographicallydocumented for the
Mandan and Hidatsa (Bowers 1948, 1965), was
no doubt concentratedin the more shelteredlow-
lands. Therefore,because field camps associated
with Paleoindian, Early Archaic, and Middle
Archaic groups are limited to uplandsettings due
to geological preservation, their settlement and
subsistenceactivities duringthe winter season are
going to remain unknown if they followed the
ethnographicsettlementpatternof historicgroups
(Frison 1978; Hanson 1983; Nicholson 1988).
Although not identified in the study area,resi-
dential bases are an important constituent of
hunter-gatherersettlements (Binford 1980). At
least three residential bases occur north of the
study area (Kuehn 1990) and two residential
bases are identified a short distance south of the
study area (Johnson 1983; Metcalf and
Schweigert 1987). Of significance is the fact that
all of these sites are late Holocene in age. Three
are assigned to the Plains Woodland tradition
(Kuehn 1990) and two are assigned to the Plains
Village tradition (Johnson 1983; Metcalf and
Schweigert 1987). Equally significant is the fact
that all of the residentialbases are located within
the valley of the Little Missouri River.Two of the
Plains Woodlandsites north of the study area are
situated in slopewash-coveredfoothills along the
valley margin,while the thirdis situatedin terrace
2 fill near the mouth of an intermittentstream
(Kuehn 1990, 1995). Both of the Plains Village
sites are situatedin the fill of terrace 1 along the
Little Missouri River, although one is associated
with slopewash rather than fluvial sediments
(Johnson 1983; Metcalf and Schweigert 1987).
All of these are appropriatesettings for residential
bases in that base camp locations appearto have
492 AMERICANANTIQUITY
been dependent on proximity to certain critical
resources such as water, shelter from the ele-
ments, and fuel (Binford and Binford 1969;
Greiser 1985; Hanson 1983; Jochim 1976).
Upland locations, which tend to be flat, exposed,
and grass-covered,do not generally offer these
resources in quantities sufficient to make
extended occupation practical. It is therefore
hypothesized that residential bases in the
Badlands were concentratedin riverine settings
along the Little Missouri River,a hypothesissup-
portedby the location of the five residentialbases
thus far identified (Kuehn 1995). Given what is
known about the age of sediments in the Little
MissouriValley,it is not surprisingthatthe known
residential bases are late Holocene in age. The
oldest sediments preserved along the Little
Missouri are those associated with the terrace 2
fill, deposited between about 800 and 2700 B.P.,
while the vast majorityof sedimentsmake up the
terrace 1 fill, depositedbetween roughly 150 and
400 B.P. This limits the potential for base camps
to Late Archaic and Late Prehistoricgroups. The
fact that no Late Archaic base camps have yet
been identified may be relatedto limited preser-
vation of the terrace 2 fill in the Little Missouri
Valley. Again, previous researchershave argued
instead that the paucity of residentialbase camps
duringthe Paleoindianand Archaicperiods is the
result of a different settlement pattern; specifi-
cally, in the case of the Late Archaic, Hill
(1988:16) suggests that these groups did not use
base camps. In additionto not accountingfor nat-
ural site formation processes, this argument is
also inconsistentwith existing archaeologicaland
ethnographicevidence, which suggests that base
camps were an importantconstituentin the settle-
ment patterns of virtually all prehistorichunter-
gatherers in the Plains region (Greiser 1985).
Consequently,there is no reason to believe that
the use of base camps in the Badlandswas limited
only to Late Prehistoric groups. The fact that
these are the only culturalgroups currentlyasso-
ciated with residentialbases is more than likely a
reflectionof the originallocation of these types of
sites (in riverinesettings)and the geomorphichis-
tory of such settings. Once again, the evidence
suggests that a largeportionof the prehistoricset-
tlement record is absent-this time, most of the
[Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996
record concerning extended occupation prior to
2000 B.P.The processes responsiblefor this par-
ticular research deficiency are the multiple
episodes of fluvial erosion that appear to have
removed virtually all late Pleistocene and early
and middle Holocene age sediment from the
Little Missouri Valley. It is ironic that there is a
higherdegree of sedimentpreservationin the val-
leys of tributarystreams,but these streamswere
not preferredlocations for extended occupation.
Clearly,geomorphicprocesses in the Badlands
have fragmentedthe record of prehistoricuse of
places over the landscape.This destructionis so
extremethatthe extantarchaeologicalrecorddoes
not reflect the entire range of prehistorichuman
behaviorsthatoccurredin the Badlandsuntil very
Late Prehistorictimes.
Geoarchaeological Interpretation of Site
Patterning in Southern Arizona
It shouldbe clearfromthe previousdiscussionthat
the structureof the archaeologicalrecord in any
area is in large part controlled by geological
processes. Now we consider the archaeological
record at a broaderscale-that is, how well the
archaeological record is preserved between
regions.
The differentialstructureof the archaeological
recordbetweenregionshas importantimplications
for archaeologicalinterpretations.Archaeologists
must consider whether the observed patterns of
occupationbetweenregionsaccuratelyreflectsthe
distributionof humanactivityor the biases of geo-
logical preservationprocesses. For example, the
absence of human activity in one valley while
another valley is extensively utilized may be
inferred to reflect a cultural preference for one
area over anotherbecause of availableresources.
Likewise, the absence of a certain culturalphase
within a valley after a long period of occupation
may be interpretedas a sudden abandonment,
while in anothervalley the sudden appearanceof
thatculturalphase aftera hiatusin occupationmay
be interpreted to be the result of migration.
However,such patternsmay also be the result of
geological processes.In this example,we consider
the archaeologicalrecordof riverineutilizationof
four adjacentriver valleys in southernArizona
the upper Santa Cruz River (San Xavier reach),
Waters and Kuehn] EFFECT OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD 493

CIENEGA
SANTA CRUZ CREEK SAN PEDRO WHITEWATER
ARCHAEO- RIVER (EDDY & RIVER DRAW TONTO
LOGICAL (WATERS COOLEY (HAYNES (WATERS BASIN
CULTURES 1988) 1983) 1981, 1982) 1986) (WATERS N.D.)
HISTORIC
PROTO-
HISTORIC

CERAMIC
CULTURES

ffi
u0
cc
w

Figure 5. Relationship between archaeological periods and the geological records of several streams in Arizona.

Cienega Creek, San PedroRiver, and Whitewater
Draw(Figures 1 and 5). Even thoughthese valleys
lie adjacentto one another,they had independent
and differentlandscapehistories with deposition,
erosion, and stability occurringat differenttimes
in each valley during the late Quaternary.As a
consequence, each valley contains a different
stratigraphicsequence of sediments, soils, and
erosional unconformities. In the southern Santa
Cruz River Valley, only sediments dating from
5500 B.P. to the historic period are preserved
because of a major erosional event that occurred
duringthe middleHolocene (Waters1988).A sim-
ilar period of erosion affected the stratigraphic
record of Cienega Creek, where again sediments
no older than 4000 B.P. are preserved(Eddy and
Cooley 1983). In the San Pedrodrainage,the allu-
vial stratigraphicsequence is well preserved,with
sedimentsrangingfrom 15,000 B.P.to the present
with only one majorerosionalunconformitydated
between6500 and 8000 B.P.(Haynes 1981, 1982).
The alluvial sediments in WhitewaterDraw are
similarly well preserved, with sediments dating
from 15,000 B.P.to historic times (Waters1986).
We can now examine the archaeologicalrecordof
riverine utilization of this segment of southern
Arizona in the context of the geological record.
First, consider the Paleoindian(Clovis) record
(Figure 5). In the San PedroValley, a large num-
ber of undisturbed Clovis sites are preserved
494 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
within the riverinesediments (Hauryet al. 1953;
Haury et al. 1959; Haynes 1981, 1982). These
sites include Lehner,Naco, MurraySprings, and
many others that represent a range of activities
from procurement(mammoth hunting) to field
camps. These sites are preserved because of the
favorablegeological conditionsthat existed in the
San Pedro Valley during the late Pleistocene.
First, Clovis sites were buried soon after aban-
donment beneath an organic-richclay, the black
mat, which was depositedin a low-energycienega
environment.Second, subsequentHolocene ero-
sion did not remove the Clovis-age surface. On
the otherhand,no Clovis sites have been found in
WhitewaterDraw, even though sediments of this
age (units Da and Db) are exposed in the arroyo.
This is largely due to the fact that, even though
units Da and Db are time transgressive,rangingin
age from 15,000 to 8000 B.P.,most of these sedi-
ments date between 10,000 and 8000 B.P., and
only a few of the sand and gravel deposits are
older than 10,000 B.P. Moreover, if Clovis
remains were found in units Da and Db, they
would lie in secondary contexts, because these
sands and gravelswere depositedin a high-energy
braided stream environment,which is not con-
ducive to the preservationof behavioralcontexts.
If Clovis sites do occur in a secondary context,
they would likely be undetectable because the
sparse material record typically found at Clovis
sites would become lost within the enormousvol-
ume of sand and gravel. Finally, in the alluvial
valleys of both the southernSantaCruzRiver and
Cienega Creek, erosional episodes have removed
Clovis sites that once may have existed.
Therefore,the intensityof Clovis use of the river-
ine environmentsof the upper Santa Cruz River,
WhitewaterDraw, and Cienega Creek cannot be
gauged. As a result, it cannot be determined
whetherthe Clovis recordof the San PedroValley
representsa unique, intensive occupation of this
valley alone during the late Pleistocene or
whether this record instead reflects the biases
imposed by different intervalley geological
processes. If the latteris true, then perhapsa sim-
ilar level of Clovis activity occurredwithin other
valleys of southern Arizona. This, however, we
shall never know.These same conclusions can be
extended to other valleys within Arizona, includ-
[Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996
ing the middle Gila River and the Tonto Basin
(Tonto Creek and Salt River). Along the middle
Gila River,the oldest preservedalluvium dates to
4800 B.P. (Huckleberry 1993). Likewise, along
the Salt River and TontoCreekin the TontoBasin
no alluvial sedimentsolderthan3500 B.P.arepre-
served (Waters 1997). In both areas the alluvium
is very recent, and erosion in both areas has
removedthe late Pleistocene sedimentrecordand
with it any traces of Clovis occupation.It is inter-
esting to note that Clovis hunters were present
along the middle Gila River and in the Tonto
Basin based on the discovery of isolated Clovis
projectile points on the surface of the bajadas
(alluvial piedmont) adjacentto the riverineareas
(Huckell 1982). Clearly,Clovis people were using
this region, but the most likely localities for their
activities have disappeared.
Next, consider the Archaic record (Figure 5).
The early Archaic record of the southern Santa
Cruz River and Cienega Creek flood plains is
completelyabsentbecause deposits of this age are
not preserved. Early Archaic remains are found
only within the San PedroValley and Whitewater
Draw.EarlyArchaic sites in the San PedroValley
alluvium lie in a primarycontext because of the
low-energyassociatedwith depositionof the units
that contain them. In contrast,most of the Early
Archaic remainsfrom WhitewaterDraw,with the
exception of one site, are found in a secondary
context. Likewise, the Middle Archaic record is
similarlyfragmentedbetweenthe valleys, with the
most severegap in the San PedroValley(Figure5).
It is not until the Late Archaic that for the first
time sites have the potential to be equally pre-
served and reasonableintervalleycorrelationsof
human behaviorcan be made between the upper
Santa Cruz, San Pedro, Cienega Creek, and
WhitewaterDraw. The archaeologicalrecord of
riverineutilization of the middle Gila River and
streamsin the Tonto Basin is also fragmentedby
geological processes.Along the middleGila River,
the Archaic record could date back to 4800 B.P.,
the age of the oldest preserved alluvium
(Huckleberry 1993). Within the Tonto Basin,
along the Salt RiverandTontoCreek,the absence
of alluvialsedimentsdatingbeyond3500 B.P pre-
cludes all but a Late Archaic recordof utilization
of these flood plains (Waters1997). The observa-
Waters and Kuehn]
PROCESSESON ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EFFECTOF GEOLOGICAL
tions concerningthe LateArchaichold true for the
Late Prehistoricrecord(Figure5). Again, the allu-
vium of each valley datingto the past 2,000 years
is well preservedandthus has the potentialto con-
tain a more complete record of human activity of
the riverineareas.Thus, late prehistoricintravalley
and intervalleyutilization and human interaction
can be studiedwith confidence.
The example presented here is a situation in
which valley landscapes responded differently
over time and createdalluvial sequencesthatwere
unique to each valley. Because the number,mag-
nitude, duration,areal extant, and timing of ero-
sion, deposition, and stable intervals were
different in each valley, different stratigraphic
sequences that do not correlate were created in
each valley. Because of this, a differenttemporal
archaeologicalsample is preservedin each valley.
However, it should be noted that in some areas
stratigraphicsequences from one valley to the
next are similar.This occurs because these valley
landscapes responded similarly over time-cut-
ting and filling synchronously.In this case, simi-
lar temporal archaeological samples will be
preserved within the valleys and comparisonsof
human intervalley use and interaction can be
undertaken.However,if erosion has ever occurred
for a long period of time in such an area, then a
large portion of the archaeologicalrecordwill be
missing from all of the valleys. This would create
a void in the archaeologicalrecord of humanuse
of riverineenvironmentsover a broadregion.This
is indeed the case in western Iowa, where small
streamsin the Loess Hills have had a synchronous
landscape history (Bettis and Hajic 1995; Bettis
and Thompson 1981, 1982; Thompsonand Bettis
1982). Bettis has defined a major erosional
unconformity,dating from 8000 to 3500 B.P., in
which no deposits of this time period are pre-
served within the younger and older alluvium
occupying the small (<4th order) stream valleys
in this area. Thus, a 4,500-year record of prehis-
toric humanutilizationof the small streamvalleys
of this region has been destroyed.
In summary,before interpretationsconcerning
prehistorichuman behavior between regions can
be properlyaddressed,we must know whetherthe
archaeological time period being studied is
equally preservedwithin these regions.
RECORD
495
Conclusions
In summary,the archaeologicalrecord does not
accuratelyreflect the complete patternof human
sites that once existed in a given region through
time. Geomorphic processes associated with
changing landscapes have significantly affected
the temporal and spatial archaeological sample.
From the beginning, geomorphicprocesses oper-
ate on a site after its abandonmentand determine
whether it is initially preserved or destroyed.
Subsequenterosion may remove all or part of the
evidence of preservedoccupationsat any time by
completely removing the older sediments and
soils that contain them. Consequently,because of
late Quaternarygeomorphic processes, not all
activitiesthatoccurredin a given region over time
are preserved.Thus, the completeness and nature
of the stratigraphicrecordare criticallimiting fac-
tors in the precision of archaeologicalinterpreta-
tions because reconstructions of prehistoric
human behavior, culture history, and the use of
places can be no more complete than the strati-
graphic sequence that contains the evidence. The
degree to which geological processes have
affected the archaeologicalsample varies within
and between regions and must be evaluatedon a
case-by-case basis. Meaningfulinterpretationsof
prehistorydepend on our recognizing and under-
standingthe limitationsthat geological processes
have imposed on the archaeologicalrecord.
To deal with the problems of differentialsite
preservation and make reasonable behavioral
inferences from the archaeological record,
researchersmust modify traditionalarchaeologi-
cal investigations to include geoarchaeological
studies. Geoarchaeological investigations can
establish the late Quaternary stratigraphic
sequence of any region. This is crucial to archae-
ological interpretations because the late
Quaternary stratigraphicframework to a large
extent dictates the spatial and temporal structur-
ing of the archaeologicaldatabase,and it provides
the frameworkneeded to determine which parts
of the physical record of the cultural continuum
are absent,which have potentiallybeen preserved,
and how fragmentaryare the preservedportions
of the archaeologicalrecord. These concepts are
not unique to late Quaternaryfluvial and eolian
496 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
environments,as shown here, but are true of all
geomorphic systems at any time scale. Thus, the
concepts presented in this paper are universally
applicablein archaeology.
Acknowledgments.Geoarchaeological research in Theodore
Roosevelt National Park was funded by Texas A & M
University, the National Park Service, and the University of
North Dakota. Funding for geoarchaeological research in
southern Arizona was provided by the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation,the Arizona Departmentof Transportation,and
the Wenner-GrenFoundation.Reniel Rodriquez Ramos and
Daniel Robey translated the abstract to Spanish. Becky
Jobling assisted with preparation of the manuscript and
Lynne O'Kelly drafted the illustrations. Art Bettis, Rolfe
Mandel, and two anonymous reviewers provided helpful
comments on this manuscript.
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