Automobile Engineering

Unit 2
Transmission System
Transmission System
Function: used to transmit engine torque to the driving wheels to
drive the vehicle on the road.
 Power Train (Drive Line)
 Clutch
 Gear Box
 Transfer Case
 Propeller shaft with 2 Universal Joints
 Differential
 Half axles
 Wheels / Tyres
 Clutch
The purpose of the clutch is
 To disengage and engage the engine with rest of the
transmission system.
o To disengage while changing gear ratio.
o To engage after gear shift operation.
 It can be disengaged by pressing Clutch pedal.
 It enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted to
the second shaft as and when required.
 PRINCIPLE OF CLUTCH
• It operates on the principle of friction.
• When two surfaces are brought in contact and are held against each other due to
friction between them, they can be used to transmit power.
• If one is rotated, then other also rotates.
• One surface is connected to engine and other to the transmission system of
automobile.
• Thus, clutch is nothing but a combination of two friction surfaces.
PRINCIPLE OF CLUTCH

Clutch is disengaged

Clutch is engaged
 Requirement of Clutch:
a) Transmit maximum torque of the engine.
b) Engage gradually to avoid sudden jerks.
c) Dissipate maximum amount of heat
d) Damp the vibrations and noise.
e) As small as possible.
f) Easy to operate.
g) Free pedal play
h) Trouble free and have a long service life
i) Easy to inspect, adjust and repair.
Types of clutches:
The following are the main types of clutches:
1. Friction clutches
2. Fluid fly wheel.
Friction clutches:
The Torque transmitted by a friction clutch depends upon the factors
namely Coefficient of friction (µ), Axial pressure (w) and Mean
effective Radius of contact surfaces(R).
The Torque Transmitted (T) = μwR.
Types of friction clutches:
a) cone clutch
b) Single plate clutch
c) Multi-plate clutch
d) Centrifugal clutch
e) Magnetic clutch
 Clutch Parts
 Clutch parts
• Flywheel
• Pressure plate
• Friction disc
• Release mechanism
 Clutch disc pushed against flywheel with enough force
• Disc will rotate with flywheel
Parts of the clutch assembly
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF CONE CLUTCH
• Consists of cones having friction facings
(Asbestos, leather etc.)
• Cones are known as male and female ones
• Female cone fixed to the driving shaft
• Male cone fixed to driven shaft
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF
SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH
• It is the most common type of clutch used
in motor vehicles.
• It consists of only one clutch plate ,
mounted on the spines of the clutch shaft.
• The fly wheel is mounted on the engine
crane shaft and rotates witch it.
• The pressure plate is bolted to the fly
wheel through clutch springs, and is free
to slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch
pedal is operated.
• When the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate, having friction linings on its both
sides, is gripped between the fly wheel and pressure plate.
• Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure plate revolves,
the clutch shaft which is connected to the transmission system also revolves.
• When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force
of the springs, and the clutch plate becomes free between the fly wheel and
pressure plate.
• Thus, the flywheel remains rotating as long as the engine is running and the speed
of the clutch shaft reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating.
• As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged,
otherwise it remains engaged due to the force of springs.
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF MULTIPLATE CLUTCH:
• Multi plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates. As the number of clutch
plates increased, the friction surfaces also increased.
• The increased number of friction surfaces obviously increases the capacity of the
clutch to transmit torque.
• The plates are alternately fitted to the engine shaft and gear box shaft. one set of
plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other set slides on spines on
pressure plate hub.
• They are firmly pressed by strong coil springs and assembled in a drum. Each of
the alternate plate slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other slides on
spines on the pressure plate.
• These clutches are used in heavy
commercial vehicles, racing cars
and motor cycles for transmitting
higher torque.
• Beside these clutches are used in
scooters and motor cycles where
space available is limited.
The faster the RPM, more is the force on clutch disk
Rotor:
Rotor is a major part of this clutch witch is connected
directly to the driving shaft or engine shaft. It
continuously rotate along with the driving shaft.
Winding or Coil:
Winding coil is situated behind the rotor and remains
in stationary position during clutch working. It is
shown in figure. A high voltage DC supply is
connected with this winding which transfer a high
voltage current into this winding and convert it into
electromagnet.
Armature:
Armature is situated at front of the rotor. It is Friction Plate:
connected to the hub or pressure plated with the help Friction plate is inserted between
or rivet or bolted joint. armature and rotor according to the
Hub: requirement.
Hub or pressure plate is bolted with the gear shaft or Supply unit:
driven shaft and rotates with it. It is situated after the Supply unit consist clutch switch,
armature. battery, wire etc.
The electromagnetic clutch working can be summarized into following points.

• In the initial condition the clutch is in disengage position. There is an air gap
between rotor and hub.
• First the engine starts which makes rotate the rotor connected with the engine
shaft.
• A DC battery supplies DC current into the clutch winding.
• This high voltage DC current converts this winding into an electromagnet
which attract armature towards it.
• This armature force friction plate towards the rotor and make rotate the hub.
• Thus the hub rotate and the rotor transmit 100 percent torque during engage
position.
• When the clutch switch / pedal is pressed, the battery stops the supply in
winding which remove the electromagnetic force, thus the clutch is in
disengage position.
Fluid flywheel/ fluid coupling
IMPELLER
• Power flows through fluid - torsional
vibrations from the engine , as well as
the roughness resulting from the
changing the gear ratio is smoothed out
• Slip –Lag of runner behind impeller
• Slip varies with speed and load
• Slip is maximum when vehicle is at rest and decreases with speed
• Vortex flow an Rotary flow
• Vortex flow is maximum when slip is 100 % and decreases as the runner speed
approaches impeller
• At higher speeds the centrifugal forces produced in impeller and runner are same
• Efficiency increases rapidly from zero at rest to 99 % at higher speeds
• Turbulence in the fluid
coupling
• Use of guide ring reduces
turbulence
 Gear Box
• To provide a means of varying the gear ratio between the engine and
wheels depending upon the operating conditions
• To provide a neutral position to disallow the power flow to the rest of
the power train
• To reverse the direction of rotation of the drive
• It is located between Clutch & Propeller shaft.
• It is provided with either 4 speed or 5 speed ratios or more depending
on design.
• Gear ratio is varied by Gear shift lever.
 Gear ratio : 1 : 1
Torque ratio : 1 : 1

Driven
gear
24 Driving
gear
12
Gear ratio : 2 : 1
Torque ratio : 1 : 2
 Manual transmission
Sliding Mesh Gear Box
CONSTANT MESH GEAR BOX
SYNCHROMESH GEAR BOX
 Automatic Transmission
• It is the transmission which automatically provides varying gear ratios to suit
operating conditions.
• In this case gear changes are effected automatically without manual assistance.
Main Components of Automatic Transmission System
• Torque Converter.
• Gearbox of planetary type with friction brake bands and multiple disc clutch
operated by hydraulic system.
• Hydraulic Control System This system has a source of hydraulic pressure servo
units and control valves.
Advantages
• Ease of control, i.e. it relieves the driver from fatigue due to the elimination of
clutch and gear controls.
• Smooth operation.
• Numerous numbers of gear ratios are available.
• Quick change of gear ratios effected automatically.
• Minimum interruption of power during gear shifts.
Disadvantages
• High cost.
• Complicated design.
• Possibility for oil leakage.
Torque Converter

• Most cars with automatic transmission

use a form of fluid drive known as
torque converter
• As the name implies, it converts the
torque or tuning effort of engine into
higher torque needed by cars at low
road speed.
• An increase in torque has same effect as
changing to a lower gear; so a torque
converter is also a gear reducer, acting
like an extra set of gears before engine
drive reaches gear box.
 Epicyclic Gearbox
• Epicyclic gear trains are used to get the various gear
ratios.
• At least one wheel not only rotates about its
own axis but also rotates about some other axis
• All automatic transmission us a planetary gearsetto
provide the different gear ratios.
• The planetary gear set consists of:
1. Sun gear, 2. Two or more planet gear, 3. A planet
carrier, 4. Ring gear
• Epicyclic Gearing or Planetary Gearing are as used in an automatic
transmission. An Automatic transmission will select an appropriate gear ratio
without any operator intervention.
• They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted
by fluid within the transmission assembly.
• Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or
torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission.
• It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select
reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be
possible.
Gear reduction
1st gear Reverse

• Sun gear is held stationary • Locking pinion carrier/arm

• Ring gear drives the planet carrier • Sun gear is the driving member and

2nd gear ring gear the driven

• Ring gear is locked • Here planet gears are free to rotate

• Planet carrier drives the sun gear about their own axes

Direct drive (1:1)

• Locking together the sun and planet gears
• The entire planetary set rotates as a single
unit
 OVERDRIVE
• Overdrive is a device interposed
between the transmission (gear
box) and propeller shaft to
permit the propeller shaft to turn
faster than the transmission main
shaft.
• It is so called because it provides
a speed ratio over that of the high
speed ratio.
• The overdrive permits the engine to operate only about 70 percent of the propeller
shaft speed, when the vehicle is operating in the high speed ranges.
• Overdrive is usually, employed supplementary to conventional transmission.
• It is bolted to the rear of the transmission between the transmission and propeller
shaft
• A slightly higher rear-axle gear ratio is employed with an overdrive than without
one.
 Freewheel (one-way clutch)
• A freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in a
transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the
driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than
the driveshaft.
• An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a
freewheel.
• The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its
driveshaft exists in most bicycles when the rider holds
his or her feet still, no longer pushing the pedals. In a
fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the rear
wheel would drive the pedals around.
An analogous condition exists in an automobile with a manual transmission
going downhill or any situation where the driver takes his or her foot off the
pedal, closing the throttle; the wheels want to drive the engine, possibly at a
higher RPM.
 PROPELLERSHAFT AND UNIVERSAL JOINTS
PROPELLER SHAFT

This is the shaft which transmits the drive from the gearbox to the bevel pinion or
worm of final drive which is attached to the differential. It is a driving shaft that
connects the transmission to the differential.
• It propels the vehicle forward, so called propeller shaft
• A Propeller Shaft connects a gearbox to the Differential.
• It is strong enough to handle maximum low gear torque
• It is provided with two Universal-joints to maintain constant velocity and
positioning of differential at different plane.
• It is provided with a slip joint to take care of the change in length.
• Shaft diameter and its thickness decide the torque carrying capacity and angle
of operation.
• For long transmissions split type propeller shafts with central support are used.
Universal Joint

• Universal joints are used to connect two shafts at an angle to transmit torque.
• The main shaft of transmission, propeller shaft and differential are not in one
line and hence the connection between them is made by universal joints.
The Universal joints are of three types. They are
a) Cross type (or) Spender and two yoke
b) Ball and trunion type
c) Constant Velocity type
 Ball and Trunion type Universal joint

The Ball and Trunion type Universal joint a T-shaped shaft that is enclosed in the
body of the joint. The trunion ends are each equipped with a ball mounted in needle
bearings and move freely in grooves in the outer body, in effect creating a slip
joint. This type of joint is always enclosed.
• Constant-velocity joints allow a drive shaft to transmit power through a variable
angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction or
play.
• They are mainly used in front wheel drive and many modern Rear wheel drive
cars with independent rear suspension typically use CV joints at the ends of the
rear axle half shafts, and increasingly use them on the prop shafts.
• Constant-velocity joints are protected by
a rubber boot, a CV gaiter. Cracks and
splits in the boot will allow contaminants
in, which would cause the joint to wear
quickly.
Slip joint
• Slip joint is attached to the driven yoke in order the increase or decrease the
length of propeller shaft.
• It has outside splines on the shaft and matching internal splines in a mating
hollow shaft or yoke.
• When assembled the splines cause the shafts to rotate together while they can
move back and forth. This changes the length of propeller shaft.
 Final drive
• Final drive is a part of the transmission between the propeller shaft and the
differential gear assembly.
• It consists of a combination of large sized crown wheel and a bevel pinion.
• It serves the following functions:
• Transmit the drive from propeller shaft through 900
• Enables the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds
• Reduce the drive line speed from that of engine to the drive wheels
• Final drive in case of a motorcycle is a chain and sprocket.
Types of rear axle drives:
1. Hotchkiss Drive
2. Torque Tube Drive
• Hotchkiss Drive consists of propeller shaft, two universal joints and a slip joint.
The leaf springs besides taking weight of the body, also take the torque reaction,
driving thrust and side thrust.
• The front end of the leaf spring is fixed rigidly on the frame, while the rear end is
supported in a shackle. The driving thrust is transmitted to the frame by the front
half of the springs. Due to the torque reaction the spring deflects. Thus torque
reaction is taken up by the springs. When the springs deflect, the bevel pinion
shaft also changes its position.
• If there is only one universal joint, it will bend. To avoid this, another universal
joint is used.
• Again when the rear axle moves up and down, it has to move in a circle. During
this movement of rear axle, the length of propeller shaft has to vary which is
done by slip joint.
 Hotchkiss drive

Advantages
• Torque reaction, driving thrust and side thrust are taken up by the leaf spring and
universal joints
• Varying propeller shaft length can be accommodated without any inclination
• Provides comfortable ride
 TORQUE TUBE DRIVE
• In Torque tube drive, the propeller shaft is enclosed in a hollow tube.
• The tube is rigidly bolted to the differential housing at one end and is fastened at the
other end to the transmission through a flexible joint.
• Centre line of the bevel pinion shaft always passes through the centre of the spherical
cup.
• In this drive the springs take only the side thrust besides supporting weight of the body.
• Torque reaction, Braking torque and drive thrust are taken by Torque tube.
• The tube incorporates bearing which support the propeller shaft. Only one universal
joint is necessary in this drive.
• It is usually placed between the transmission and the propeller shaft. No siding joint is
necessary.
 Axle

1. Dead axle
2. Live axle
• Dead axle, also called lazy axle, is not part of the drive train but is instead free-
rotating.
• The rear axle of a front-wheel drive car is usually a dead axle.
• Many trucks and trailers use dead axles for strictly load-bearing purposes.
• A dead axle located immediately in front of a drive axle is called a pusher axle.
• A tag axle is a dead axle situated behind a drive axle.
 Rear Axle
Function of a rear axle:
The rear axle does following two main functions.
1. Carries weight of the vehicle.
2. Rotates and transmits power from the engine to the wheels.
Classification of rear axle:
Rear axle is classified by two methods.
1. According to the making/design of axle casing
1. Split type
2. Banjo or separate carrier type
3. Salisbury or integral carrier type
2. According to the method of supporting
1. Fully Floating Axle
2. Semi Floating Axle
3. Three Quarter floating Axle
1.Split type
• In this type, the axle casing is made in two halves and then bolted together for assembly.
• This type has a major disadvantage that in case of any fault, the whole of the rear axle
has to removed as a unit and then disassembled.
• This type is no longer produced or used.
2.Banjo or separate carrier type
• This type of axle of one piece type, shaped like banjo.
• The complete differential unit is carried in a separate carrier which is bolted to the axle
casing.
• The two half shafts are put from sides.
• There fore in case of any need for repairs, the half shaft can be taken out directly from
the sides and of differential assembly removed by opening by bolts
3.Salisbury or integral carrier type
• This is similar in construction to the banjo type except that in this the carrier i.e, the
differential housing, has permanent housing tubes pressed and welded in its sides.
• According to S.A.E nomenclature, it is called the unitized carrier housing.
• This type of housing is most widely used these days in case of rear drive cars.
 Fully floating axle
• This is used in heavy vehicles
• Axle carries only driving
torque
• Vehicle weight and end thrust
aren’t carried by the axle
• Wheels and the axle casing
takes care of the vehicle weight
• Axle is relieved from all
strains due to load of vehicle
and end thrust, hence its duty
is only to transmit rotary
motion to the wheels
• Also we can remove the axle shaft without disturbing the axle hub and wheel
Semi Floating Axle

• In this type of axle, whole of the load of the

rear portion of the vehicle, the end thrust
and the driving torque is carried by the axle.
• The vehicle load is transmitted to each of
the half shafts through axle casing and the
bearings.
• The wheel hub is rigidly fixed to the outer end of the axle shaft.
• For replacement of the axle shaft, the vehicle is jacked up. The wheel, the drum
and the bearing retainer plate must be removed in order to remove the axle
shaft.
 Three Quarter floating Axle
• This design is a compromise between the
fully floating axle and the semi-floating
type.
• The bearing is carried on the axle casing,
the hub is rigidly fixed to the outer end of
the axle shaft.
• The axle shaft is not supporting any
weight but will have to withstand the end
thrusts besides transmitting the driving
torque.
• Due to the reason that three quarter floating axle has only one bearing at the
outer end, but even then it takes some bending stresses, it, therefore, is not
resembling the fully floating type.
 DIFFERENTIAL UNIT
Necessity of Differential:
• When the vehicle is taking a turn, the outer wheels will have to travel greater
distance as compared to the inner wheels in the same time.
• If therefore, the vehicle has as a solid rear axle only, there will be tendency for
the wheels to skid. Hence if the wheel skidding is to be avoided, some
mechanism should be provided in the drive axle.
• The Mechanism which reduces the speed of inner wheels and increases the speed
of outer wheels when taking turn and while running straight it keeps the speeds
of all the wheels same is known as differential mechanism.
Construction and working of Differential:
The following are the main parts of differential.
1. Differential Housing
2. Crown wheel (or) Crown pinion
3. Sun gears
4. Star or Planetary gears
5. Axle Half shafts
6. Final drive.
• The Sun gears are mounted on the inner end of each half shaft of the drive axle.
• The Crown wheel is attached in the differential cage to which the power is
transmitted from gear box through propeller shaft and final drive bevel pinion.
• When the differential unit rotates, both the sun gears rotate and thus both wheels
turn which are attached to the half shafts. Suppose one wheel is held stationary, the
gears of star pinions carry rotary motion to the outer axle causing it to rotate.
• Therefore, when one rear wheel runs more rapidly than the other, While the car
taking a turn, the star gears spin on the shaft transmitting more rotary motion to the
outer wheel. This causes faster rotating of outer wheel than the inner.
Differential Lock:
The torque transmitted by the bevel gear differential to each of the rear wheels
remains equal even when they are rotating at different speeds. Due to this reason if
one wheel in on a slippery surface, mend, lose dirt or sand the wheel on the solid
ground will not be driven while the other spins around idly. When the differential
lock is applied, the differential action is stopped and the whole torque is then
applied to the wheel which is gripping on the road.
Self Locking Differential:
A self locking differential consists of two clutches, one on each side, to lock the side
gears and axles to the differential cage, when the differential action is not desired.
The mechanism consists of four differential pinion gears mounted on two cross
shafts at right angles to each other.
When the differential cage is driven by the rear axle gears, the turning resistance
causes the cross shafts to move up the ramps and push the shafts apart. This action
forces the pinions on each shaft to bear against the side gear rings in order to apply
the clutch which locks both axle shafts and force them to turn at the same speed.
 Wheels and Tyres
• The wheels of the automobile support the total weight, resist the strains created
by turning and transmit the driving torque for propelling and braking torque for
retarding.
• The wheels must have well balanced construction particularly for running at high
speeds. Unbalanced wheel assemblies cause excessive vibration which
accelerates tyre and king-pin wear.
• Wheels must be strong enough to support the vehicle and withstand the forces
caused by normal operation.
• At the same time, they must be as light as possible, to help keep un-sprung
weight to a minimum.
• The essential parts of a wheel are the hub which is mounted on the wheel spindle
and the outer rim on which a tyre is mounted.
• The hub and the outer rim are connected by a spider made of a disc or spokes. A
brake drum is also connected to the hub. The construction of wheel varies with
different types of vehicles.
• Most wheels have ventilation holes in the flange, so air can circulate to the
brakes.
• Present day wheels are mostly of pressed steel construction. The spoked wheels
have the advantages of better air flow around brakes, slightly springy and have
sporty appearance. The disadvantages are more expensive, difficult to keep
clean, tubeless tyres can not be used on them and spokes can tend to get loose in
service.
• Alloy wheels are popular because of their appearance and because they are
lighter than similar steel wheels.
• Aluminium is a better conductor of heat, so alloy wheels can dissipate heat from
brakes and tyres more effectively than steel ones.
TYPES OF WHEELS:
The Wheels are usually of the following types
1. Pressed Steel Disc Wheels, 2. Wire Wheels ( Spoked Wheels), 3. Split Wheels,
4. Heavy Vehicle Wheels
1. Pressed steel disc wheels : This type of wheel consists of a steel rim and a pressed
steel disc. The rim is a rolled section, sometimes riveted but usually welded to the
flange of the disc. The wheel assembly in bolted to the brake drum. There is a hole
in the rim to accommodate the valve of tube. This type of wheel is most commonly
used in Heavy motor vehicles.
2. Wire Wheels : This type of wheel consists of a separate hub connected to the rim
with a number of wire spokes. The headed inner ends of spokes fit into the rim holes
and tightened with tubular nuts. All the spokes centred at the hub.
3 Split Wheel: The split wheel is made in the form of two dishes which fit back to
back and are clamped by a separate outer ring of studs and nuts.
4 Heavy Vehicle Wheels : These are of the same type of disc wheels but thicker
plates are used for making the rim.
 Disc type wheel

Alloy wheel
Wire/spoke wheel
• The tyre must be an exact fit on the rim, to fulfil a
number of functions.

• It ensures that the narrow contact area between the

beads of the tyre and the rim will seal the air in a
tubeless tyre.

• It transfers all the forces between the tyre and the

wheel, without slipping or chafing.

• It ensures the friction between the tyre and the rim

prevents the tyre turning on the rim.
RIMS:
• The outer circular portion of the wheel on which the tyre in general.
1. Drop Centre Type, 2. Flat Base Type, 3. Semi Drop Centre Type, 4. Flat Base
Divided Type
• Drop Center Rim is shaped so there is a well between the bead seat part which
is located on both sides of the rim. This well is to make the mounting and
dismounting of the tire easy. In most cases there is a taper of 5 degrees in the
bead seat area.

• The Flat Base Rim has its center portion flat. One side of the rim is removable so
that the tyre can be installed or removed without stretching the bead.
Flat base divided rims are in two sections, which are bolted together.
 Rim Size & Designation
• To ensure correct fit between a tyre and rim, all
manufacturers of wheels and tyres comply with standard
dimensions, as recommended by automotive manufactures.
• The width of the rim is the distance across the rim flanges,
at the bead seat. Its diameter is the distance across the
centre of the rim from bead seat to bead seat.
• The shape of well-based rims is provided by a letter code,
such as J, K, JJ and KK. The width of the rim and the
diameter is traditionally stated in inches.
• A rim designated 15 by 6.5 JJ would refer to a rim
measuring 6.5 inches across the rim flanges and 15 inches
in diameter from bead seat to bead seat, with the profile
conforming to a JJ code. The tyre must be an exact fit on
the rim, to fulfil a number of functions.
• Offset is important because it brings the tyre centreline into
close alignment with the larger inner hub bearing and
reduces load on the stub axle.
 WHEEL BALANCING
• The balancing of tyred wheel is essentially required to avoid front wheel
wobble which effects steering and increase tyre wear.
• Therefore it is necessary to inspect the wheel centering before wheel balancing.
The tyre must be removed to straighten the wheel rim.
• Turn the wheel rim on its axis and check the wheel inside flanges for run out in
excess of 1.5 mm.
Imbalance can be rectified in one of two ways by Static Balancing (stationary)
or Dynamic Balancing (spinning).
 Tyre
Tyre is a rubber member which gives the cushion to the automobile.
It consists of outer cover i.e. tyre proper and tube inside.
The tyre-tube assembly is mounted over the wheel rim and air inside
the tube carries entire load and provides cushion.
Tyre cross-section
Beads:
• Two rings that are made of steel wire and encased in rubber. They hold tire side
walls snugly against the rim and prevent tyre from coming off
Body Plies:
• Rubberized fabric and cords wrapped around beads. Form carcass or body of the
tyre.
Tread:
• Outer surface of the tyre that comes in contact with the road
Sidewall:
• Outer part of the tyre that extends from the bead to the tread. Marking on the
sidewall provides the information about the tyre.
Liner:
• Thin layer of rubber that is bonded to the inside of the plies. Provides a leak proof
membrane for tubeless tires.
Belts:
• Used to strengthen the body plies and stiffen the tread. Lie between tread and plies
 Functions of tyre
 The tyre acts as the primary suspension, cushioning the vehicle from
the effects of a rough surface.
 It also provides frictional contact with the road surface.
 This allows the driving wheels to move the vehicle.
 The front tyres allows the wheels to steer.
 To support the vehicle load.
 To transmit driving and braking forces to the road.
 Properties of tyres
Non-skidding

Uniform wear

Load-carrying

Cushioning

 Power consumption

Tyre noise

Balancing
 Types of tyres
1. On basis of Construction
• Conventional Tyre
• Tubeless Tyre
2. On basis of Carcass or Skelton
• Cross Ply Tyre
• Radial Ply Tyre
• Belted-Bias Tyre
 • Consists of two main parts i.e. the Carcass and
Tubed tyre the Tread.
• Carcass is the basic structure taking mainly the
various loads and consist of a number of plies
wound in a particular fashion from the cords of
rayon or any other suitable material.
• The sidewall is a protective rubber coating on the
outside of the tyre carcass and is designed to resist
cutting, abrasion, and cracking.
• To prevent the tyre from being thrown off from
the rim, the plies are attached to the two rings of
bundles of bronze coated high tension steel wire
strands insulated with rubber.
• A radial load tyre normally has one such bundle
in the lead whereas a cross ply tyre for off road use
may have two or three bundles.
Tubeless tyre
• Don’t need separate tube in luau the air
which is under immense pressure is filled in
the tyre itself for this purpose a non-return
valve is fitted to the rim.
• Based on the construction, almost similar
to tubed tyre except lined on inside with a
special air retaining liner made of
halogenated rubber like Bromo-butyl or
Chloro-butyl for better performance.
• Major difference between the tubed tyre
and the tubeless tyre lies in the bead area of
the tyre.
Advantages of tubeless tyres
Lesser unsprung weight

Better cooling

Lesser rolling resistance

Comfortable ride

Slower leakage of air

Simpler assembly

Improved safety
 Types of tyres on basis of carcass

Cross ply (or) bias ply type.

Radial ply type.

Belted bias ply type.

 Cross ply (or) bias ply type
•One of the oldest design
•Several textile plies are laid across each
other, running from bead to bead in alternate
directions
•Number of plies depends on the size of the
tyre and the load it has to carry
•Same number of plies is used on the crown
and the sidewalls
•Plies run at an angle from bead to bead
•Does not use belts
•Allows body of the tyre to flex easily
•Improved cushioning, hence smooth ride on
rough roads
Belted bias ply type
•Bias ply tyres with belts added to
increase tread stiffness.

•Belts do not run around the sidewalls,

they lay under the tread area only

•Belts and plies run at different angles

•Offers some reduction in rolling

resistance over a bias ply tire

•Provides smooth ride and good traction

 Radial ply type
• Plies run straight across from bead to bead.
• Has a very flexible sidewall and a stiff tread, giving
it a very stable footprint
• Consist of a carcass ply formed by textile arcs
running from one bead to the other.
• Each ply is laid at an angle of 90 degrees to the
direction the tyre rolling
• At the top of the tyre crown (under the tread), a belt
made up of several plies reinforced with metal wire
is laid.
• These crown plies, laid one on top of the other,
overlap at an angle determined by the type of the
tyre.
 Comparison of radial and bias-ply tyres
Advantages of radial ply tyres:-
 The side walls can be bend readily ,its shock absorbing capacity is 25% more
than bias ply or cross ply.
 Breaking efficiency on wet roads is better because of greater sidewall
flexibility and tread stiffness.
 Lower rolling resistance and hysteresis loss leads to less fuel consumption.
 Longer tread life because of less heat build in tyre.
 Smaller slip angles and higher cornering power which results in Better steering
characteristics.
 While taking turns it has less tendency to distort and lift off the road from one
side.
 Larger resistance to punctures, cuts and impacts in the tread area.
 Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning)
•Direction or speed change relies on friction between the tyres and the road surface.
•Grooves of a rubber tyre are designed to disperse water from under the tyre,
providing high friction even in wet conditions.
•Aquaplaning occurs when a tyre encounters more water than it can dissipate
•Steering appears light as if we are driving with wheels in air
•Water pressure in front of the wheel makes a wedge of water under the leading
edge of the tyre, causing it to lift from the road.
•This loss of traction causes the wheels to slip and prevents the vehicle from
responding to steering, braking or accelerating. As a result, the vehicle can go out of
control, start to skid or spin.
•Risk of aquaplaning increases with the depth of standing water
•If multiple tyres aquaplane, the vehicle loses directional control and slide until it
either collides with an obstacle, or slows down so that friction is regained.
•Tyre tread wear: Worn tyres will aquaplane more easily due to lack of tread depth.
•Tyre inflation pressure: Under inflation enhances aquaplaning
•Tyre tread aspect ratio: Longer and thinner the contact patch, less likely a tyre is of
aquaplaning. (Small diameter and wide tyres are more prone to aquaplaning)
•Vehicle weight: More weight on a properly inflated tyre increases the contact patch.
Weight can have the opposite effect if the tyre is underinflated.
•Vehicle type: Combination vehicles like semi-trailers are more likely to experience
uneven aquaplaning caused by uneven weight distribution
SOLUTION: If aquaplaning is encountered (steering feels disconnected), DO NOT brake,
accelerate, or steer the vehicle. Allow the speed to reduce on its own
 Tyre materials
For carcass:-
At the time of second world war, staple cotton was the tyre carcass
material and it was replaced with rayon.

Then nylon was introduced which is stronger, more elastic and cooler
running than rayon.

Then terylene was introduced.

For cords of stabilizer belts:-

Rayon ,Terylene ,glass fibre or steel.

Rubber :-
Rubber used in tyres is blend of natural and synthetic rubbers to which
various chemicals are added to obtain desired properties like wear
resistance ,reduced hysteresis, less internal friction.
 Considerations in tread design

Grip

Noise

wear
Tyre designation
Factors affecting tyre life

Inflation

Vehicle maintenance

Manner of driving

Miscellaneous factors
 Tyre trouble shooting
Tread cracking
Side wear of tyres
Tread or ply separation
One side wear of tyres
Loss of tyre pressure
Centre wear of tyre tread

Uneven tyre wear

Uniform rapid wear

Rapid wear with feathered edges on the tread

 Tyre Rotation

A system of rotation is used to even out tyre wear

and reduce the need for re-balancing. (a) (b)

(a) 4-wheel bias (cross-ply) tyre rotation.

(b) 5-wheel rotation (including spare).
Radial tyres must be kept on the same side of the
vehicle.
(c) 4-wheel radial tyre rotation. (c) (d)

(d) 5-wheel radials (including spare).

Tyre manufacturing