14 QC TOOLS

1
Problem solving with 14 QC Tools

Applicable (dark circle indicates more applicability)

Pareto Diagram: An Introduction
What It is?
• Developed by Vilfredo Pareto (1897), an
Italian economist
Vital few
• He observed that 80 % of Italy’s wealth lay
in the hands of 20 % of the population
• Used for prioritization by 80-20 rule.
• Differentiates ‘Vital Few’ from ‘Useful Useful Many
Many’ (Juran)
• Left vertical axis depicts the actual
frequency of items while the right vertical
axis denotes cumulative percentage
Benefits:
• Useful in establishing priorities

• Comparing Pareto charts of a given situation

over time determines whether an implemented
solution reduced the relative frequency or cost
of that problem or cause
 Comparing Pareto Charts
While comparing Pareto Charts, the left vertical axis should have the same scaling

Comparison of Pareto Diagrams Before and After Improvement

 Cause & Effect Diagram: An Introduction
Graphical Technique that can be used in teams to identify and arrange all the possible
causes of an event or problem or outcome
• Invented by Prof. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943. He first used to Effect: The kid fell…
explain at kawasaki Steel Works “How a complex set of
factors could affect the Problem”
• Designed for:
– Stimulating thinking during a brainstorm of potential causes
– Providing a structure to understand the relationships between
many possible causes of a problem
– Serving as a visual display of causes that have been studied
Special notes:
Cause: Because of the
• Make the same number of cause & effect diagram as that of
water.
characteristics.
• Error in weight and length of the same product will have
different cause & effect structures and these should be
analyzed in two separate diagrams
• Write only the characteristic and the causal factors which are measurable.
• After completing a cause & effect diagram, it is necessary to grasp the strength of the cause &
effect relationship objectively using data
Procedure for Making Cause & Effect Diagram
• Choose one quality characteristic and enclose in a box
• Write the primary causes, which affect the quality characteristic as big bones also
enclosed by squares. Main branches must be independent.
• Write the causes (secondary causes) which affect the big bones (primary causes) and
write the causes(tertiary causes) which affect the medium sized bones as small bones.
• Assign numbers to indicate the order in which the important factors seem to exert the
influence.

2
4 Hose is Faucets are
Don’t understand the Methods Labor heavy far from trees
characteristic of trees
Work done Hose is long
Wasteful watering on hot days Needs two
women

No watering Don’t understand

5 standards watering condition
Being Tired
Watering the trees
Hose has to be takes a long time
3 carried to far
Not enough Long time needed to
watering faucets connect to faucet
Can only water Faucets are not of
1 with one hose a standard type
6
Long time needed to
Low water carry
pressure Facilities
Check Sheet: Introduction
What is it?
• A tool for collecting data in a consistent form.
• Provides an easy, structured way of
recording data as it is collected
• Assures data will be recorded in similar manner

What is Check sheet used for?

• Controlling and monitoring the production process
• Analysis of cause and effect properly
• Inspection for non-conformance
• To make data-gathering easy
• To arrange data automatically so that they can be used easily
later on

Based on the purpose, customized check sheets are

designed
Check Sheet: An Example

Decide the purpose: In the example check sheet is being used for inspection
Design the Format: Based on the requirement, the fields are customized
Product name Lot number Date

Process name

Measuring Measuring Recorded by:

method instrument
Monitoring Number of defects in a Day Total
Shift A Shift B Shift C
CHATTER //// //// //// //// //// /// //// / 33

SPM ROLL MARKS //// / //// // 12

SPM PINCH MARKS //// //// //// // // 18

SPM SCRATCHES // /// 5
SPM DENTS // //// /// 10

RUBBING MARK - SPM //// 5

BLACK SPOTS NON // / 3
REMOVABLE
Total 38 37 11 86

Number inspected 2037 Percentage defects 4.3%

Histogram: An Introduction
Purpose:
Visual depiction of data, helps to infer about the
population at a glance

# of Occurrences
10

• Plots the number of times an event has

5
occurred within a range of value.
• Shows the distribution of occurrence of 0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
event Time Estimates (in seconds)

Benefits:
• The shape of the histogram shows process behavior
• The shape and size of the dispersion helps identify otherwise
hidden sources of variation
• Presence of multi-modes may give a hint about mixed processes
• Used to determine the capability of a process
• Starting point for the improvement process
 Histogram: Types & Information Provided

Normal distribution Skewed distribution Skewed distribution, no

The ideal case, if a point
has a chance to assume
any value around a target(
in absence of special
cause variation ) it will
take this shape. Most
unlikely to exist in reality.
• May be because the tail on one side
specification limit is in only on • May be because beyond
one side or process is some point the output is
controlled on one side considered as defect.
• Value lower than a certain
value does not occur. Most
commonly found

Multiple processes Comb shaped

• Existence of more than one process, Can • May be because of a particular tendency
lead to wrong conclusion needs to be stratified in the way data is rounded off.
 Scatter Diagram: An Introduction
Provides both a visual and statistical means to test the strength of relationship
between two variables
A graphical representation of relationship between two Correlation Coefficient
r = 0.702
variables. It can be between a cause and effect or
between two causes. The better the correlation, the Best
tighter the points will hug the line Fit Line

Characteristic
When to use scatter diagram:
• Once the causal relationship between the two variables is
established through cause and effect diagrams
Scatter Diagram Consideration:
• It is desirable to have at least 30 pairs of data
• Decide the horizontal & vertical scales so that the finished
diagram is approximately square Characteristic
• Scatter Diagram is used only when both, dependent & independent variables are continuous
• Scatter diagram should be jointly used with correlation coefficient, the value of correlation
coefficient (depicted by r) varies from -1 to +1.
• Correlation implies a linear relationship between two variables. For non-linear relationships r
may not give value close to 1 or – 1 even if the relationship is evident
• Extrapolation of the strength of relationship beyond given range of data is risky.
Scatter Diagram: Some Examples
Look for the outlying points, points far from main group are assumed to be the result of
errors in measurement. It is necessary to exclude such data for correlation.
n ＝ ５０ n ＝ ５０ n ＝ ５０
r ≈ 0.913 ×××
× r ≈ 0.001 × × r ≈ 0.725 ××
××
× × × ×× ×× × ×× × ××
×× ×× ××× ××× ××
× × ××
× ×××× × × ×
××× × ××××××× ×× ××
×× ×
× × ×× × ×
× ×××
××
××× × ×× ×× ×
×× × ××××××× ×
× × ×
× × × ×× × ×× × ×
×× ×× × ×× ×× ×
×× ××
××
× × × × ××
×× × ××××
×× ×
× ×× ×
(a) Strong Positive Correlation (b) No Correlation (C) Positive Correlation

n ＝ ５０ r ≈ -0.617 n ＝ ５０ ×× r ≈ -0.925 n ＝ ５０
××
×
××
× ×
×
× × ××
×
××× ×× ××
×
×
×
××× ×× ×× ×
×
××××
×
× ××
××× ××
× × ×× × ×××
× ×
××× ×××××
××
××
×× ×
× ×××× ×× × ×
× ×
× × ××× ×
×××× ××× ×
×
×× ×××
×
× ×××× × ×× ×
×××
×××
××
×× ×××××××
× ×
×
××××
× ×××××
× ×
×× × ×× × ××
×
××× ××
×
×× × × × ××
×
× × ××
(d) Negative Correlation (e) Strong Negative Correlation (f) Need Stratification
Example from “ Statistical Methods for Quality Improvement” by Hitoshi Kume
 Stratification: An Introduction
When data from a variety of sources or categories have been lumped together, it becomes
impossible to conclude meaning. Stratification is a technique that separates the data so that
patterns can be seen.
When the observed values represent two or more sub- 60
populations according to the conditions which existed at
50
the time of data collection, such sub populations are

No. of rejections
called strata, and dividing data into strata is called 40

stratification. 30
53
47
When to use stratification: 20
27 24 23 26
• When data comes from several sources or conditions 10

0
• When data analysis may require separating different sources Sup A Sup B Op 1 Op 2 Op 3 Op 4
or conditions for detailed study of the problem. Number of rejections stratified based
Stratification Consideration: on Supplier (A&B), Operator (1,2,3,4)

• Examples of different sources that might require data to be stratified:

By time: month, week, day, shift etc. By work force: operator, section etc By Machinery and
Equipment, BY Raw Materials: Supplier, previous process, lot, place of manufacture etc. By
Product: Product category, destination, special order etc., By Measurement / Inspection.
• Always consider before collecting the data whether stratification might be needed during
analysis. Plan to collect stratification information. After the data is collected it might be too late.
 Stratification: An Example
Combined data from a chemical reaction process in two vessels, A and B
Histogram (A+B)
18

16 No. of data points =

14
100
No of observations

12

10 Mean =85.05
8

6
Stdev = 1.35
4

2
Max : 87.9
0
82.0 82.5 83.0 83.5 84.0 84.5 85.0 85.5 86.0 86.5 87.0 87.5 88.0 88.5 Min : 82.7
Yield

After Stratification :Two vessels, A and B

Histogram (A) Histogram (B)
18 14
Now it is telling a
16
Average
A
84.07 12
B
Average 86.03 different story.
14

Stdev 0.805 10
Stdev 1.036
12
Vessel A and vessel
No of observations

10 Max 86.3 8 Max 87.9

8
Min 82.7 6 Min 83
B are behaving
differently, therefore
No of observations

6
4
4

2
to be dealt with
2

0 0
differently.
82.0 82.5 83.0 83.5 84.0 84.5 85.0 85.5 86.0 86.5 87.0
Yield
82.5 83.0 83.5
14
84.0 84.5 85.0 85.5

Yield
86.0 86.5 87.0 87.5 88.0 88.5
 Control Chart: An Introduction
If all important sources of variations are under control in a production process, then the slight
variations among the quality measurements usually cause no serious problems. Such a
process should produce the same distribution of quality measurements no matter when it is
sampled, thus such process is called a “controlled / stable process”

Control Chart is a tool to investigate whether a process is stable or not

History of Control Chart:
• Invented by Walter A. Shewart while working for Bell
Labs in 1920 to reduce the frequency of failures of
buried equipments in telephony transmission.
• Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays
variation, some processes display controlled variation
that is natural to the process, while others display
uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process
at all times.
• Shewhart termed the causes of controlled and
uncontrolled variations as Common and Assignable
(Special )Causes of variation.

Control chart is a powerful tool to differentiate Chance vs. Assignable causes.

Very popular in Japan and now getting15acceptance in India.
 Control Chart: Type & Example
Characteristic Value Type of Control Chart Characteristic Value Type of Control Chart

Continuous Value X bar –R Chart (Average Discrete Value pn chart (No.of Defective Units)
Value and Range)
X Chart (Measured Value) P chart (Fraction of Defective)

C Chart (Number of Defects)

U Chart (Number of Defects per

Indicate the type of control chart at the centerline position Unit)

Shows explicit values for

CL(centerline) and upper
X Bar & lower control limits
(UCL & LCL)

Criteria for Judging

the Un-control State:
1) When the points are
R outside control limits
2) 7 continuous points
increasing or decreasing
3) 7 continuous points
lying on one side of the
Sub-group number average range
For more details refer DM workbook

16
Affinity Diagram: An Introduction
Affinity Diagram is a creative process applicable to areas where finding causal
relationship is difficult
• The affinity diagram was devised by Jiro Why can’t Why can’t
Kawakita in 1960s and is sometimes referred to we make we make
XXX work? XXX work?
as the KJ Method.

• An affinity diagram is a tool / method used to

organize complex situations and identify
problems

• It gathers large amount of disorganized,

confused and intertwined verbal data (ideas,
opinion, issues etc)

• It organizes the verbal data into groups based on

natural relationship. Such information of distinct
groups help meaningful picture to emerge,
thereby making it feasible for further analysis
and to find a solution to the problem.
When to Use:
• Exploring in to unknown areas
• Unifying thinking of diverse group of people
• When facts or thoughts are not clear
Affinity Diagram: Creation
STEPS What are the issues for Suppliers not adhering to
STEP 1: Define the issue the Schedule ?
• Define the issue for discussion between relevant parties
- What are the difficulties / opportunities ? Financial Logistic Supplier Financial
- What are the critical points to overcome?
Organization Issues
on hold due Import Booking in
STEP 2: Brainstorming or Brain writing to credit issues cause Lack of procedure
• Organize the brainstorming session on the issue, problems – delay in priority from result in
collecting free opinions from all members. order goods supplier delays
shipment reaching
delayed until ware-house Supplier
STEP 3: Put them down on Post-its Buyer
• Use one Post-it per fact or idea invoices paid hasn’t agreed
captures
• The desirable total number of Post-its is about 20. Give 3 Supplier the date
incorrect
to 4 per member in a 6-member session delivers late recorded on
supplier date
due to buying
on system
STEP 4: Check the understanding of the members logistics system
problems
STEP 5: Group ideas together by affinity Part shipment
• Look for similar ideas and group them together received for No delivery
order requires date
• The maximum number of Post-its per group is about 5
full delivery specified
(excluding duplicates). You can have ones that don’t
belong to any group (loners). on order

STEP 6: Choose a title for each group

• Write the title on the Post-its above each group Affinity Diagram for “Issues of Failure for
buying
• Encircle the Post-its for loners supplier not adhering to the teams to
STEP 7: Further groupings schedule expedite
goods
Arrow Diagram: An Introduction
It is a network technique using nodes for events and arrows for activities for project
planning, scheduling and monitoring. Specially useful tool, when we want to plan the
activities of a known but a complex task or project.
Purpose:
• Shows relationships among tasks needed to 8 2
implement a plan
• Network technique using nodes for events and arrows 1 2 5
for activities
3
• Used in PERT (Program Evaluation and Review 4
Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method)
5
3 4
Advantages:
• Allows overall task to viewed and potential snags to be identified before work starts
• Leads to discovery of possible improvements
• Makes it easy to monitor progress of work
• Deals promptly with changes to plan
• Improves communication among team
Arrow Diagram: Construction
Event / Node / Junction Points: Corresponds to the events in a project and the
1 number identifies the various operations and their order
Job / Task / Operations: represents activities that require time
Dummies: represents only a relationship between operations, with no time required
Finishing
Roughing of outer outer walls
walls 4 5
Laying the
2 1
Finishing Inspection and
foundations Framing Installing fixtures interior turnover
1 2 3 6 11 12
2 4 3 2 1
Step 1: Indicate the order of Installing pipes
8 Step 4: Insert
operation. Start from left, 2 junction point
considering what precedes, what Interior wall Painting number
follows and what is in parallel operations interior walls
9 10
Electrical2 2
Step 2: Indicate the Junction wiring
Step 7: Shows
Points / events
1 7 the critical path
(path taking the
Step 3: Draw lines and arrows: Arrow Diagram for “Residential Construction” most days) with
Solid lines for operations essential a bold line and
to plans Step 5: Indicate operation names arrow
Dotted lines for dummy operations
Step 6: Indicate days required for each operation
 Matrix Data Analysis: An Introduction
This technique quantifies and arranges the data presented in a Matrix Diagram, to find
few important indicators that would give clarity to large amount of complexly interwined
information.
How to construct: An Example
Consider for example of food preference among men in different age groups for 100
food types. Overall evaluation on a scale 1 to 9 (1 indicating higher preference and 9
indicating the lower) is shown in the following table:

Group Product 1 Product 2 …… Product 100

Men There are
<15 yrs. 7.8 4.6 ………. 3.1 100(product)*5(age
group) = 500
16-20 yrs. 5.4 3.8 ………. 2.8 observations. This
21-30 yrs. 3.9 4.4 ………. 3.3
volume of data makes it
impossible to obtain a
21-40 yrs. 3.5 4.0 ………. 3.0 clear overall picture of
what the data means.
>41 yrs. 3.0 3.5 ………. 2.5

Is it possible to narrow down to a suitable set of basic indicators? The answer is yes
and this analysis is called “Principal Component Analysis”. Computer packages are
available to carry out such analysis
 Matrix Data Analysis: Usage & Examples
The final output (calculated through the software package) of the observations
is as below:
1. General food Item preferences among men contributes to 68.3 %
2. Preference affected by age, contribution is 17.6 %

Where it can be Used:

• Can be used in various fields (market surveys, new product planning, process
analysis)
• Can be when used when Matrix diagram does not give sufficient information
• Useful as Prioritization Grid

Example of the typical use:

Few years back one railways steam engine repair shop, employing more than 500
people had to close their workshop. What to do with the workmen?
Chief, Engineer suggested to convert the steam engine repair shop in to Diesel
Engine Repair Shop.
For allocation of new job, he used various parameters like age, experience, job
knowledge, physical condition, educational qualification etc. Against the
present job requirement, these aspects were compared giving due weightage
to them. He used Matrix Data Analysis method to do so.
 Matrix Diagrams: An Introduction

A graphical tool that shows the connection or correlation between ideas or issues in the form
of a table (matrix). A relationship is indicated at each intersection of rows and columns.
• Such a matrix forms the body of a “house of quality” Improv
Improve Devel
Actions Manufac op
e Work
turing New
Enviro
• Matrix diagram helps us to find out the details and strength of Goals nment
Technol
ogy
Produ
cts
various aspects of a problem, which in turn will help to work Cost
out the strategies for solving them. Effective 
ness

High
• There are a number of different shapes of matrix for Quality

comparing more than the basic two lists. There are Six Sharehol
der 
different shaped matrices possible: L, T, Y, X, C and roof- Value

shaped, depending on how many groups must be compared.

Close Intermediate Distant

Matrix Type Group Mapping Relation

L-Shaped 2 Groups A-->B (or A-->A)
T-Shaped 3 Groups A-->C but not B-->C
Y -Shaped 3 Groups A<-->B<-->C<-->A
C-Shaped 3 Groups All three simultaneously (3-D)
X-Shaped 4 Groups A<-->B<-->C<-->D<-->A but not A<-->C or B<-->D
Roof-Shaped 1 Groups A<-->A when also A<-->B in L or T
 Matrix Diagrams: Construction
• Choose the type of matrix diagram based on the number of groups.
• Decide which group is to go on which axis.
• Indicate the closeness of the relationship.
Close Intermediate Distant

Bead Tread Curing Problems Defects Tyre Type

Defect Defect defect

Truck Tyre Lack Trapp Compou Truck Passe Scoot

of ed air nd tyre nger er tyre
L.T Tyre stock problem tyre
Tread
Scooter separation
Tyre
Chipped tread
L Type matrix Diagram – to
establish relationship between Lumpy tread
2 groups (type of tyre and
defect ) T Type matrix Diagram – to establish the relationship
between 3 groups (type of tyre, defect and problem)

When to use Matrix Diagram: Some Examples

• To establish strategies to find out market view on product mix.
• To analyze nonconformance in manufacturing process.
• To show the relations between required quality level and control functions established.
• To prioritize among the many tasks given by comparison.
Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC): An Introduction
The Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) is a method to overcome problems when
a goal to be achieved is not familiar. With the help of PDPC we can map out all the
conceivable events or contingencies that can occur in the implementation stage and find
out feasible countermeasures to overcome

• Implementation plans do not always Udaipur

progress as anticipated. When problems, Sholapur Pune Mumbai Baroda Am’bad Jaipur
technical or otherwise, arise, solutions are
frequently not apparent.
Indore Gwalior Agra
S Hyd’bad Nasik D
•The PDPC method, in response to these k
Delhi
inds of problems, anticipates possible outc Nagpur
omes and prepares countermeasures Kota
that will lead to the best possible solutions.
Warangal Bhopal Ujjain
Few Cases where PDPC Can be Used Planning Rally’s for VVIPs

• Process wherein a failure or problem could be very serious.

• A project wherein the implementation processes is very complex and complicated.
• Tasks which are altogether new or unique.
• When a new plan or policy has to be implemented
Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC): Construction
Step1: Decide on starting and finishing Step2: Prepare a work plan (Show
points, show the starting point by a
Reduce Downtime
items to be implemented by boxes)
bold rounded box
Establish standards for Reduce number of
Operator blows away tailings with
method for applying operations while
compressed air while running drill
paste and their amount work is clamped

Operation is Operator Leave

Operator cannot No place to add
more cannot look tailings in
look after a spring
dangerous after multiple the hole
multiple units
units

Use a blow Use vacuum Use nozzle X

for suction Use a paste Step3: Show results of implementing
nozzle for suction
pickup gum an item and situations requiring a
pick up
decision by rounded box

Costs too Vacuum tank Operator can’t Takes too Step 4: Write out working procedures
much is too small look after much time in anticipation of changes in the
multiple units situation

Change from paste

X X Use a blower nozzle to cutting fluid
Step 6: Indicate completion
of the plan
• Connect the paths that are
Countermeasure1 Countermeasure2 planned with arrows
Step 5: Update as the situation
develops (constantly enhance the •Connect paths that have
Plan) When the results reached, is been implemented with bold
undesirable, terminate the path Downtime cut to half arrows

PDPC for “Reducing machine downtime

Relation Diagram: An Introduction
Relation Diagram to clarify complex problem by logical relation

Purpose Tertiary
Cause
Tertiary
Cause

Is a tool for finding solution to problems that have complex

Secondary


Primary Cause Cause

causal relationship. Primary Cause Tertiary

It helps to untangle and find the logical relations among the

Cause

 Secondary
Cause
Why doesn’t

intertwined causes and effects.

X happen?
Secondary
Cause

 It is different from cause and effect diagram in terms of Primary Cause

applicability. Cause and effect is applicable when we are

Primary Cause

dealing with the problems which are familiar but in

6th level
Cause
Secondary
Cause

relationship diagram, we carry out the process first,

Tertiary
Cause
Tertiary
Cause
Secondary
Cause

through which major causes are identified later. 4th level

Cause
4th level
Cause 5th level
Cause

When to use?
 When we are probing in to unknown area.
 When multiple agencies are involved in the issue.
 Applicable to issues such as
a. Finalizing means to policy items
b. Introducing new products since many time market share does not depend on
customer’s preference alone
c. Solving complicated chronic problems in the organization
Relation Diagram: Construction
Employee do not
No full course
No home hustle
meals No care is taken
delivery
with the menu No one to receive
customers
Customer’s are
Manu lack
Why don’t kept waiting
variety Atmosphere
more customers lacks animation
come?

Signboard Customer’s not

Lettering on poorly positioned Greeted properly No
Signboard decoration
signboard too not noticed
small No
advertising
Exterior Building is Premise
décor is odd Signboard not not easily
subdued Easily noticed noticed

Step 1: Decide what the problem is?
Step 2: Clarify assumed pre-conditions for eg. in
this case assumed pre-conditions are a) Taste is
not bad b) Prices are average c) Location is
good etc
Step 3: Set forth the causes of the problem
Step 4: Show cause-effect relationship with
arrows and narrow down to important
factors by enclosing in a box
Step 5: Draw paths showing strong causal
relationships between important factors and
the problem using bold arrows
Step 6: Summarize the results
 Tree / System Diagrams: An Introduction

Logical Process Creative Process

Tree Diagram is used to search systematically for the best way to achieve objectives. It is
widely used in Tata Steel in Policy Means Formulation & Organization Structure Depiction
4th means
3rd means 4th means
Secondary means 3rd means 4th means
To accomplish 4th means
Primary means 3rd means
certain objectives 3rd means 4th means
Secondary means 4th means
4th means

Purpose:
• A technique for mapping out full range of paths and tasks that need to be done
in order to achieve a primary goal and related sub goals
• Useful where linear logic is to be used for eg. Making family tree, organization
structure etc

Tree diagram takes key issues of affinity diagram and relations diagram and helps
to break them down in to lowest practical level of details possible.
 Tree / System Diagrams: Construction
• Set basic objective
• Think of first level means of achieving objective (primary mean)
• Take each primary mean, write objective for achieving it (secondary mean)
• Continue to expand to the level, maintaining the relationship between objectives and
means, till the means become actionable
Institute dry days
Cut down on drinking Change to small bottles
Change life style Turn TV off at 10 PM
Go to bed early
Cut down on partying

Don’t skip breakfast

Set regular mealtimes
How can I Give up snacks
maintain my Change diet Eat more vegetables
correct weight Reduce caloric intake
Avoid sugar in coffee
Don’t take lift
Get more exercise Walk outdoors at
noon hours
Increase activity
Set time aside to Start going to gym
exercise Get up early and jog