Brown_sne_ch12.

qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 177


CHAPTER TWELVE

Reasons African American

Men Persist to Degree
Completion in Institutions
of Higher Education

JOHN P. HAMILTON

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of African Ameri-
can men who persisted to baccalaureate degree completion in 4-year colleges
and universities. A further purpose of this study was to identify any noncog-
nitive variables that had a significant impact on these African American men.
This study used qualitative research to discover the reasons African American
men persist to degree completion at institutions of higher learning. The
research design used for this study was descriptive. The population selected
for this study was African American men who graduated from 4-year univer-
sities in Southern California with an undergraduate degree in May/June
2004. In this study, 12 African American men revealed the noncognitive vari-
ables (availability of a strong support person, academic adjustment, attach-
ment to college, personal emotional adjustment, and social adjustment) that
were instrumental in assisting them toward degree completion. These young
men also made recommendations to help other African American men to suc-
ceed in college.
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 178

178 JOHN P. HAMILTON

Introduction
Malcolm X (1970) once compared education to a passport. He stated that,
“Education is our passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who
prepare for it today” (p. 43). The metaphor implies that education allows a
person to travel beyond his or her own environment and perceptions.
Indeed, education can increase one’s knowledge on a wide range of specific
topics, and it offers a variety of worldview lenses that can open one’s mind to
personal and social improvement. In addition, education can provide employ-
ment opportunities and improve one’s economic status:
Education and work are the levers to uplift a people. Work alone will not do it
unless inspired by the right ideals and guided by intelligence. Education must
not simply teach work—it must teach Life. The Talented Tenth of [African
Americans] must be made leaders of thought and missionaries of culture.
(DuBois, 1903, p. 75)

DuBois’ (1903) statement on education depicts the challenge of educational

institutions to produce leaders, more specifically African American leaders
who will become the “Talented Tenth.” “W. E. B. DuBois envisioned that
the 10% of Black Americans who acquired the skills and/or education that
enabled [Black Americans] to succeed in the larger society would eventually
‘come home’ and use [Black American] tools and talents to build a bridge
between the Black ‘haves’ and the Black ‘have-nots’ ” (Thomas, 2000, p. 1).
The “Talented Tenth” concept for African Americans promotes the idea that
education can be readily transformed into freedom and equality. However,
this concept of education as a panacea seems almost unattainable when one
examines the education history of African Americans.
African Americans have not always been afforded equal access to educa-
tion in America. The disparate initial education experiences of African Amer-
icans have been difficult to surmount, despite a rich cultural history of being
the first to write, study the stars, and provide unsolvable equations that
yielded architectural wonders (Welsing, 1990; Williams, 1992; Van Sertima,
2003). In America, African Americans were forbidden to read and write dur-
ing slavery. After the Civil War, only 10% of the adult African American pop-
ulation had basic education (Patton, 1981). African Americans continued to
be subjected to unequal schools, even after the Brown v. Board of Education
decision required otherwise. According to Oliver (1989), “The American
educational system has played a major role in perpetuating negative images of
[African Americans] by portraying them as descendants of savages and people
who have failed to make significant contributions to America or world civi-
lization” (p. 18).
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 179

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 179

Today, African Americans still lag in education. Moreover, the education

of African American males has become its own major issue with regard to
their disproportionate representation in special education programs, high
rates of suspension and expulsion, and high dropout rates. Patton (1981) is
critical when describing the state of African American males in education. He
believes:

Several devices are widely used to relegate [African American men] to low status
positions in the educational system. Norm-referenced tests, other assessment
devices, and labeling/tracking tactics. . . . In spite of the negative impact of the
educational system on the collective [African American man], he has survived.
(p. 200)

African American men continue to endure, although there have been sta-
tistical studies that cast their experience in a negative light. Due to alarming
statistics related to homelessness, violence, homicide, suicide, incarceration,
and dropping out of school, African American men are often called an
“endangered species.”
An endangered species is “a class of individuals having common attrib-
utes and designated by a common name [that is] in danger or peril of prob-
able harm or loss. This description applies in a metaphorical sense, to the
current status of young [African American men] in contemporary American
society” (Gibbs, 1988, p. 1). This definition describes the state of African
American males, not only in society, but also in the American education sys-
tem, especially colleges and universities.
Studies have shown racial and gender disparities in education with regard
to African American males (Woodson, 1993; Jones & Jackson, 2003). Some
of these studies uncovered “tremendous racial disparities in levels of educa-
tional performance, educational attainment, college enrollment, and college
graduation rates between Blacks and Whites” (Jones & Jackson, 2003, p.
72). These studies paint a grim picture of what African American males lack.
For example, the Center for the Study of Social Policy (1995) conducted
a national study focusing on students age 10–19 who were two or more
grades behind in school (Table 12.1).
These data provided evidence that African American males lagged behind
African American females and Whites from elementary school to their first
year of college. A closer evaluation of the study revealed that African Ameri-
can male percentages increased in each age group, widening the education
attainment gap between African American males as it relates to African Amer-
ican females, White males, and White females.
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 180

180 JOHN P. HAMILTON

Table 12.1 Percentage of Students Two or More Grades Behind in School by Race
and Gender

Academia is overwhelmed with studies that indicate the plight or absence

of African American men in higher education (Gibbs, 1988; Morgan, 1996;
Wilson, 2000). Many African American men are not persisting to degree
completion in 4-year institutions. African American men face various simul-
taneous risk factors that may prohibit them from continuing and completing
their education. These risk factors are “delayed enrollment, part-time enroll-
ment status, self-dependent for college financing, having children or other
dependents, being a single parent, lacking a high school diploma, and being
employed full-time while attending college” (Wei & Horn, 2002, p. 25).
Additional studies by J. Levin and M. Levin (1991), Parker (1998), and
McNairy (1996) suggest lack of financial aid, leadership, support, mentors,
and campus involvement as factors that often prohibit minority students
(especially African American men) from succeeding in college.
In higher education, African American males have not reached the aca-
demic success of Whites, other ethnic groups, and their African American
female counterparts. National Center for Education Statistics (1997) notes
that among African American students, African American men face more
obstacles than African American women entering college and, even when
enrolled, have a long history of earning fewer degrees at all levels than
African American women.
According to Harvey (2002), college participation rate among African
American females has increased by 4 percentage points, to 43.9%, while the
rate for African American males has declined by 5 percentage points, to
33.8%. The participation and graduation rates of African American men are
deteriorating at a disproportional rate when compared to their African Amer-
ican female counterparts, Whites, and other ethnic groups (Harris, 1996;
Morgan, 1996; Harper & Wolley, 2002).
Kunjufu (2001) believes that African American male students are in a cri-
sis. He postulates that this crisis is related but not limited to the lack of
African American male role models, absence of support systems, and low self-
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 181

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 181

esteem among African American male students. He also believes that with
certain added factors (strong family background, less negative peer pressure,
higher teacher expectations), African American males can excel.

Problem Statement
More needs to be known about the successes of African Americans in educa-
tion, especially African American males. Majors and Billson (1992) argue that
many African American males are successful; however, not enough of these
success stories are studied. Academic success can be measured by a variety of
factors: grades, class rank, and degree completion. However, using noncog-
nitive variables as a predictor of students’ academic success provides an over-
all interpretation of students’ success factors.
Schwartz and Washington (2002) view noncognitive variables as being
influential in predicting academic success. Noncognitive variables tend to
measure a student’s success in forms other than grade point average (GPA),
Student Assessment Test (SAT) or American College Admissions Test (ACT)
scores, and high school rank (all of which are considered cognitive variables).
Three noncognitive variables—academic self-concept, integration to a cam-
pus, and commitment to gaining education—are listed by Schwartz and
Washington as influential factors for predicting academic success in general.
Schwartz and Washington (2002) identified several other noncognitive
variables as predictors of academic performance for college students. These
variables are not only good indicators for academic performance, but are also
indicators of what factors assist students in persisting to degree completion.
Notable among these noncognitive variables are:

• Availability of a strong support person

• Academic adjustment
• Attachment to college
• Personal emotional adjustment
• Social adjustment

These variables also serve as predictors of the success of African American

men. The problem is that literature and research have failed to include the
experiences of successful African American men to couple with the qualita-
tively derived predictors. What lived experiences lead African American male
students to persist in higher education and develop the skills to earn a college
degree?
Little research identifies the reasons African American men persist and
graduate from college. Moreover, the current research fails to thoroughly ask
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 182

182 JOHN P. HAMILTON

questions of those African American male students who successfully graduate

from college. What lived experiences enable African American men to suc-
ceed? How do these successful African American men defeat the odds that
much research indicates are overwhelmingly against them?

Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of African Ameri-
can men who persisted to baccalaureate degree completion in 4-year colleges
and universities. A further purpose of this study was to identify noncognitive
variables that have had a significant impact on these African American men.

Research Questions
The following questions guided the study:

1. What campus services contribute to the persistence of African Amer-

ican men to degree completion?
2. What experiences are dominant factors in degree completion?
3. What challenges are key to degree completion?
4. What role did the university play in facilitating degree completion?
5. What noncognitive variables have a significant impact on African
American men graduating from college?
6. What role (if any) did elementary school, middle school, or high
school play in the persistence of African American men to attain bac-
calaureate degrees?

Significance of the Study

Numerous studies have demonstrated the negative and often bleak chances
for African American men to succeed. “The African American male has even
been described as an ‘endangered species,’ and the successful African Ameri-
can male is viewed as something of an anomaly” (Wilson, 2000, p. 176). The
lack of evidence to indicate that African American men succeed in college
makes the case that more research needs to be developed to give the aca-
demic community data about the factors that contribute to the success of
African American men in college (i.e., their attainment of college degrees).
In addition, studies of African Americans in higher education, such as
those by Roach (2001), continue to demonstrate the widening gap in the
degree completion of African American males compared to that of African
American females. “Black women are scoring big gains in education, partic-
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 183

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 183

ularly at the college level; the progress for Black men has either stagnated or
increased slightly from year to year over the past decade” (p. 19). Providing
research that places the successes of African American men in college under a
microscope will offer colleges and universities strategies to meet the chal-
lenges facing a diverse campus and society. Moreover, a blueprint of success
can be developed for other college-bound African American male students.
The use of this blueprint will not only facilitate greater success on college
campuses, but African American males will also have the opportunity to be
more successful in their families, communities, employment, and society,
where statistics for them are not favorable.

Overview of African Americans and African American males

In the first part of this study, the researcher provided an overview of what
African Americans, especially African American men, have encountered in
American society. African American men and women have made some
tremendous gains from a historical perspective. However, both groups tend
to be featured prominently in an abundance of literature that supports nega-
tive perceptions.
Why is this so for African Americans, or more specifically, African Amer-
ican men? In general, African American men have been overrepresented in lit-
erature that espouses a “deficit” perspective. This deficit perspective focuses
on the group’s weaknesses and societal barriers. For this reason, scholars who
have used a deficit perspective have guided the majority of literature and
studies to examine the negative aspects of African American men’s experi-
ences, rather than the successes. Categories such as homelessness, violence,
homicide, suicide, incarceration, and dropping out of school tend to flood
the literature. Representation of African American men in research that pro-
vides anecdotes of success and perseverance are scarce.
In the field of educational research, “Very little work . . . has focused on
the role of gender in the higher education experience of Black students and
specially how gender informs the experiences of African American males on
campus” (Davis, 1999, p. 136). When studies do address gender-specific
experiences in education, often women’s participation and outcomes are ana-
lyzed. Rarely are the experiences of males considered. Davis argues that gen-
der has played a vital role in the social and academic experiences of African
American males. However, many of these experiences are not documented.

Historical Overview of African Americans in Education

Kunjufu (2001) states that the omission of African and African American
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 184

184 JOHN P. HAMILTON

achievements and others has affected the psyche of African American stu-
dents, because they are unable to establish their culture’s contributions to
society. African American students are unable to use these omitted cultural
contributions as a catalyst to learn. The distorted curriculum creates a
dynamic that suppresses African American students’ school performance,
retention, and persistence from elementary to college completion.
When discussing the education of African Americans with emphasis on
African American males, Kunjufu (2001) identified African American males as
being in a state of emergency. This emergency stems from the negative sta-
tistics that have categorized African American males, stereotyping them from
conception to adulthood. He argues that these statistics, stereotypes, and
expectations of society, especially from teachers, contribute to African Amer-
ican males’ dismal plight.
In higher education, African American students have been critically eval-
uated for some time. Steele (1999) believes this preoccupation and fascina-
tion with African American students and their education is more than a
matter of drawing upon statistics about college students. Steele suggests that
evaluating the failures or successes of African American students dictates
whether America has been successful in integrating African Americans into
the educational system since the Civil Rights Act. “Nonetheless, throughout
the 1990s the national college-dropout rate for African-Americans has been
20 to 25 percent higher than that for whites. Among those who finish col-
lege, the grade-point average of black students is two thirds of a grade below
that of whites” (p. 45).
In addition, studies of African Americans in higher education, such as
those by Roach (2001), continue to demonstrate the widening gap between
the degree completion of African American males compared to that of
African American women. “Black women are scoring big gains in education,
particularly at the college level; the progress for Black men has either stag-
nated or increased slightly from year to year over the past decade” (p. 19).
The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education’s spring 2003 issue provided
recent statistics that African American women have earned 58% of bachelor’s
degrees awarded to African Americans in the United States. African American
women also earned 63% of master’s degrees and 66% of doctoral degrees
awarded to African Americans.
Roach (2001) questions: Where are the African American men on cam-
pus? African American men are visible when being discussed in the athletic
arena. African American men are also mentioned when they are not perform-
ing well academically. But where are the African American men who are
doing well and will graduate from a 4-year institution? Limited literature has
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 185

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 185

attempted to answer this question by offering quantitative and qualitative

studies about successful African American students and what African Ameri-
cans need to be successful on college campuses.

African American Men in Higher Education

Due to the overwhelming amount of literature that permeates academia and
pop culture concerning African American males, there is some literature that
defends African American males, especially in higher education. Some studies
reveal that successful African American males in higher education (those who
persist to degree completion) are not an anomaly (Harris & Duhon, 1999).
Moreover, African American male students have shared their experiences to
uncover their struggles toward degree completion. Davis’s (1999) study
reveals some illuminating findings about the challenges facing African Amer-
ican male students. He discovered, “They struggle to become socially inte-
grated in a community of peers who are supportive but often confining; they
struggle to overcome academic hurdles created by inadequate precollege
preparation; and they struggle against hostile schooling environments that
marginalize their presence on campus” (p. 135). The African American males
in this study overcame these challenges and emerged with lessons learned
about life, character, persistence, and survival—and a college degree.
Harris (1996) agrees that African American males face many problems.
He further declares that African American males must reframe the issues
affecting them in colleges and universities. According to Harris, reframing
the issues consists of moving from a “deficient ‘blame-the-victim’ model” to
one of success (p. 92). In order for African American men to reframe higher
education issues that are overtly and covertly tainted with racism, they must
have the opportunity to view themselves as successful. Harris (1996) has
been involved in an ongoing study that examines successful African American
men in higher education. Three ideas have emerged from his study of suc-
cessful African American men:

Those males who defined themselves as successful could clearly articulate a per-
sonal concept of success. The frame from which these young men viewed their
lives was clearly not the frame of an endangered species. It was a frame of suc-
cess. Secondly, those young men who defined themselves as successful were espe-
cially adept at networking. Finally, the successful respondents in this research
project all had a keen sense of balance. (p. 92)

This study is one of very few that seek to provide colleges and universities a
model for success. African American men are successful in college. That is,
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 186

186 JOHN P. HAMILTON

they are able to overcome challenges and persist to degree completion.

Many scholars challenge the plight of African American males in college
(Wilson, 2000; Hall & Rowan, 2001). They believe that the successes of
African American male students are more than an anomaly. Hall and Rowan
(2001) contend that, despite the barriers African American males face, they
are succeeding in higher education. More importantly, the Hall and Rowan
study of African American males suggests that institutions of higher educa-
tion are failing this group.
According to Hall and Rowan (2001), institutions of higher education
are not providing an environment conducive to the learning of African Amer-
ican males. These institutions are not culturally relevant, which creates a hos-
tile environment. Universities also lag in addressing the human needs of
African American males. Furthermore, Hall and Rowan argue that to remedy
higher education institutions’ culturally irrelevant environments and lack of
personal development of African American males, policies need to be
designed or redesigned to accommodate them. Not only should policies be
designed or redesigned, but African American males must also be a part of
the decision-making process in order to implement these policies in a demo-
cratic manner. “Any strategies and programs that flow from policies that
accommodate African-American males will gain momentum from the demo-
cratic process” (p. 13).

Noncognitive Variables
Traditionally, students’ success, retention, and persistence have been meas-
ured by evaluating variables related to students’ academic achievement or
performance as predictors of graduation. These types of variables are com-
monly known as cognitive variables. Cognitive variables include students’
grades, GPA, SAT and ACT scores, and class rank (Schwartz & Washington,
2002). “However, there is considerable controversy about the utility of stan-
dardized test scores. It appears that standardized scores may be predictive for
minority students but only when used with other cognitive measures such as
high school grades and rank” (p. 358). Due to this controversy, the need to
broaden the scope of measurement from a traditional to a nontraditional
approach is becoming a reality (Sedlacek, 2004).
Nontraditional approaches use noncognitive variables to examine stu-
dents as more than statistics. Influential in predicting academic success,
noncognitive variables are those that tend to measure students’ success in
forms other than GPA, SAT and ACT scores, or high school rank (cognitive
variables). Schwartz and Washington (2002) have recognized the following
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 187

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 187

three noncognitive variables as being influential in predicting academic suc-

cess: academic self-concept, integration to a campus, and commitment to
gaining education.
In their research, Schwartz and Washington (2002) also identified spe-
cific noncognitive variables as predictors of academic performance for college
students. These variables are not only good indicators for academic perform-
ance, but also indicators of what factors assist students in persistence to
degree completion. More importantly, “Noncognitive variables have been
successful in improving predictions about both academic performance and
retention of African American students” (p. 358). Notable among the
noncognitive variables identified by Schwartz and Washington are:

• Availability of a strong support person

• Academic adjustment
• Attachment to college
• Personal emotional adjustment
• Social adjustment

These variables are also predictors of success for African American men in
general.
Sedlacek (2004) defined noncognitive variables as those that are unpre-
dictable but represent the lived experiences of nontraditional students. These
variables are predictive in assessing students’ motivations and perceptions.
Cognitive variables, on the other hand, are used to understand students from
a quantitative perspective. This understanding is achieved through
standardized-test results and grades.
Sedlacek (2004) identifies eight variables that are useful in assessment of
students of color, especially African Americans. These eight variables—posi-
tive self-concept, realistic self-appraisal, successfully handling the system
(racism), preference for long-term goals, availability of a strong support per-
son, leadership experience, community involvement, knowledge acquired in a
field—provide a unique guide when analyzed as factors for retention and
persistence.
Whether these noncognitive variables provide any type of motivation,
assist with adjustment, or improve students’ perceptions is determined using
various forms of measurement. Sedlacek (2004) used questionnaires, short-
answer questions, portfolios, essays, and application reviews. “Noncognitive
variables have been found effective in predicting student success in higher
education and employed by many institutions in their admissions and reten-
tion programs” (p. 67).
Additionally, Sedlacek (2004) presents a case study in which St. John
Fisher College implemented a NonCognitive Questionnaire (NCQ) to use
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 188

188 JOHN P. HAMILTON

as a predictor to measure students’ success at the college. It was also used to

determine which students would participate in a special educational develop-
ment program. Counselors individually evaluated the students with high
NCQ scores. According to the needs assessed from the scores, counselors
provided assistance in tutoring, study skills, and campus adjustment, as well
as financial and general support. “Results of the studies at St. John Fisher
showed that the number of students of color increased, and that students in
the special program did particularly well in school” (p. 73). When some or all
of these noncognitive variables are examined in reference to African Ameri-
cans, especially African American male students, these variables become cru-
cial to understanding the retention and persistence of African American males
in higher education.

Methodology: Qualitative Research

This study used qualitative research to discover the reasons African American
men persist to degree completion at institutions of higher learning. “Quali-
tative research . . . is a broad approach to the study of social phenomena; its
various genres are naturalistic and interpretive, and they draw on multiple
methods of inquiry” (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 2). Qualitative research
provided the researcher an opportunity to explore the social interactions of
African American men from various college campuses. The ability to draw
upon these social interactions made the lived experiences of the participants
available to help connect and develop themes surrounding the research ques-
tions. Rossman and Rallis (1998) identify four characteristics of qualitative
research and researchers. Qualitative research is (1) naturalistic, (2) interpre-
tive, (3) emergent and evolving, and (4) draws on multiple methods that
respect the humanity of the participants. Gay and Airasian (2003) character-
ize qualitative research as being “exceptionally suited for exploration, for
beginning to understand a group or phenomenon” (p. 163).
The research design used for this study was descriptive. A descriptive
study determines and reports the way things are through collection of data
and answers to questions that concern the current subject of the study (Gay
& Airasian, 2003). Isaac and Michael (1995) state, “The purpose of descrip-
tive research is to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a
given population or area of interest, factually and accurately” (p. 50).
Descriptive research does not aim to prove or disprove hypotheses or make
predictions.
Descriptive research often uses surveys, questionnaires, and/or inter-
views to obtain the data needed. Isaac and Michael (1995) outline four cir-
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 189

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 189

cumstances in which surveys, questionnaires, and interviews should be used:

1. To collect detailed, factual information that describes existing

phenomena.
2. To identify problems or justify current conditions and practices.
3. To make comparisons and evaluations.
4. To determine what others are doing with similar problems or situa-
tions and benefit from their experience in making future plans and
decisions. (p. 50)

Surveys or questionnaires are used to gauge the perceptions of a group

toward a specific phenomenon. In the qualitative research design of this
study, interviews allowed theories, themes, and assumptions to emerge from
the data.
Aligned with the qualitative approach is grounded theory. “Grounded
theory aims at deriving theory from the analysis of multiple stages of data
collection and interpretation” (Gay & Airasian, 2003, p. 17). Grounded the-
ory tends to involve inductive rather than deductive reasoning to ascertain
theories. The method of obtaining data for this study was through grounded
theory. Strauss and Corbin (1998) emphasize that grounded theory in qual-
itative research “can refer to research about persons’ lives, stories, behavior,
but also about organizational function, social movements, or interactional
relationships” (p. 17). In other words, the purpose of grounded theory in
descriptive research is to build theory related to complex social phenomena
and allow for theory development in an area where research is sparse.
The population selected for this study was African American men who
graduated in May/June 2004 from 4-year universities in Southern California
with an undergraduate degree. Due to the large number of colleges and uni-
versities in Southern California, the researcher elected to focus the study on
African American men who graduated from two universities in the California
State University (CSU) system; one university in the University of California
(UC) system; and one small, private Jesuit University.
The California State University system is composed of 23 campuses
throughout California. Student enrollment for the entire CSU system was
409,000 as of fall 2003. CSU employs approximately 44,000 faculty and
staff. The CSU system operates on a semester calendar, with the exception of
one campus that operates on a quarterly calendar. The CSU system awards
more than half of the bachelor’s degrees and a third of the master’s degrees
granted in California.
The University of California system was chartered in 1868, and there are
10 campuses within this system. Student enrollment for the entire UC system
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 190

190 JOHN P. HAMILTON

was 201,000 students as of fall 2003, and the UC system employs approxi-
mately 160,000 faculty and staff. The UC system operates on a quarterly cal-
endar. It has a $14 billion budget, which includes 10 campuses, five medical
and teaching hospitals, three law schools, and a statewide Division of Agri-
culture and Natural Resources.
Founded in 1911, the private Jesuit University is the largest Catholic uni-
versity in Southern California. Total student undergraduate enrollment for
the university is over 5,000 and there are 3,000 graduate and law school stu-
dents. Jesuit University employs approximately 1,148 faculty and staff. The
university operates on a semester calendar, and its budget is $150 million.
The Jesuit University includes four colleges (Liberal Arts, College of Business
Administration, College of Communication and Fine Arts, and College of
Science and Engineering), as well as the School of Education, School of Film
and Television, Graduate Division, Extensions, and Law School.
The sample of African American males for these schools was as follows:

1. The two universities in the CSU system had a combined total under-
graduate enrollment of 36,354; African American undergraduate
enrollment of 4,005; and African American male enrollment of
1.165.
2. The one university in the University of California system had a total
undergraduate enrollment of 25,715; African American enrollment
of 895; and African American male enrollment of 332.
3. The private Jesuit University had a total undergraduate enrollment of
5,456; African American undergraduate enrollment of 368; and
African American male enrollment of 112.

Purposive sampling was used to identify and determine the experiences of

12 African American men who persisted to baccalaureate degree completion
at the universities listed above. “In purposive sampling . . . the researcher
selects a sample based on his experience and knowledge of the group to be
sampled” (Gay & Airasian, 2003, p. 115). Participants were also selected
based on the researcher’s ability to choose individuals who would be inform-
ative and who had some experience related to the research topic.
Two forms of instrumentation were used in this study: the NCQ (Sed-
lacek, 2004) and interviews. The NCQ was developed by Tracey and Sed-
lacek (1987). The NCQ contains 36 items and measures eight noncognitive
variables. These variables are: (1) positive self-concept, (2) realistic self-
appraisal, (3) demonstrated community service, (4) knowledge acquired in a
field, (5) successful leadership experience, (6) long-range goals, (7) ability to
understand and cope with racism, and (8) availability of a strong support per-
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 191

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 191

son/system. Tracey and Sedlacek found this “specific set of noncognitive

[variables] related to grade point average and persistence, especially for
minority students” (p. 3).

Findings
Since the researcher used two instruments to determine the reasons African
American males persist to degree completion in higher education, he sepa-
rated his findings for each. Findings for the NCQ and interviews were as
follows:

Noncognitive Questionnaire
1. The participants strongly agreed that they possessed positive self-
concept or confidence.
2. The participants strongly agreed that they gave themselves realistic
self-appraisal.
3. The participants agreed that they understood and dealt with racism.
4. The participants were neutral when determining long-range goals.
5. The participants strongly agreed upon the availability of a strong sup-
port person.
6. The participants agreed that they had a successful leadership
experience.
7. The participants were neutral in relation to demonstrated commu-
nity service.
8. The participants were neutral in the knowledge acquired in a field.

Interviews
Findings from the interviews with the 12 African American male college stu-
dents focused on their lived experiences as related to the question of why
some African American men persist to baccalaureate degree completion in 4-
year colleges and universities. In addition, the interviews identified noncog-
nitive variables that had a significant impact on the African American men in
the study. The participants in the study were asked seven questions:

1. What campus services contributed to your persistence as an African

American male?
2. What experiences were dominant factors for you to complete your
degree?
3. What challenges do you believe provided a key role to completing
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 192

192 JOHN P. HAMILTON

your degree?
4. What role did you believe the university facilitated to assist you with
completing your degree?
5. What noncognitive variables (availability of a strong support person,
academic adjustment, attachment to college, personal emotional
adjustment, and social adjustment) do you believe had a significant
impact on your graduating from college?
6. What role (if any) did elementary, middle school, or high school play
in your persistence to attain your baccalaureate degree?
7. What do you believe will assist other African American males to suc-
ceed and graduate from college?

The following is a summary of the responses from the participants. The

12 participants agreed that the campus services that contributed to their per-
sistence in college were the ethnic and minority programs and organizations
on campus. Challenges ranged from racism and absence of other African
American males, to lack of departmental support within their major. How-
ever, these challenges also became motivators for the participants. The par-
ticipants concluded that family, precollege programs, and self-actualization
were dominant factors.
All of the noncognitive variable categories (availability of a strong sup-
port person, academic adjustment, attachment to college, personal emotional
adjustment, and social adjustment) had some kind of impact on the partici-
pants’ college experience. The participants’ responses focused on family, eth-
nic organizations, leadership roles in organizations, friends, accessibility to
faculty during office hours, and mentors. All of the participants believed that
either elementary, middle school, or high school played a role in their deci-
sion to obtain a college degree. Last, 100% of the participants responded that
setting goals, being focused, and having a strong support system would assist
other African American males with graduating from college.

Conclusion
As an African American male, I am overwhelmed by the findings of this study.
As I interviewed these young men, I wished that I had been as focused and
determined as they were when I was an undergraduate. Although I was
involved in organizations (as a member and leader), I did not see the value at
the time. My support system consisted of my family (my mother), an African
American Greek Lettered Fraternity (Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc.), and
relationships with other students, faculty, and staff. I believe that I failed with
setting long-term goals. My goal was degree completion. These young men
see further than degree completion. They see their entire lives, including the
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 193

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 193

ultimate transition of becoming a man and being productive in society.

Throughout my academic tenure, my focus has been African American
males. It has always been my passion to assist other African American males
with identifying resources and to allow myself to be a resource. I hope this
study will help open the minds of student affairs professionals, as well as aca-
demic affairs professionals who have the power to create resources for African
American men to succeed in and graduate from college.
However, it should be stressed that African American males must take on
the challenge of reframing the issues in higher education to identify their own
needs. African American males must organize in support groups to enhance
their education experience and academic success. African American males
must also learn that higher education is a 4- to 5-year boot camp. In aca-
demic boot camp, things are learned both inside and outside of the class-
room. African American males in college should learn to be better critical
thinkers, to be proactive instead of reactive, to be leaders, to increase their
ability to network, and to become facilitators and builders of relationships
and scholarship within their respective major fields.

References
Center for the Study of Social Policy (1995). Keeping pace with change: Black males
and social policy. Washington, DC: Author.
Davis, L. E. (Ed.). (1999). Working with African American males: A guide to
practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The talented tenth. The Negro problem: A collection of
articles by African Americans. New York: James Pott.
Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and
application (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Gibbs, J. (1988). Young, Black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover,
MA: Auburn House.
Hall, R. E., & Rowan, G. T. (2001). African American males in higher education: A
descriptive/qualitative analysis. Journal of African American Men 5(3), 3–13.
Harper, S., & Wolley, M. A. (2002, May). Becoming an “involving college” for
African American undergraduate men: Strategies for increasing African American
male participation in campus activities. The Bulletin, 16–24.
Harris, W. G. (1996). African-American males in higher education: Reframing the
issue. Black Issues in Higher Education 13, 92.
Harris, W. G., & Duhon, G. M. (1999). The African American male perspective of
barriers to success. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Harvey, W. B. (2002). Minorities in higher education 2001–2002: Nineteenth annual
status report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego,
CA: EdITS.
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 194

194 JOHN P. HAMILTON

Jones, N. A., & Jackson, J. A. (2003). The demographic profile of African Americans,
1970–71 to 2000–01. The Black Collegian 31(3), 72.
Kunjufu, J. (2001). State of emergency: We must save African American males.
Chicago: African American Images.
Levin, J., & Levin, M. (1991). A critical examination of academic retention programs
for at-risk minority college students. Journal of College Student Development 32,
323–333.
Majors, R., & Billson, J. M. (1992). Cool pose: The dilemmas of Black manhood in
America. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitatitve research (3rd ed.)
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McNairy, F. G. (1996). The challenge for higher education: Retaining students of
color. New Directions for Student Services 74, 3–14.
Morgan, J. (1996). Reaching out to young Black men. Black Issues in Higher
Education 13, 16–19.
National Center for Education Statistics (1997). Digest of education statistics, 1997.
Washington, DC: US Department of Education.
Oliver, W. (1989). Black males and social problems: Prevention through Afrocentric
socialization. Journal of Black Studies 20, 15–39.
Parker, C. E. (1998). Cultivate academic persistence—now! Black Issues in Higher
Education 14, 104.
Patton, J. (1981). The Black man’s struggle for education. In L. Gary (Ed.), Black
men (pp. 199–214). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Roach, R. (2001). Where are the Black men on campus? Black Issues in Higher
Education 18(6), 18–24.
Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (1998). Learning in the field. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Schwartz, R. A., & Washington, C. M. (2002). Predicting academic performance and
retention among African American freshmen. NASPA Journal 39, 354–359.
Sedlacek, W. E. (2004). Beyond the big test: Noncongnitive assessment in higher
education. San Francisco: Jossay-Bass.
Steele, C. M. (1999, August). Thin ice: “Stereotype threat” and Black college
students. The Atlantic Monthly, 284(2), 50–54.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and
procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Thomas, L. X. (2000). A plea to the talented tenth. Cultural expressions. Retrieved
March 17, 2004, from http://www.cultural-expressions.com/thesis/pleato
tenth.htm
Tracey, T. J., & Sedlacek, W. E. (1987). Prediction of college graduation using
noncognitive variables by race. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and
Development, 19, 177–84.
Van Sertima, I. (2003). They came before Columbus. New York: Random House.
Wei, C. C., & Horn, L. (2002). Persistence and attainment of beginning students with
Pell Grants. Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics.
Brown_sne_ch12.qxd 3/27/2007 9:28 PM Page 195

Persistence of African American Men to Degree Completion 195

Welsing, F. C. (1990). The Isis papers: The keys to the colors. Chicago: Third World
Press.
Williams, C. (1992). The destruction of Black civilization: Great issues of race from
4500 BC to 2000 AD. Chicago: Third World Press.
Wilson, M. (2000, October). Reversing the plight of African American male college
students. Black Issues in Higher Education 17, 176.
Woodson, C. G. (1993). The mis-education of the Negro. Chicago: African American
Images.
X, Malcolm (1970). By any means necessary. New York: Pathfinder Press.