Hydrology

WATER
- A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for most plant and animal life
- Under nomenclature used to name chemical compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific name for water, though it is almost
never used

SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

 Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The intrinsic color of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although
both appear colorless in small quantities. Water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas
 Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars,
acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving)
substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing)
substances.
 The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. (On the top of Mt. Everest water boils
at 68 °C, compared to 100 °C at sea level) Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures
of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid
 The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C. It has the anomalous property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is
cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9% greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice
floating on liquid water, as in icebergs.

WATER TRIVIA AND FACTS

 Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh water, 97% is salt water
 Over 90% of the world's supply of fresh water is located in Antarctica
 The total amount of water in the body of an average adult is 37 liters
 Human brains are 75% water
 A person can live about a month without food, but only about a week without water. If a human does not absorb enough
water dehydration is the result
 Hot water weighs more than cold water
 Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the water through their skin
 Although Mount Everest, at 29,028 feet, is often called the tallest mountain on Earth, Mauna Kea, an inactive volcano on
the island of Hawaii, is actually taller. Only 13,796 feet of Mauna Kea stands above sea level, yet it is 33,465 feet tall if
measured from the ocean floor to its summit
 Water is the only substance that is found naturally on earth in three forms: liquid, gas, solid
 In a 100-year period, a water molecule spends 98 years in the ocean, 20 months as ice, about 2 weeks in lakes and rivers,
and less than a week in the atmosphere

HYDROLOGY
- The study of water and its movement along its various pathways within the hydrological cycle.
- It is applied by engineers who use hydrological principles to compute river flows from rainfall, water movement in soils
from knowledge of soil characteristics, evaporation rates from water balance or energy balance techniques.

THE HYDROLOGICAL (WATER) CYCLE

- The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology
- Water evaporates from the earth’s oceans and water bodies and from land surfaces. (About seven times more evaporation
occurs from oceans than from the earth’s land surfaces)
- The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures aloft cause it to condense and then
precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow.
- Once on the earth’s surface, water flows into streams, lakes, and eventually discharge into surface waters.
- Through evaporation from surface waters or transpiration from plants, water molecules return to the atmosphere to repeat
the cycle. The term evapotranspiration is used referring to combined evaporation and transpiration.
* Transpiration - the process where water contained in liquid form in plants is converted to vapor and released to the
atmosphere. Much of the water taken up by plants is released through transpiration.
- In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in temperate zones, 10 to 20 units will go to groundwater, 20 to 40
units will transpire and 40 to 70 units will become stream runoff.
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GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES
- Ground water is both an important direct source of water supply and a significant indirect source since a large portion of
the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water.
- Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil pore spaces contain both air and water. Moisture from this zone
cannot be tapped as water supply source since this water is held on soil particles by capillary forces and is not readily
released.
- Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in which the pores are filled with water. Water within this zone is
referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a substantial amount of groundwater is called an aquifer and the surface
of this saturated layer is known as the water table. If the aquifer is underlain by an impervious stratum, it is called an
unconfined aquifer. If the stratum containing water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is known as confined
aquifer.

SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES

- Surface water supplies are not as reliable as groundwater sources because quantities often fluctuate widely during the
course of a year or even a week, and the quantity of surface water is easily degraded by various sources of pollution.

WATER QUALITY
- Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporation state, however, it acquires impurities once condensed and additional
impurities are added are added as the liquid water travels through the remainder of the hydrologic cycle and comes into
contact with materials in the air and on or beneath the earth’s surface.
- In addition, human activities contribute further impurities in the form of industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural
chemicals, and other less obvious contaminants. These impure water returns to the atmosphere as relatively pure
molecules through evaporation.
- The impurities accumulated by water throughout the hydrologic cycle and as a result of human activities may be both
suspended (larger particles) and in dissolved form (molecules, ions). Colloids are also very small particles that are
suspended but often exhibit many characteristics of dissolved substances.

PHYSICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS

1) Suspended Solids
Sources:
* inorganic material- clay, silt, and other soil constituents
* organic material - plant fibers and biological solids (algal cells, bacteria, etc)
* Other suspended material may result from human use of water (Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of
suspended solids that are most organic in nature. Industrial use of water result in a wide variety of suspended impurities of
either organic or inorganic in nature)
Impacts: objectionable in water, aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.
Measurement
* Total solids – all solids in water, suspended and dissolved, organic and inorganic. This parameter is measured by
evaporating a sample to dryness (104°C) and weighing the residue expressed as mg/L.
* Suspended solids – solids removed by filtration. This parameter is measured by filtering the water sample, drying the
residue and filter paper to a constant weight and determining the mass of the residue retained in the filter paper. This is
expressed as dry mass per volume (mg/L)
* Dissolved solids – solids that pass through a filter paper also expressed as mg/L. This parameter is the difference between
total solids and suspended solids of a water sample.
Total solids = suspended solids + dissolved solids

In the laboratory:
Filterable residues – pass through the filter along with the water and relate more closely to dissolved solids
Nonfilterable residues – retained on the filter and relate more closely to suspended solids
The organic fraction of the residue for both total and suspended solids can be determined by firing the residues in
a muffle furnace at 550°C
Use: to measure the quality of wastewater influent and effluent and to monitor several treatment processes. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum suspended solids standards = 30 mg/L for treated wastewater discharges
2) Turbidity
• A measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. Turbidity is not a
direct quantitative measure of suspended solids.
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Sources:
* results from erosion of colloidal material – clay, silt, rock fragments, metal oxides from soil
* vegetable fibers and microorganisms
* soaps, detergents, emulsifying agents
Impacts: aesthetically displeasing (opaqueness or “milk coloration” is apparent), adsorption sites for chemicals that are
harmful, causes undesirable taste and odor, interfere with light penetration and photosynthetic reactions in streams and
lakes, accumulation results in sediment deposits which affects the flora and fauna of streams
Measurement: measured photometrically by determining the percentage of light of a given intensity that is either absorbed
or scattered (use of turbidimeter).
Use: EPA drinking water standards specify maximum of 1 FTU (formazin turbidity units)
3) Color
• Pure water is colorless ( as perceived by the naked eye) but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances.
* Apparent Color – color partly due to suspended solids
* True Color – color contributed by dissolved solids that remain after the removal of suspended solids
Sources:
* yellowish brown water – after contact with organic debris (leaves, weeds, wood etc.), water pick up tannins, humic acid
and humates
* reddish water – iron oxides cause it
* brown or black – due to manganese oxides
* industrial wastes add substantial color in water
Impacts: not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. Phenolic compounds, which are common constituents of
vegetative decay products produce objectionable taste and odor with chlorine. Some compounds of chlorine with naturally
occurring organic acids are suspected to be carcinogenic
Measurement: comparison with standardized colored materials, use of tubes containing standards (results expressed in
TCUs – true color units)
* Spectrophotometric techniques – used by industries in measuring color.
4) Taste and Odor
• Substances that produce an odor in water will almost invariably impart a taste as well however, there are many mineral
substances that produce taste but no odor
Sources:
* minerals, metals, and salts from soil, products of biological reactions
* Inorganic substances produce taste unaccompanied by odor
alkaline – imparts bitter taste to water
metallic salts – give a salty taste to water
*Organic substances produce both taste and odor
petroleum based products
biological decomposition of organics like SO2 (imparts a rotten egg odor)
Impacts: aesthetically displeasing, water is supposed to be tasteless and odorless. Odors produced by organic substances
may be carcinogenic.
Measurement: Gas or liquid chromatography is used for organics. Human senses of taste and smell (Threshold odor
Number or TON)
Use: Associated with drinking (potable water). A TON of 3 has been recommended by the Public Health Office
5) Temperature
• One of the most important parameter
• Temperature of surface waters governs the biological species present and their rates of activity
• Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that occur in natural water
• Temperature has an effect on the solubility of gases in water
Sources:
* Ambient temperature – shallow bodies of water are more affected than deeper bodies of water
* The use of water for dissipation of waste heat in industry and its subsequent discharges may result to dramatic
temperature changes in receiving streams
Impacts: At lower temperature, biological activity (utilization of food supplies, growth, reproduction) is slower. An increase
of 10°C is usually sufficient to double biological activity if essential nutrients are present. At elevated temperatures and
increased metabolic rates, organisms that are more efficient at food utilization flourish while others decline and are
perhaps eliminated. Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water and become a problem because
Eutrophication will occur. Fishes are affected by temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. Temperature changes also
 Hydrology
affect the reaction rates and solubility of chemicals as well as other physical properties of water such as viscosity, density,
etc.

CHEMICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS

1) Total Dissolved Solids
• The material remaining in the water after filtration. This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water
and constitutes a part of total solids. Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic
Sources:
* Results from solvent action of water on solids, liquids, and gases
* Materials from decay products of vegetation
* organic chemicals and organic gases
Measurement : weight of the residue remaining after evaporation of water sample that has been filtered to remove
suspended solids. The organic fraction can be determined by firing the residue at 550°C in a muffle furnace
2) Alkalinity
• Quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
• It is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids
• This includes CO32-, HCO31-, OH1-, HSiO31-,HPO42-,H2PO41-,HS1-, and NH3
Sources:
* results of the dissolution of mineral substances in soil and atmosphere
* Phosphates may originate from detergents in wastewater, from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural lands
* Sulfides and ammonia may be products of microbial decomposition of organic material
Impacts: Alkalinity imparts bitter taste to water, precipitates can foul pipes and other water – system
Measurement: Titration of the water with an acid and determining the hydrogen equivalent expressed as mg/L of CaCO 3
Use: Included in the analysis of natural water to determine buffering activity
3) Hardness
• Concentration of all multivalent cations in solution
• Sum of calcium and magnesium ions
Source: multivalent metallic ion in natural water: Ca2+ and Mg2+ with smaller quantities of Fe3+ , Mn2+ , Sr2+ , Al3+
Impacts: Soap lathering problem, pipes and boiler scaling
Mg 2+ hardness – laxative effect on persons not used to it
50 mg/L – desirable for potable water
Measurement: spectrophotometric techniques, chemical titration to determine Ca2+ and Mg2+, titrated with EDTA
(ethylenediaminetetracetic acid) using EBT (eriochrome black T) as indicator. 1 mL of 0.01M EDTA measures 1 mg of
hardness as CaCO3.
Use: Analysis on natural waters and on water intended for drinking and certain industrial uses
– Acceptability levels:
soft (< 50 mg/L as CaCO3)
moderately hard (50 – 150 mg/L as CaCO3)
hard (150 – 300 mg/L as CaCO3)
very hard (> 300 mg/L as CaCO3)
4) Fluorides
• Seldom found in appreciable quantities in surface waters
• Appear in ground water in a few geographical regions
• Toxic to humans and animals in large quantities, small concentrations are beneficial
Levels:
1.0 mg/L – can help prevent dental cavities
2.0 mg/L – can cause discoloration of teeth (mottling)
<1.5 mg/L – rare mottling
> 5 mg/L – can cause bone fluorosis
1.5 mg/L – recommended limit in drinking water
*Bone fluorosis – accumulation of fluoride, can contribute to osteoporosis
5) Metals
• Metals are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity
• Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that is they reflect most of incident light
• Basically, all metals are soluble to some extent in water
• Excessive amounts may present health hazards
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(a) Toxic Metals – those metals that are harmful in relatively small amounts. Toxic metals comprise a group of minerals that
have no known function in the body and, in fact, are harmful. Today mankind is exposed to the highest levels of these metals in
recorded history
- Include Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Vanadium, Thallium, Osmium etc
Sources: Include dissolution from natural deposits, and discharges from domestic, industrial or agricultural wastewaters
(a.1) Cadmium – used in metal plating, active ingredient in rechargeable batteries, causes high blood pressure and
kidney damage and a probable carcinogen
(a.2) Chromium – natural impurity in coal, used in the manufacture of stainless steel. Hexavalent chromium
causes a suite of adverse health effects
(a.3) Lead – incorporated in pigments, used in house paints and in glazes, applied to dishware, used in pipes and
solder. It is also used as a gasoline additive. It interferes with the development of the nervous system and is
therefore particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and behavior disorders
(a.4) Mercury - a naturally occurring element that is found in air, water and soil. It exists in several forms:
- elemental or metallic mercury,
- inorganic mercury compounds, and
- organic mercury compounds
* For fetuses, infants, and children, the primary health effect of mercury is impaired neurological
development. During these poisoning outbreaks some mothers with no symptoms of nervous system damage gave
birth to infants with severe disabilities, it became clear that the developing nervous system of the fetus may be
more vulnerable to mercury than is the adult nervous system
(b) Non – toxic metals
* Calcium and Magnesium – hardness ions
* Sodium, Iron, Manganese, Aluminum, Copper and Zinc – nontoxic metals found in water
(b.1) Sodium – most abundant in natural waters and in the earth’s crust. It is highly reactive with other elements.
Excessive concentration cause a bitter taste in water and a health hazard to cardiac and kidney patients. It is also
corrosive to metal surfaces and is toxic to plants in large concentrations.
(b.2) Iron and Manganese – not a health hazard but cause color problems in water at concentrations of 0.3 mg/L
Iron and 0.05 mg/L Manganese. Bacteria use these metals for energy source so the resulting slime growth
produces taste and odor problems.
(b.3) Copper and Zinc – when both are present, maybe toxic to biological species
6) Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
• Elements essential to the growth and reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic species depend on the surrounding
water to provide the nutrients
(a) Nitrogen
- The element nitrogen does not normally exist as a single atom, but is usually combined with another nitrogen atom very
tightly in a triple bond, this molecule, nitrogen gas, N2, is the predominant gas in our atmosphere, making up over 79% of
air
- The bond is so tight that it is only broken by very energetic natural events, like lightning. When this happens, and it
happens often, various compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are formed in a process called nitrogen fixation.
- Sometimes, fixed nitrogen is called reactive nitrogen.
- The most oxidized form is called nitrate
Sources: animal wastes, chemical fertilizers, and wastewater discharges
*Over – enrichment problems may also lead to Eutrophication (natural aging process in which the water is organically
enriched leading to increasing aquatic weeds – algal bloom)
Impacts: Excessive nitrogen can cause nitrate poisoning on babies (blue baby syndrome or methemoglobinemia)
(b) Phosphorus
-Next to calcium, phosphorus is the most abundant mineral in the body. These 2 important nutrients work closely together
to build strong bones and teeth
- About 85% of phosphorus in the body can be found in bones and teeth, but it is also present in cells and tissues
throughout the body
- Phosphorus is one of the key elements necessary for growth of plants and animals. Phosphates PO4--- are formed from
this element. Phosphates exist in three forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or polyphosphate) and organically bound
phosphate. Each compound contains phosphorous in a different chemical formula.
- Phosphorus enters waterways from human and animal waste, phosphorus rich bedrock, laundry, cleaning, industrial
effluents, and fertilizer runoff. These phosphates become detrimental when they over fertilize aquatic plants and cause
stepped up eutrophication
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- Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for fish. This may cause an
increase in the fish population and improve the overall water quality. However, if an excess of phosphate enters the
waterway, algae and aquatic plants will grow wildly, choke up the waterway and use up large amounts of oxygen
6) Organics
Sources: Come from natural sources or results from human activity
* Natural organics – decay products of organic solids
* Synthetic organics – result of wastewater discharges or agricultural practices
2 Categories of dissolved organics in water:
(a) Biodegradable Organics – organics that can be utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms within a
reasonable length of time
- in dissolved form, these materials usually consist of starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and esters
- end product of initial microbial decomposition of plant or animal tissues, or from domestic or industrial
wastewater discharges.
Microbial decomposition of organics is accompanied by:
Oxidation – addition of oxygen to or removal of hydrogen from elements of the organic molecule
Reduction – addition of hydrogen to or removal of oxygen from elements of the organic molecule
*Decomposition is either aerobic or anaerobic
Aerobic – denotes the presence of oxygen. End – products of microbial decomposition of organics are stable and acceptable
compounds
Anaerobic – denotes the absence of oxygen. Decomposition results in unstable and objectionable end - products
(b) Non – biodegradable / Refractory organics - organics resistant to biological degradation
- examples include tannic and lignin acids, cellulose and phenol
Characteristics of Refractory Organics:
- molecules with exceptionally strong bonds
- ringed structure
ex. ABS (alkyl benzene sulfonate) – a detergent compound which causes frothing and foaming in waste water. It is now
being substituted by LAS (linear alkylbenzene sulfonate) which is biodegradable

PESTICIDES
 chemicals that kill organisms humans consider undesirable
 includes more specific categories of insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides.
Main Groups of Organic Pesticides
• Organochlorines – chlorinated hydrocarbons;
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
* DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane), - persistent, they last long in the environment before being broken down into other
substances), quite soluble in lipids (meaning they easily accumulate in fatty tissue).
• DDT biomagnify or bioconcentrate in fatty tissues,
• Half life = 10 – 15 years
• DDT is the first pesticide manufactured by man
• Used to kill insects (flies & mosquitoes)

BIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS

May cause:
A) Water-borne diseases
B) Water contact diseases
C) Water hygiene problems
 Pathogens – biological organisms in water capable of infecting or of transmitting diseases to humans. They are not
native to aquatic systems and usually require a HOST for growth and reproduction. Species of pathogens can survive in
water and maintain infectious capabilities for significant periods of time.

A) Water – Borne Diseases – those acquired by ingestion of pathogens not only in drinking water but also from water that makes
into a person’s mouth from washing food, utensils and hands
Classification of Pathogens (causing water-borne diseases)
1) Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms that can exist either as independent (free-living) organisms or as parasites (dependent on
another organism for life)
Bacteria Shapes:
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a) Cocci : Spherical bacteria are called cocci (singular coccus). The cells may occur in pairs (diplococci), in groups of four
(tetracocci), in bunches (staphylococci), in a bead-like chain(streptococci)or in a cubical arrangement of eight or, more
(sarcinae)
b) Bacilli : Rod-like bacteria are called bacilli (singular bacillus). They generally occur singly, but may occasionally be found
in pairs (diplobacilli) or chains (strepto bacilli).
c) Spirilla : Spiral-shaped bacilli are called spirilla (singular, spirillum). Short incomplete spirals are called vibrios or comma
bacteria.
Examples:
1. Escherichia coli (E. coli) - Gastroenteritis
• Diarrhea
2. Leptospira - Leptospirosis
• Jaundice, fever (Weil’s disease)
3. Salmonella typhi or Salmonella typhosa
• typhoid fever; High fever, diarrhea, ulceration of the intestine
4. Salmonella – Salmonellosis, Food poisoning
5. Vibrio cholerae or Vibrio comma - Cholera
 Extremely heavy diarrhea, dehydration
6. Shigella – Shigellosis, Bacillary dysentery
7. Legionella pneumophila – Legionellosis
 Acute, Respiratory illness
2) Virus – smallest biological structures which are known to contain all the genetic information necessary for their own
reproduction. They can't multiply on their own, so they have to invade a 'host' cell and take over its machinery in order to be able to
make more virus particles
3) Protozoa – lowest form of animal life, they are complete and self contained organisms that can be free – living or parasitic,
pathogenic or non – pathogenic. Most protozoa are microscopic in size, and can only be seen under a microscope. However, they do
breathe, move and reproduce like multicelled animals
Examples:
1. Giardia lamblia – Giardiasis
• Mild to severe diarrhea, nausea, indigestion
• Also called Beaver disease and backpacker’s disease
• Giardia lamblia can be carried by wild animals living in or near natural water systems.
2. Entamoeba histolytica – Amoebiasis
• Prolonged diarrhea w/ bleeding
• Epidemic in Chicago, drinking water was contaminated by sewage containing Entamoeba histolytica, over 1400 people were
affected, 98 died.
2. Cryptosporidium parvum – Cryptosporidiosis
• debilitating w/ diarrhea, vomiting & abdominal pain lasting for several weeks.
• Cryptosporidium cannot be disinfected and it can be fatal
• Filtration provides the best barrier
4. Balantidium coli - Balantidiasis
• Diarrhea, Dysentery
4) Helminths – parasitic worms. The life cycles of helminths often involve 2 or more animal hosts, one of which can be human and
contamination may result from hman or animal waste that contain helminths. Contaminations could also be via other species such
as snails or insects
Examples:
1. Ascaris lumbricoides - Ascariasis
 Roundworm infestation
2. Enterobius vericularis - Enterobiasis
 Pinworm
3. Taenia saginata - Taeniasis
 Beef tapeworm
4. Taenia solium - Taeniasis
 Pork tapeworm
5. Trichuris trichiura - Trichuriasis
 Whipworm
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B) Water-Contact Diseases - do not require that individuals ingest the water.
Example:
Schistosomiasis (bilharzias) – common water-contact disease in the world, affecting approximately 200 M people.
- Is spread by free-swimming larva in water called Cercaria - they attach themselves to human skin, penetrate it and enter
the bloodstream
- Cercaria mature in the liver into worms that lay masses of eggs on the walls of the intestine.
- When excreted into water, they hatch & find snail hosts in w/c they develop into new Cercaria.
- From the snails, the Cercaria find human as another host and continue the cycle.

C) Water Hygiene Problems

• Water also plays an indirect role in other diseases common in developing countries.
• Insects that breed in water, or bite near water, are responsible for the spread of malaria, affecting some 160 million people
killing 1 million each year.
• Yellow fever, sleeping sickness, & river blindness spread in the same way.

RADIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS

• Excessive exposure to radioactive materials is harmful
• Unnecessary exposure should be avoided (including drinking water).
• Naturally occurring RA compounds include Radon & Radium 226 found in GW.
• Strontium – 90 and Tritium are also found in surface water resulting from atmospheric nuclear weapon testing fallout.
• Radon is colorless, odorless & tasteless gas occurring naturally in ground water.

Additional Terms:
• Endemic – refers to a disease prevalent in and confined to a particular population.
• Epidemic – is an outbreak of an infectious disease spreading widely in an area.
• Pandemic – if the outbreak of an infectious disease is widely spreading worldwide.
• Epidemiology – is the study of the causes of a disease spreading in a community.
• Microbiology – is the study of microorganisms and their activities.