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Chapter 1

Properties of Air and Other Gases

The thermodynamic and transport properties of gases and vapors are


important in fan engineering. This chapter deals with the thermodynamic
properties, especially pressure, temperature, humidity, density, and enthalpy
Transport properties, such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity,
are dealt with in subsequent chapters. The gaseous materials most frequently
encountered in fan engineering are air and water vapor; accordingly, most of
the data are for these substances. Some formulae have been written specifi-
cally for these materials, but most are generalized to accommodate any gas.

Atmospheric Air
Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air, water vapor, and impurities. Dry
air is a mechanical mixture of gases, whose principal constituents are listed in
Table 1.1. (The table values may be considered representative of the compo-
sition of normal outdoor air throughout the troposphere.) The amount of
water vapor in atmospheric air will depend on weather conditions. The nature
and amount of impurities in the atmosphere depend on the forces at work in
producing and dispersing contaminants. Industrial, urban, rural, seaside, and
other areas have characteristic atmospheres due to differences in impurities.

Table 1.1 Normal Composition of Dry Outdoor Air

Component Volume Fraction Mass Fraction


Nitrogen 0.7809 0.7553
Oxygen 0.2095 0.2315
Argon 0.0093 0.0128
Carbon Dioxide 0.0003 0.0004
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff: "Standardization of Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 55, 1949, pp. 462-464,

The reference for Table 1.1 lists neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon,
ozone, and radon, totaling less than 0.0025 percent by volume, as the residual
part of atmospheric air. ASHRAE1 also lists methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur
.
1
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 3.

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1-2 FAN ENGINEERING

dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and iodine, totaling


0.0003 percent by volume, as constituents of normal, clean, dry atmospheric
air. ASHRAE considers all these gases in the calculation of the apparent
molecular weight of clean, dry atmospheric air and obtains a value of
28.9645. Rounding off and lumping the residuals with the nitrogen, as has
been done in Table 1.1, yields an apparent molecular weight of 28.964. (See
the section on molecular weight.)

Standard Atmosphere
In 1952, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics adopted the
International Civil Aviation Organization's Standard Atmosphere. Portions of
this Standard are given in Table 1.2. (The reference contains much more
extensive data in both U.S. and metric units.) Temperatures t are based on
15°C at sea level and a lapse rate of 0.0065°C/m throughout the troposphere,
and they are assumed to be constant throughout the stratosphere. The tropo-
pause is considered to be at the level where the temperature becomes -
56.50°C. Pressures p are based on 101.325 kPa at sea level, a gas constant of
287.04 J/kg-K, and the perfect gas laws. Densities ρ are based on the tem-
perature and pressure at the altitude Z and the perfect gas laws. Absolute
viscosities µ , kinematic viscosities ν , and speeds of sound c are based on
relationships that will be explained in later sections dealing with these sub-
jects.

Table 1.2 Standard Atmospheric Data vs. Altitude

Z t p ρ µ × 105 ν × 10 4 c
ft °F in. Hg lbm/ft3 lbm/ft-s ft2/s ft/s
-1000 62.6 31.02 .0787 1.212 1.539 1120.7
-500 60.8 30.47 .0776 1.208 1.557 1118.8
0 59.0 29.92 .0765 1.205 1.576 1116.9
500 57.2 29.38 .0754 1.202 1.595 1115.0
1000 55.4 28.86 .0743 1.198 1.614 1113.1
1500 53.7 28.33 .0732 1.195 1.633 1111.1
2000 51.9 27.82 .0721 1.192 1.653 1109.2
2500 50.1 27.32 .0710 1.189 1.673 1107.3
3000 48.3 26.82 .0700 1.185 1.694 1105.3
3500 46.5 26.33 .0689 1.182 1.714 1103.4
4000 44.7 25.84 .0679 1.179 1.735 1101.4
4500 43.0 25.37 .0669 1.175 1.757 1099.5
5000 41.2 24.90 .0659 1.172 1.778 1097.5
5500 39.4 24.43 .0649 1.169 1.800 1095.6
6000 37.6 23.98 .0639 1.165 1.823 1093.6
6500 35.8 23.53 .0630 1.162 1.846 1091.7
7000 34.0 23.09 .0620 1.158 1.869 1089.7
7500 32.3 22.65 .0610 1.155 1.892 1087.7
8000 30.5 22.22 .0601 1.152 1.916 1085.7

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-3

Table 1.2 Standard Atmospheric Data vs. Altitude (Concluded)

Z t p ρ µ × 105 ν × 10 4 c
ft °F in. Hg lbm/ft3 lbm/ft-s ft2/s ft/s
8500 28.7 21.80 .0592 1.148 1.940 1083.8
9000 26.9 21.39 .0583 1.145 1.965 1081.8
9500 25.1 20.98 .0574 1.142 1.990 1079.8
10000 23.3 20.58 .0565 1.138 2.015 1177.8
11000 19.8 19.79 .0547 1.131 2.067 1073.8
12000 16.2 19.03 .0530 1.125 2.121 1069.8
13000 12.6 18.29 .0513 1.118 2.177 1065.8
14000 9.1 17.58 .0497 1.111 2.234 1061.8
15000 5.5 16.89 .0481 1.104 2.294 1057.7
20000 -12.3 13.75 .0407 1.069 2.624 1037.3
25000 -30.2 11.10 .0343 1.034 3.016 1016.4
30000 -48.0 8.89 .0286 0.997 3.486 995.1
35000 -65.8 7.04 .0237 0.961 4.053 973.3
40000 -69.7 5.54 .0188 0.952 5.059 968.5
45000 -69.7 4.35 .0148 0.952 6.434 968.5
50000 -69.7 3.42 .0116 0.952 8.181 968.5
55000 -69.7 2.69 .0092 0.952 10.404 968.5
60000 -69.7 2.12 .0072 0.952 13.230 968.5
65000 -69.7 1.67 .0057 0.952 16.824 968.5

Adapted from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to
65,800 Feet," Report 1235, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp.
66-81.

Standard Air
In fan engineering, standard air is considered to be air with a density of
1.2 kg /m3 when SI units are employed, or 0.075 lbm/ft3 when U.S. customary
units are used. These two values are not exact equivalents, but they are close
enough for most fan engineering purposes. Neither do these values exactly
correspond to the sea level value given for the Aeronautical Standard in Table
1.2. Atmospheric air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 will have stan-
dard density at various combinations of pressure, temperature, and humidity.
Two convenient combinations are shown in Table 1.3, one for dry air and
another for moist air. Note that all the combinations listed in Table 1.3 utilize
the standard barometric pressure at sea level.
The concept of standard air is useful in rating fans, ducts, and other air
handling equipment. Often both duct losses and fan capabilities can be
determined from standard air data and used without correction. Even when
the actual density is considerably different from standard air density, it is
frequently more convenient to apply corrections to standard air data than it
would be to publish separate data for each condition.
A slightly different concept, that of standard, or normal, temperature and
pressure (STP or NTP), is sometimes employed in specifications. The values
.

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1-4 FAN ENGINEERING

for standard temperature and pressure may differ from those in Table 1.3.
One should always verify the exact values of standard conditions before
selecting a fan based on STP or NTP. See the discussion of conversion from
standard, or normal, conditions to actual conditions in Chapter 19.

Table 1.3 Standard Air

Property U.S. SI
Dry Air
Pressure 29.921 in. Hg 101.325 kPa
Temperature 70°F (529.7°R) 21°C (294.2K)
Humidity 0% 0%
Density 0.075 lbm/ft3 1.2 kg/m3
Moist Air
Pressure 29.921 in. Hg 101.325 kPa
Temperature 68°F (527.7°R) 20°C (293.2K)
Humidity 50% 50%
Density 0.075 lbm/ft3 1.2 kg/m3

Molecular Weight
The molecular weight of a pure substance is the sum of the atomic weights
of the atoms in a molecule of that substance. Water, for instance, has a
molecular weight of 18.015 based on two atoms of hydrogen at 1.008 each
and one atom of oxygen at 15.999, all on the carbon-12 scale. Because air is a
mechanical mixture of gases, it does not have a true molecular weight. Dry
air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 has an apparent molecular weight
of 28.964. The apparent molecular weight M of any mixture of gases can be
calculated either from a volumetric analysis using

4 9
n
∑ Mx fx
M = x =1 (1.1)
n
∑ fx
x =1

or from a mass analysis using

n
∑ fx
M= x =1 (1.2)
4 9
n
∑ fx Mx
x =1

where f x is the volume or mass fraction of constituent x ; M x . is the mo-


lecular weight of constituent x ; and n is the total number of constituents.

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-5

Examples 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the use of these equations in calculating
the apparent molecular weight of dry outdoor air of the composition shown in
Table 1.1.

Example 1.1
Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Volumetric Analysis

Component fx Mx Mx fx
Nitrogen 0.7809 × 28.013 = 21.875
Oxygen 0.2095 × 31.999 = 6.704
Argon 0.0093 × 39.948 = 0.372
Carbon Dioxide 0.0003 × 44.010 = 0.013
∑ fx = 1.0000 1
∑ Mx fx 6 = 28.964
28.964
Apparent Molecular Weight = = 28.964
10000
.

Example 1.2
Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Mass Analysis

Component fx Mx fx / Mx
Nitrogen 0.7553 ÷ 28.013 = 0.026962
Oxygen 0.2315 ÷ 31.999 = 0.007235
Argon 0.0128 ÷ 39.948 = 0.000320
Carbon Dioxide 0.0004 ÷ 44.010 = 0.000009
∑ fx = 1.0000 1
∑ fx / Mx 6 = 0.034526
10000
.
Apparent Molecular Weight = = 28.964
0.034526

Differences in molecular weights for the same substance usually can be


traced to either rounding off or to differences between the carbon-12 and the
oxygen-16 scales. ASHRAE1 lists molecular- weights on the carbon-12 scale
as 28.9645 for dry air and 18.015 34 for water. The previously used value of
28.966 for dry air was based on the oxygen-16 scale. Throughout the remain-
der of this handbook, a value of 28.965 will be used as the apparent molecular
weight of dry air.
A mole, abbreviated mol, is the base unit of substance in SI. As such, it is
further defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. In fan engineering, the
elementary entities of interest are molecules, and the usual units of mass are
the kg or the lbm. One kg-mol of air will have a mass of 28.965 kg. One
lbm-mol of air will have a mass of 28.965 lbm.
1
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 4.

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1-6 FAN ENGINEERING

The unit of molecular weight is the kg/kg-mol in metric units, and the
lbm/lbm-mol in U.S. units. The number of molecules in a kg-mol of any gas
is 6.02252 ×10 26 . There are 2.73177 ×10 26 molecules in a lbm-mol of gas.
The volume occupied by a mole of gas will depend on the unit of the mole
and on the temperature and pressure. For a gas constituent, the mole fraction,
volume fraction, and pressure fraction are equal.

Perfect Gas Equation of State


Boyles' and Charles' laws1 can be combined to give an equation of state.
For perfect gases,2
RT
pv = (1.3)
Cp

where absolute pressure p , specific volume v , gas constant R , absolute


temperature T and conversion factor C p can be expressed in any consistent
units. Several such sets of units are listed in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Units and Values for Equation 1.3

p v R T Cp
3
Pa m /kg J/kg-K K 1.0
kPa m3/kg J/kg-K K 1000 Pa/kPa
lb/ft2 ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 1.0
in. Hg ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 70.73 lb/ft2-in. Hg
in. wg ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 5.193 lb/ft2-in. wg
mm Hg m3/kg J/kg-K K 133.32 Pa/mm Hg
mm wg m3/kg J/kg-K K 9.790 Pa/mm wg

Absolute pressure p is the barometric pressure pb in free air or the sum


of the barometric pressure and the gage pressure p g for a confined quantity of
air or gas. When all pressures are measured in the same units,

p = pb + pg . (1.4)

1
Boyles' and Charles' laws state that the volume of a perfect gas varies inversely with absolute
pressure and directly with absolute temperature.
2
The equation of state for real gases can be expressed as:
ç ä
å
pv = RT 1 + B p + C p 2 + D p 3 +...
p p p â
where the empirical coefficients 3 B , C , D ,...8 are temperature-dependent and are called
p p p

the second, third, fourth.... virial coefficients. Another expression of the equation of state for
real gases is:
pv = ZRT
where the compressibility factor Z is dependent upon both pressure and temperature.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-7

When mixed units are used,

p = Cb pb + C g p g (1.5)

where conversion factors Cb and C g are those given in Table 1.5 for the
combinations listed.

Table 1.5 Units and Values for Equation 1.5

p pb Cb pg Cg
kPa mm Hg 0.133 32 mm wg 0.009 790
kPa in. Hg 3.3864 in. wg 0.248 66
in. Hg in. Hg 1.0 in. wg 0.073 43
in. wg in. Hg 13.619 in. wg 1.0

Absolute temperature T is the sum of the conventional temperature


measurement t and the appropriate zero adjustment A according to Table
1.6.

T=t+A (1.6)

Table 1.6 Units and Values for Equation 1.6

T t A
K (kelvins) °C (degrees Celsius) 273.2
°R (degrees Rankine) °F (degrees Fahrenheit) 459.7

For perfect gases,

Ru
R= (1.7)
M

where the gas constant R for a particular gas and the universal gas constant
Ru can be expressed in any consistent units. If the molecular weight M is
based on the carbon-12 scale, the value of the universal gas constant Ru is
8314.3 J/kg-mol-K in SI units or 1545.32 ft-lb/lbm- mol-°R in U.S. customary
units. Based on Equation 1.7, the gas constant for dry air is 287.05 J/kg-K or
53.35 ft-lb/lbm-°R.
There are no perfect gases; but air, other real gases, and even water vapor
can be considered to behave according to the perfect gas laws in most fan
engineering applications. Deviations from perfect gas law behavior increase
as a gas or vapor approaches the liquid state. The water vapor in atmospheric
air has such a low partial pressure that it can safely be assumed to be a perfect
gas even when near saturation. However, deviations should be calculated for
higher pressures.

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1-8 FAN ENGINEERING

The equation of state can be used to compute any one of the variables p ,
v , R , or T when the other three are known. Numerous formulae based on
this equation are given in the sections on humidity and density. A typical fan
engineering application is given below.

Example 1.3 Volume Flow Rate from Mass Flow Rate

Given 45359 kg/hr, 27.41 kg/kg-mol, 176.7°C, 98.78 kPa barometric pres-
sure, and -4.97 kPa gage pressure, find the volume flow rate in m3/s.

Using Equations 1.4, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.3 with SI units:

p = pb + p g = 98.78 - 4.97 = 93.81 kPa,


T = t + 273.2 = 176.7 + 273.2 = 449.9 K,
8314.3 8314.3
R= = = 303.33 J/kg-K,
M 27.41
RT 303.33 × 449.9
v= = = 1.455 m3/kg.
pC p . × 1000
9381
45359
mû = = 12.60 kg/s, and
3600
Qû = mv
û = 12.60 × 1455
. = 18.33 m3/s

Given 100000 lbm/hr, 27.41 lbm/lbm-mol, 350°F, 29.17 in. Hg barometric


pressure, and -20 in. wg gage pressure, find the volume flow rate in cfm.

Using Equations 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.3 with U.S. units:

p = pb + 0.07343 p g = 29.17 + 0.07343(-20) = 27.70 in. Hg,


T = t + 459.7 = 350 + 459.7 = 809.7°R,
1545.32 1545.32
R= = = 56.38 ft-lb/lbm-°R,
M 27.41
RT 56.38 × 809.7
v= = = 23.30 ft3/lbm,
pC p 27.70 × 70.73
100000
mû = = 1666.7 lbm/min, and
60
Qû = mv
û = 1666.7 × 23.30 = 38 834 cfm.

Specific Gravity
Since air is the gas most frequently involved in fan engineering, it is
convenient to base equations and data on the properties of air. One of the
properties of air that is used as a common reference is its density. The ratio of
the density of any dry gas to the density of dry air at the same temperature and
pressure is called the specific gravity G of the gas. For perfect gases, spe-
…..

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-9

Figure 1.1 Relative Densities of Water Vapor Referred to Air

cific gravity can be obtained by dividing the molecular weight M of the dry
gas by 28.965, the molecular weight of dry air, as follows:

M
G= . (1.8)
28.965

For a sample calculation illustrating the use of Equation 1.8, refer to Example
1.5.
The ratio w of the density of water vapor to the density of dry air is not
constant for any temperature but a function of relative humidity ϕ , as
illustrated in Figure 1.1. The ratio of the molecular weights (18.015/28.965)
would indicate that w , is equal to 0.622, a value that is suitable for most fan
engineering purposes. For high pressures and temperatures, Figure 1.1 should
be used. The following formula, which is accurate to 0.1 % in the range of
temperatures from 32°F to 400°F, can also be used:

w = 0.6214 +
1 6
ϕ pws
1 1.42

. (1.9)
1130

The vapor pressure of pure water pws can be determined from Table 1.7
opposite the dry-bulb temperature t of the gas. For sample calculations
illustrating the use of the ratio w refer to Examples 1.5 and 1.6.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-10 FAN ENGINEERING

Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb, and Dew-Point Temperatures


Unless otherwise specified, the temperature of any gas is that temperature
which is indicated by any ordinary dry-bulb thermometer. This dry-bulb
temperature t is the temperature of each constituent, including the dry gases
and any water vapor.
A wet-bulb temperature t ′ is measured by submerging a water-covered
bulb in a moving stream of gas until equilibrium is obtained. The wet-bulb
temperature will be lower than the dry-bulb temperature as long as evapora-
tion continues.
1 6
Wet-bulb depression t − t ′ is the difference between dry-bulb and wet-
bulb temperatures for a particular state point. The maximum depression for a
given dry-bulb temperature will occur when the gas is dry. Zero depression
will be observed at saturation.
The temperature of adiabatic saturation t∗ of an air-water vapor mixture
is the temperature that a gas-vapor mixture would attain in a perfect "satura-
tor," with no loss or gain of heat to the surroundings. A wet-bulb thermome-
ter, unshielded from radiation, will register a temperature approximating that
of adiabatic saturation of air and water vapor, if the velocity of air past the
bulb is between 500 and 1000 fpm or 2.5 and 5.0 m/s. Appreciable deviations
between t ′ and t∗ occur with gas-vapor mixtures other than air-water vapor.
The defining relationship for the temperature of adiabatic saturation is

1 6
h + hl ∗ Ws ∗ − W = hs ∗ . (1.10)

Enthalpy h and humidity ratio W are defined in subsequent sections. For


moist air having a dry-bulb temperature t , a humidity ratio W , and an
enthalpy h that corresponds to t and W , the temperature of adiabatic satura-
tion t∗ is the temperature corresponding to the saturation properties hs ∗ , hl ∗ ,
and Ws ∗ . Refer to Example 1.8 for sample calculations using this relation-
ship. (Thermodynamic wet-bulb is another name for the temperature of
adiabatic saturation.)
The dew-point temperature t ′′ of a gas-water vapor mixture is the satura-
tion temperature corresponding to the humidity ratio of that mixture. (Refer
to Equation 1.25 for details.) It is also the temperature at which condensation
begins when the mixture is gradually cooled. The presence of certain acid-
forming gases will considerably raise the dew-point temperature for moist air.
See the chapter on mechanical draft for a discussion of this phenomenon.

Partial Pressure, Saturation, and Vapor Pressure


The Gibbs-Dalton rule1 for perfect gases can be applied to most of the
gas mixtures encountered in fan engineering, including those with water vapor
1
The Gibbs-Dalton rule states that each component of a gas mixture exerts a pressure that is
determined by the volume and temperature of the mixture regardless of the other components
involved.

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-11

Table 1.7 Saturation Vapor Pressures p ws of Ice1 and Water2


In in. Hg

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-20 .0126 .0119 .0112 .0106 .0100 .0095 .0089 .0084 .0080 .0075
-10 .0222 .0209 .0199 .0187 .0176 .0168 .0158 .0150 .0142 .0134
-0 .0376 .0359 .0339 .0324 .0306 .0289 .0275 .0259 .0247 .0233
0 .0376 .0398 .0417 .0441 .0463 .0489 .0517 .0541 .0571 .0598
10 .0631 .0660 .0696 .0728 .0768 .0810 .0846 .0892 .0932 .0982
20 .1025 .1080 .1127 .1186 .1248 .1302 .1370 .1429 .1502 .1567
30 .1647 .1716 .1803 .1878 .1955 .2035 .2118 .2203 .2292 .2383
40 .2478 .2576 .2677 .2782 .2891 .3004 .3120 .3240 .3364 .3493
50 .3626 .3764 .3906 .4052 .4203 .4359 .4520 .4686 .4858 .5035
60 .5218 .5407 .5601 .5802 .6009 .6222 .6442 .6669 .6903 .7144
70 .7392 .7648 .7912 .8183 .8462 .8750 .9046 .9352 .9666 .9989
80 1.032 1.066 1.102 1.138 1.175 1.213 1.253 1.293 1.335 1.378
90 1.422 1.467 1.513 1.561 1.610 1.660 1.712 1.765 1.819 1.875
100 1.932 1.992 2.052 2.114 2.178 2.243 2.310 2.379 2.449 2.521
110 2.596 2.672 2.749 2.829 2.911 2.995 3.081 3.169 3.259 3.351
120 3.446 3.543 3.642 3.744 3.848 3.954 4.063 4.174 4.289 4.406
130 4.525 4.647 4.772 4.900 5.031 5.165 5.302 5.442 5.585 5.732
140 5.881 6.034 6.190 6.350 6.513 6.680 6.850 7.024 7.202 7.384
150 7.569 7.759 7.952 8.150 8.351 8.557 8.767 8.981 9.200 9.424
160 9.652 9.885 10.12 10.36 10.61 10.86 11.12 11.38 11.65 11.92
170 12.20 12.48 12.77 13.07 13.37 13.67 13.98 14.30 14.62 14.96
180 15.29 15.63 15.98 16.34 16.70 17.07 17.44 17.82 18.21 18.61
190 19.01 19.42 19.84 20.27 20.70 21.14 21.59 22.05 22.52 22.99
200 23.47 23.96 24.46 24.97 25.48 26.00 26.53 27.07 27.62 28.18
210 28.75 29.33 29.92 30.52 31.13 31.75 32.38 33.02 33.67 34.33
220 35.00 35.68 36.37 37.07 37.78 38.50 39.24 39.99 40.75 41.52
230 42.31 43.11 43.92 44.74 45.57 46.41 47.27 48.14 49.03 49.93
240 50.84 51.76 52.70 53.65 54.62 55.60 56.60 57.61 58.63 59.67
250 60.72 61.79 62.88 63.98 65.10 66.23 67.38 68.54 69.72 70.92
260 72.13 74.36 74.61 75.88 77.16 78.46 79.78 81.11 182.46 83.83
270 85.22 86.63 88.06 89.51 90.97 92.45 93.96 95.49 97.03 98.61
280 100.2 101.8 103.4 105.0 106.7 108.4 110.1 111.8 113.6 115.4
290 117.2 119.0 120.8 122.7 124.6 126.5 128.4 130.4 132.4 134.4
300 136.4 138.5 140.6 142.7 144.8 147.0 149.2 151.4 153.6 155.9
310 158.2 160.5 162.8 165.2 167.6 170.0 172.5 175.0 177.5 180.0
320 182.6 185.2 187.8 190.4 193.1 195.8 198.5 201.3 204.1 206.9
330 209.8 212.7 215.6 218.6 221.6 224.6 227.7 230.8 233.9 237.1
340 240.3 243.5 246.8 250.1 253.4 256.7 260.1 263.6 267.1 270.6
350 274.1 277.7 281.3 284.9 288.6 292.3 296.1 299.9 303.8 307.7
360 311.6 315.5 319.5 323.5 327.6 331.7 335.9 340.1 344.4 348.7
370 353.0 357.4 361.8 366.2 370.7 375.2 379.8 384.4 389.1 393.8
380 398.6 403.4 408.2 413.1 418.1 423.1 428.1 433.1 438.2 443.4
390 448.6 453.9 459.2 464.6 470.0 475.5 481.0 486.6 492.2 497.9
400 503.6 509.3 515.1 521.0 526.9 532.9 538.9 545.0 551.1 557.3
1
Adapted from data of the National Research Council: International Critical Tables, vol. 3,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1928, P. 210.
2
Adapted from data of J. H. Keenan and E. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic Properties of Steam,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936. These data differ only slightly from the data of J.
A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51,
1945, pp. 125-164 and from corrections thereto by J. A. Goff. "Saturation Pressure of Water
on the New Kelvin Temperature Scale," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 63, 1957, pp. 347-354.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-12 FAN ENGINEERING

as one constituent. Each constituent will exert a certain pressure called its
partial pressure, and the sum of these partial pressures must equal the absolute
pressure of the mixture. The pressure fraction will equal the mole fraction for
each constituent; i.e. the partial pressure of a constituent divided by the
absolute pressure of the mixture will equal the number of moles of the con-
stituent divided by the number of moles of the mixture.
Saturation is a condition of equilibrium between a liquid or solid and its
vapor. The pressure exerted by a vapor at saturation is called its saturation
vapor pressure or, in short, its saturation pressure. (When the actual pressure
exerted by a vapor is less than its saturation pressure, the vapor is said to be
superheated. The temperature of a superheated vapor is higher than the
temperature that would exist if that vapor was at saturation at the actual
pressure.) The saturation pressures of water vapor over water and ice are of
particular concern in fan engineering. Table 1.7 lists values of saturation
pressure versus temperature. Below the freezing point, the saturation pres-
sures over sub-cooled water are generally higher than the saturation pressures
over ice. The table lists the latter. Saturation pressures p ws ′ , over a limited
range of wet-bulb temperatures t ′ , can also be approximated from

p ws ′ = C1t ′ 2 + C2 t ′ + C3 (1.11)

using Table 1.8. (The values in Table 1.8 are based on AMCA 210-85.1
Equations yielding greater accuracy over larger ranges can be found in the
ASHRAE Handbook,2 the Brochure,3 or the references for Table 1.7.

Table 1.8 Units and Values for Equation 1.11

pws ′ t′ Range C1 C2 C3
Pa °C 4°-32°C 3.25 18.6 692
kPa °C 4°-32°C 3.25 × 10-3 1.86 × 10-2 0.692
in. Hg °F 40°-90°F 2.96 × 10-4 -1.59 × 10-2 0.41

The partial pressure of superheated water vapor in air pw can be determined


approximately for atmospheric temperatures from

pw = pws ′ −
1 6
p t − t′
(1.12)
C4

1
"Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for Rating:" AMCA Standard 210-85, ASHRAE
Standard 51-85, 1985, pp. 12 & 42. -
'2ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals. ASHRAE, New York,
1977, p. 5.2.
3
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE New York, 1977, pp. 44-46.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-13

or from a similar equation proposed by Carrier1

çå p − p ′ äâ 1t − t ′6
ws
p w = p ws ′− (1.13)
C5 − C6 t ′

using the saturation pressure p ws ′ the wet-bulb temperature t ′ the absolute


1 6
pressure p , the wet-bulb depression t − t ′ , and Table 1.9. See Examples
1.6 and 1.8.

Table 1.9 Units and Values for Equations 1.12 and 1.13

pw p ws ′ p t − t′ t C4 C5 C6
Pa Pa Pa °C °C 1500 1557 0.74
in. Hg in. Hg in. Hg °F °F 2700 2803 1.33

Humidity
Humidity, in its general sense, is the presence of water vapor in the air.
The amount of water vapor that can be mixed with dry air (or any gas) may
vary from zero to a maximum that is dependent on temperature and pressure.
The water vapor displaces an equal number of molecules of dry air, according
to Avogadro's hypothesis.2 Thus, moist air is not the result of adding water
vapor to dry air but the result of substituting water vapor for some of the dry
air.
The amount of water vapor in moist air or gas can be described in various
ways. ASHRAE, in its Handbook,3 has adopted certain terminology, which
with few exceptions, is used here for the sake of uniformity. Previous
editions of Fan Engineering used older terms and definitions.
The relative humidity ϕ of moist air or gas is the ratio of the partial
pressure of the water vapor p w to the saturation vapor pressure pws for the
same dry-bulb temperature:

pw
ϕ= . (1.14)
pws

This is also equal to the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor f w to the
mole fraction of water vapor that would exist at saturation f ws for the same
dry-bulb temperature:
1
W. H. Carrier, "Rational Psychrometric Formulae," Trans. ASME, vol. 33, 1911, pp. 1309-
1350.
2
Avogadro’s hypothesis is that the number of gas molecules in any given volume at any given
pressure and temperature is constant regardless of the gas or gases involved.
3
ASHRAE Handbook and, Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York,
1977. p. 5.2.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-14 FAN ENGINEERING

ϕ = f w f ws . (1.15)

The humidity ratio W of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the mass of dry gas mg :

W = mw mg . (1.16)

The specific humidity H of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the total mass of the mixture mw + mg :

3
H = mw mw + mg . 8 (1.17)

The absolute humidity ρ w of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the total volume of the mixture Q :

ρ w = mw Q . (1.18)

This is also the partial density of the water vapor component.


The degree of saturation δ of a moist gas is the ratio of the actual humid-
ity ratio W to the saturation humidity ratio Ws at the same temperature and
pressure:

δ = W Ws . (1.19)

Any consistent units can be employed in the above equations. Relative


humidity ϕ , humidity ratio W , specific humidity H , and degree of saturation
δ are dimensionless parameters.
A number of important relationships can be derived from these equations
together with a consideration of the perfect gas laws. The partial pressure of
the vapor p w can be expressed in terms of the relative humidity ϕ and the
saturation vapor pressure pws at the same dry-bulb. From Equation 1.12,

pw = pwsϕ . (1.20)

The humidity ratio W can be expressed in terms of the absolute pressure


of the mixture p , the partial pressure of the vapor p w , the saturation vapor
pressure pws , the relative humidity ϕ , the density of water vapor relative to
dry air w , and the specific gravity of the dry gas G :

pw w pwsϕ w
W=
1 6 1
p − pw G
=
p − pwsϕ G
.
6 (1.21)

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-15

The specific humidity H can be determined from:

pw w pwsϕ w
H=
1 6
p − pw G + p w w
=
1 6
p − pwsϕ G + pwsϕ w
. (1.22)

The degree of saturation δ can be expressed in terms of the actual mass of


water vapor mw and the mass of water vapor at saturation mws (at the same
temperature t and absolute pressure p ):

δ = mw mws . (1.23)

This is not quite the same as relative humidity ϕ . The relationship between
ϕ and δ is expressed in

δ
ϕ=
1 6
1 − 1 − δ p ws p
(1.24)

where p ws is the saturation vapor pressure at the dry-bulb temperature of the


mixture, and p is the absolute pressure.
Substituting Equation 1.20 in Equation 1.21 yields

pGW
pw = . (1.25)
w + GW

This equation is the defining relationship for dew-point temperature t ′′ .


There will be only one value for the partial pressure p w for each combination
of pressure p , humidity ratio W , specific gravity G , and density ratio w ,
regardless of the dry-bulb temperature. The saturation temperature corre-
sponding to p w is the dew-point temperature.

Density and Specific Volume


Density ρ is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. Specific
volume v is the reciprocal of density. Various general relationships based on
the perfect gas laws can be used to determine density. The method or equa-
tion used will depend on what is known about the gas.
If the gas is dry and if its molecular weight M , absolute temperature T ,
and absolute pressure p are known,

M T0 p
ρ= (1.26)
C0 T p0

should be used together with Table 1.10 to determine density ρ . By using the
.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-16 FAN ENGINEERING

apparent molecular weight, the densities of mixtures, including that of moist


air, can be computed using Equation 1.26. However, the presence of water
vapor is specifically taken into account in Equations 1.28 through 1.39.
The numerical values in Table 1.10 are generally considered standard
values for the units chosen. Any consistent units can be used with appropriate
values. The numerical values can be combined for convenience of calcula-
tion; i.e., C0 p0 T0 is 8.311 m3-kPa/kg-mol-K or 21.84 ft3-in. Hg/lbm-mol-°R.

Table 1.10 Units and Values for Equation 1.26

ρ M C0 T T0 p p0 C0 p0 T0
3
kg/m kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 Pa 101300 8311
kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 kPa 101.3 8.311
lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 lb/in.2 14.70 10.73
3
lbm/ft lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 in. Hg 29.92 21.84
lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 in. wg 407.5 297.5
3
kg/m kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm Hg 1760.0 62.35
kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm wg 10350 849.1

If the gas is dry and if its specific gravity G , absolute temperature T , and
absolute pressure p are known,

Gp
ρ= (1.27)
R0T

should be used together with Tables 1.10 and 1.11 to calculate density ρ .
The adjusted gas constant R0 is for air and includes the conversion factor C p
from Equation 1.3.

Table 1.11 Units and Values for Equations 1.27 to 1.37

ρ, ρ g , & ρ w p& p ws G , w, ϕ , W ,& H t A R0


kg/m3 Pa dimensionless °C 273.2 287.0
kg/m3 kPa dimensionless °C 273.2 0.2870
lbm/ft3 lb/ft2 dimensionless °F 459.7 53.35
lbm/ft3 in. Hg dimensionless °F 459.7 0.7543
lbm/ft3 in. wg dimensionless °F 459.7 10.27
kg/m3 mm Hg dimensionless °C 273.2 2.153
kg/m3 mm wg dimensionless °C 273.2 29.32

Example 1.4 Density of Dry Gas

Given dry gas, 30.6 kg/kg-mol, 176.7°C, and 98.78 kPa, find the gas density.

Using Equation 1.26 with SI values:

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-17

Mp 30.6 × 98.78
ρ= = = 0.808 kg/m3.
8.311T 8.311 × 449.9

Given dry gas, 30.6 lbm/lbm-mol (or 1.0564 specific gravity), 350°F, and
29.17 in. Hg, find the density of the gas.

Using Equation 1.26 and 1.27 with U.S. values:

Mp 30.6 × 29.17
ρ= = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3.
2184 . × 809.7
. T 2184

Gp 10564
. × 29.17
ρ= = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3.
0.7543T 0.7543 × 809.7

If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t , and relative humidity ϕ are known,

1 p − p ϕ 6G + p ϕw
R 1t + A6
ρ= ws ws
(1.28)
0

should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ . The partial
densities of the dry gas ρ g and the water vapor ρ w can be determined using

1 p − p ϕ 6G and
R 1t + A6
ρg = ws
(1.29)
0

pwsϕ w
ρw =
R0 t + A1 6
. (1.30)

If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t and humidity ratio W are known,

1 6
p 1+ W
R t+A1 6
ρ= 0
çæ äã
1 W
, (1.31)
å â
G w
+

1
ρg = ρ , and (1.32)
1+ W

W
ρw = ρ (1.33)
1+W

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-18 FAN ENGINEERING

should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ or partial


densities ρ g and ρ w . If the specific humidity H is known rather than the
humidity ratio W ,

p
R0 t + A 1 6
ρ=
çæ
1− H H
,
äã (1.34)

Gå +
w â
1 6
ρ g = ρ 1 − H , and (1.35)

ρ w = ρH (1.36)

should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ and partial
densities ρ g and ρ w .

Example 1.5 Density of Moist Gas

Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 176.7°C, 98.78 kPa, and 0.2 kg
water vapor per kg dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components.

Using Equations 1.8 and 1.31-1.33 with SI values:

1
p 1+ W 6 98.78 × 12
1 6
.
0.2870 t + 273.2
ρ= = 0.2870 × 449.9 = 0.724 kg/m3,
1 W 1 0.2
+ +
G w .
10564 0.622
1 1
ρg = ρ = 0.724 = 0.603 kg dry air/m3, and
1+W 12
.
W 0.2
ρw = ρ = 0.724 = 0.121 kg water vapor/m3
1+W 12
.

Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 350°F, 29.17 in. Hg, and 0.2 lbm
water vapor per lbm dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components.

Using Equations 1.31-1.33 with U.S. values:

1 6
p 1+W 29.17 × 12
0.75431t + 459.76 0.7543 × 809.7
.
ρ= = = 0.0452 lbm/ft , 3
1 W 1 0.2
+ +
G w .
10564 0.622
1 1
ρg = ρ = 0.0452 = 0.0377 lbm dry air/ft3, and
1+W 12
.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-19

W 0.2
ρw = ρ = 0.0452 × = 0.0075 lbm water vapor/ft3.
1+ W 12
.

If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t , and wet-bulb temperature t ′ are known,

1p − p 6+ p w
R 1 t + A6
ρ= w w
(1.37)
0

should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ . The partial
pressure of the vapor ρ w can be determined from Equation 1.12 or 1.13.
Alternatively, if the gas is air, its density can be found in the psychrometric
density chart, Figure 1.2.
If the gas is moist air and if its humidity ratio W and the volume of the
mixture per unit mass of dry air v mý are known,

1+W
ρ= . (1.38)
v mý

The values of W and vmý can be determined from measurements of t and t ′


by using a psychrometric chart such as Figure 1.6. Most charts are drawn for
standard barometric pressure p0 , so use of Equation 1.38 will yield a corre-
sponding density ρ 0 . To determine a close approximation to the actual
density ρ at the actual pressure p ,

p
ρ = ρ0 . (1.39)
p0

Example 1.6 Density of Moist Air

Given moist air, 28.50 in. Hg, 90°F dry-bulb, and 75°F wet-bulb, find the
density of the air.

Using Equations 1.11, 1.12, and 1.37 with U.S. units:

p ws ′ = 2.96 × 10 −4 t ′ 2 − 159
. × 10 −2 t ′ + 0.41 = 0.88 in. Hg for t ′ = 75,

pw = p ws ′ −
1
p t − t′ 6 = 0.88 −
1
28.50 90 − 75 6
= 0.72 in. Hg, and
2700 2700
1 6
p − pw + pw w 1 6
28.50 − 0.72 + 0.72 × 0.622
ρ=
1
0.7543 t + 459.7 6 =
1
0.7543 549.7 6 = 0.0681 lbm/ft3.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-20 FAN ENGINEERING

Using Figure 1.2:


t − t ′ = 90 − 75 = 15°F and
ρ = 0.0681 lbm/ft3 from chart.

Figure 1.2 Psychrometric Density Chart

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-21

Using Figure 1.6 and Equations 1.38 and 1.39:

W0 = 0.0153 lbm water vapor/lbm dry air from chart for 29.92 in. Hg,
vmý = 14.18 ft3/lbm dry air from Figure 1.6 for 29.92 in. Hg,
1 + W 10153
.
ρ0 = = = 0.0716 lbm/ft3 for 29.92 in. Hg, and
vmý 14.18
çæ p äã = 0.0716çæ 28.5 äã = 0.0682 lbm/ft for 28.5 in. Hg.
ρ = ρ0
åp â å 29.92 â
3

According to Avogadro's hypothesis,1 moist air is less dense than dry air
at any particular dry-bulb temperature and pressure, because air molecules are
displaced by lighter water vapor molecules. However, moist air is more dense
than dry air at any particular wet-bulb temperature and pressure. This is
because the dry-bulb temperature is lower, and there are more molecules in a
unit volume of mixture at the moist condition.

Heat, Specific Heat, and Heat of Vaporization


Heat is thermal energy. The SI unit for all forms of energy is the joule.
The U.S. customary unit for heat is the British thermal unit, or Btu. A similar
metric unit is the calorie.
Originally, the mean value of the Btu was defined as 1/180 of the heat
required to raise the temperature of a pound mass of water from the freezing
point to the boiling point. Similarly, the mean value of the calorie was
defined as 1/100 of the heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of
water from freezing to boiling. Other definitions were based on a one-degree
rise centered on a specified temperature level, such as 15°C, 20°C, 59°F, and
60°F. Recent standards, however, are independent of the properties of water.
The ASME standards are based on the International Steam Table values: i.e.
one Btu equals 1055.056 J, and one calorie equals 4.186800 J. The effects of
differences between International Steam Table values and other values are
negligible in most fan engineering.
Specific heat is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
substance one degree. Specific heat varies with temperature. For many
processes encountered in fan engineering, a single value of specific heat, such
as that at the average temperature, can be used with satisfactory results. For
more precise calculations, the process must be broken down into a series of
smaller steps, and the specific heat evaluated for each step. Typical values for
air, ice, water, and water vapor are given in Table 1.12.
The specific heat at constant volume cv is the heat required, during a
constant volume process, to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas one
.
1
Avogadro’s hypothesis is that the number of gas molecules in any given volume at any given
pressure and temperature is a constant regardless of the gas or gases involved.

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1-22 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 1.12 Typical Specific Heat Values

Substance Symbol SI U.S. cgs


Air c pa 1.00 kJ/kg-K 0.24 Btu/lbm-°F 0.24 cal/g-°C
Water Vapor c pw 1.88 kJ/kg-K 0.45 Btu/lbm-°F 0.45 cal/g-°C
Water c pi 4.19 kJ/kg-K 1.00 Btu/lbm-°F 1.00 cal/g-°C
Ice c pl 1.97 kJ/kg-K 0.47 Btu/lbm-°F 0.47 cal/g-°C

degree. A constant volume process does not involve any external work;
therefore, according to the first law of thermodynamics, the heat required is
equal to the change in the internal energy ∆ u . Hence,

∆ u = cv ∆ t (1.40)

for a given change in temperature ∆ t assuming that cv is constant.


The specific heat at constant pressure c p is the heat required, during a
constant pressure process, to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas one
degree. A constant pressure process involves a change in both internal energy
1 6
∆ u and external work ∆ pv . Hence, according to the first law,

∆u+
1 6
∆ pv
= cp ∆ t (1.41)
J

for a given change in temperature ∆t assuming that c p is constant.


The difference in specific heats is related to the gas constant R :

R
c p − cv = . (1.42)
J

The mechanical equivalent of heat J can be obtained from Table 1.13.

Table 1.13 Units and Values for Equations 1.42, 1.55, and 1.56

c p ,cv ,& s R J
J/kg-K J/kg-K 1.00 J/J
Btu/lbm-°R ft-lb/lbm-°R 778.17 ft-lb/Btu
cal/g-K J/g-K 4.1868 J/cal

The ratio of specific heats γ is an important quantity, as will become


apparent in subsequent chapters.

cp
γ = (1.43)
cv

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-23

This ratio has values of about 1.66 for monatomic gases, 1.40 for diatomic
gases, and 1.30 for polyatomic gases. Values for specific gases are given in
the appendix on properties of materials.
The specific heats of various gases, at constant pressure and various
temperatures, are listed in Table 1.15. Values for dry air are plotted against
temperature in Figure 1.3. (The references for Table 1.15 and Figure 1.3
contain many more values at different temperatures.) Figure 1.4 plots specific
heat for water vapor against temperature, for various vapor pressures and
relative humidities.
The average specific heat for a mixture of dry air and water vapor ex-
pressed per unit mass of dry air c pmý can be calculated from the humidity ratio
W and the specific heats of dry air c pa and water vapor c pw using

c pmý = c pa + Wc pw . (1.44)

This expression is meaningful only if there is no condensation or evaporation


over the range of temperatures considered.
The heat of vaporization hlw , sometimes called latent heat, is the heat
necessary to evaporate a unit mass of substance at constant pressure and
saturation temperature. Similarly, the heat of sublimation hiw is the heat
necessary to sublimate a unit mass of substance at constant pressure and
saturation temperature. Values for water and ice can be determined from
Figure 1.5. Values for temperatures t within the air conditioning range can
be determined approximately by using these formulae:

hlw = C7 − C8t and (1.45)

hiw = C9 − C10 t . (1.46)

Refer to Table 1.14 for units of measurement and values of the various
coefficients.

Table 1.14 Units and Values for Equations 1.45 and 1.46

hlw & hiw t C7 C8 C9 C10


kJ/kg °C 2501 2.30 2836 0.08
Btu/lbm °F 1093 0.55 1220 0.02
cal/g °C 597 0.55 677 0.02

Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy h is a measure of the total heat content of a unit mass of
substance. Specific enthalpy values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is
assigned to some arbitrarily selected state point. For most gases, including
air, the zero value is for zero degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending
on the system of units employed) and standard atmospheric pressure.

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1-24 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 1.15 Specific Heats of VariousGases


In Btu/lbm-°F

Temperature Air N2 O2 CO2 CO H2 H2O Monatomic


°R °F 28.965 28.013 31.999 44.010 28.010 2.016 18.015 Gases
100 -359.7 .2392 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
200 -259.7 .2392 .2480 .2173 .1589 .2481 2.7599 .4411 5.454/M
300 -159.7 .2392 .2480 .2173 .1674 .2481 3.0957 .4415 5.162/M
400 -59.7 .2393 .2481 .2174 .1815 .2482 3.2961 .4421 5.072/M
500 40.3 .2396 .2481 .2184 .1964 .2483 3.3948 .4439 5.032/M
600 140.3 .2403 .2485 .2206 .2100 .2487 3.4355 .4473 5.013/M
700 240.3 .2416 .2491 .2239 .2221 .2498 3.4509 .4527 4.998/M
800 340.3 .2434 .2503 .2278 .2326 .2517 3.4598 .4592 4.989/M
900 440.3 .2458 .2521 .2321 .2421 .2541 3.4648 .4667 4.984/M
1000 540.3 .2486 .2546 .2363 .2507 .2570 3.4692 .4748 4.981/M
1100 640.3 .2516 .2573 .2404 .2584 .2603 3.4742 .4833 4.979/M
1200 740.3 .2547 .2603 .2442 .2654 .2638 3.4811 .4919 4.978/M
1300 840.3 .2579 .2635 .2476 .2716 .2673 3.4906 .5008 4.977/M
1400 940.3 .2611 .2668 .2507 .2773 .2707 3.5025 .5099 4.975/M
1500 1040.3 .2642 .2700 .2534 .2824 .2741 3.5169 .5191 4.974/M
1600 1140.3 .2671 .2731 .2560 .2870 .2773 3.5352 .5285 4.973/M
1700 1240.3 .2698 .2760 .2583 .2913 .2803 3.5560 .5380 4.972/M
1800 1340.3 .2725 .2789 .2604 .2951 .2830 3.5789 .5476 4.972/M
1900 1440.3 .2750 .2816 .2622 .2986 .2856 3.6032 .5570 4.971/M
2000 1540.3 .2773 .2842 2638 3017 .2881 3.6290 .5663 4.971/M

Adapted from the data of J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1948, pp. 34, 102, 107, 112, 117, 122, 127, and 128.

Figure 1.3 Specific Heats of Dry Air

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CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-25

Figure 1.4 Specific Heats of Water Vapor

Figure 1.5 Latent Heats of Water and Ice

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-26 FAN ENGINEERING

For many refrigerants, specific enthalpy is zero for saturated liquid at


minus 40°. For water, the datum selected is usually the freezing point and
saturation pressure. Other state points can be used for other substances.
Specific enthalpy is the sum of the specific internal energy u and the
work necessary to pump the specific volume v of a substance against its
pressure p , or

pv
h = u+ . (1.47)
J

While Equation 1.47 is the defining relationship, the following approximate


relationships, based on the perfect gas laws, are generally more useful in fan
engineering. The specific enthalpy of air ha can be determined from the
appropriate specific heat c pa and the temperature t using

ha = c pa t . (1.48)

The specific enthalpy of water hl can be determined from the appropriate


specific heat c pl , the temperature t , and Table 1.16 using

1
hl = c pl t − C11 . 6 (1.49)

The specific enthalpy of ice hi can be determined from the appropriate


specific heat c pi , the temperature t , and Table 1.16 using

1
hi = c pi t − C12 . 6 (1.50)

Table 1.16 Units and Values for Equations 1.48-1.50

hx c px t C11 C12
kJ/kg kJ/kg-K °C 0 171
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F 32 340

The specific enthalpy of water vapor hw can be determined from the specific
enthalpy of water and the latent heat of vaporization hlw using

hw = hl + hlw , (1.51)

or from the enthalpy of ice and the latent heat of sublimation hiw using

hw = hi + hiw . (1.52)

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-27

The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of mixture hm can be determined from
the specific humidity H and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using

1 6
hm = 1 − H ha + Hhw . (1.53)

The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of dry air hmý can be determined from
the humidity ratio W and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using

hmý = ha + Whw . (1.54)

Example 1.7 Enthalpy and Entropy of Air

Given dry air at 68°F and 29.92 in. Hg, find the specific enthalpy and the
specific entropy.

Using U.S. units and Equations 1.48 and 1.56:

ha = c pa t = 0.24 × 68 = 16.3 Btu/ lbm, and


çæ 68 + 459.7 äã − 53.35 lnçæ 29.92 =äã = 0.033 11 Btu/lbm-°R.
sa = 0.24 ln
å 459.7 â 778.2 å 29.92 â
Given moist air at 68°F, 29.92 in. Hg, and 100% relative humidity, find both
the enthalpy and entropy per unit mass of dry air.

Using U.S. units and Equations 1.11, 1.45, 1.49, 1.51, and 1.54:

pws = 0.6903 in. Hg from Table 1.7 and w = 0.622 from Figure 1.1,
p ϕw 0.6903 × 10
. × 0.622
W = ws = = 0.01469,
p − pwsϕ 29.92 − 0.6903 × 10 .
hlw = C7 − C8 t = 1093 − 0.55 × 68 = 1055.6 Btu/lbm,
1 6 1
hl = c pl t − C11 = 10 6
. 68 − 32 = 36 Btu/lbm,
hw = hl = hlw = 36 + 1055.6 = 1091.6 Btu/ lbm, and
hmý = ha + Whw = 16.3 + 0.01469 × 10916
. = 32.3 Btu/lbm d.a.

Using U.S. units and Equations 1.57, 1.56, 1.58, and 1.59:

hlw 1055.6
slw = = = 2.00 Btu/lbm-°R,
T 68 + 459.7
çæ
68 + 459.7 äã 85.78 çæ
29.92 äã
sl = 100
. ln
å
32 + 459.7 â

778.2
ln
å
29.92 â
= 0.07 Btu/lbm-°R,

sw = sl + slw = 0.07 + 2.00 = 2.07 Btu/lbm-°R, and


smý = sa + Wsw = 0.03311 + 0.01469 × 2.07 = 0.06352 Btu/lbm-°R.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-28 FAN ENGINEERING

Specific Entropy
Entropy is a property that is related to the second law of thermodynamics.
Changes in entropy are useful in comparing actual and ideal processes. In fan
engineering, efficiency considerations may involve the use of entropy.
Specific entropy s is entropy per unit mass of substance. Specific entropy
values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is assigned to some arbitrarily
selected state point. For most gases, including air, the zero value is for zero
degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending on the system of units
employed) and standard atmospheric pressure. For many refrigerants, specific
entropy is zero for saturated liquid at -40°. For water, the reference state
selected is usually the freezing point and saturation pressure. Other state
points can be used for other substances. Tables 1.17 and 1.18 list values for
dry and moist air, respectively.
Specific entropy differences can be calculated for any process from
specific heat c absolute temperature T gas constant R , and absolute pressure
p using

I
2
çæ dT äã − R lnçæ p äã .
s1 − s2 = c p
å t â J åpâ
2
(1.55)
1 1

Assuming that specific heat is constant yields

çæ T äã − R lnçæ p äã
s1 − s2 = c p ln
åT â J å p â
2 2
(1.56)
1 1

Refer to Table 1.13 for appropriate units and values. By setting T1 and p1 at
the appropriate values corresponding to the reference conditions, the value of
s1 becomes zero, and the value of s2 will approximate the tabulated value for
a pure substance, provided that there is no change of state when compared to
the reference state. The entropy of dry air sa and that of liquid water sl can
both be calculated in this manner.
When there is a change of state point compared to the reference state, as is
the case for water vapor, the entropy of vaporization slw must also be
calculated. This can be approximated from the latent heat of vaporization hlw
and the absolute temperature T using

hlw
slw = . (1.57)
T

The entropy of water vapor sw can then be obtained from

sw = sl + slw , (1.58)

where the entropy of the liquid sl is approximated using Equation 1.56.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-35

The entropy of the mixture of dry air and water vapor referred to a unit
mass of dry air smý can then be calculated using

smý = sa + Wsw . (1.59)

Psychrometric Tables
Thermodynamic properties of dry and moist air have been tabulated by
Goff and Gratch and reproduced in various works. The ASHVE Transactions,l
the ASHRAE Handbook,2 and the ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry3 all
contain these tables, which cover a range of temperatures from -160°F to
200°F at 29.921 in. Hg barometric pressure. These data are computed from
equations containing virial coefficients, which in turn are based on experi-
mental data. Table values, therefore, will differ from those predicted by the
perfect gas laws, but only slightly in the normal air conditioning range. The
ASHRAE Brochure gives complete details of the derivations, sources of data,
and methods of correcting for differences in pressure. Portions of these data
are reproduced in Tables 1.17 and 1.18. Table 1.17 lists dry air values of
specific volume, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy, which were extracted
directly, and density, which was calculated. All the data for moist air in Table
1.18 was taken directly from the original listings. Observe that all the moist
air data are referred to a unit mass of dry air. This is the usual practice in air
conditioning. The original tabulations also list the differences between
properties at saturation and properties for dry air to facilitate interpolation for
various degrees of saturation. Thermodynamic properties have been tabulated
in SI units by Raznjevic.4

Psychrometric Charts
Psychrometric charts have been published in many formats. Among the
most common are those that utilize the rectangular coordinates of humidity
ratio versus dry-bulb temperature and those that use the non-rectangular
coordinates of humidity ratio versus enthalpy per unit mass of dry air. Prior
to the Eighth Edition, the charts in Fan Engineering were always drawn using
rectangular coordinates, as Figure 1.9 still is. Figures 1.6-1.8, however, are
based on the current ASHRAE practice of using a uniform but slanted en-
thalpy scale. The use of the rectangular coordinates, humidity ratio versus
dry-bulb temperature, leads to curved wet-bulb temperature lines and a non-
uniform enthalpy scale. The use of the non-rectangular coordinates of hu-
midity ratio versus enthalpy leads to non-parallel dry-bulb temperature lines.
Neither method of presentation is inherently more accurate for single point
determinations; however, the ASHRAE charts are more accurate for mixture
.
1
J. A. Goff and S. Gratch, "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51,
New York, 1945, pp. 144-154.
2
ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York,
1977, pp. 6.3-6.6.
3
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, pp. 23-26.
4
K. Raznjevic, Handbook of Thermodynamic Tables and Charts, Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, Washington, 1976.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-36 FAN ENGINEERING

processes, which are depicted by a straight line. The error in the other chart
usually is negligible in air conditioning work. Most charts are drawn for one
barometric pressure. Lines of constant volume per unit mass of dry air
usually are superimposed on the chart, as are lines of constant relative humid-
ity. Any system of units can be used. (Figures 1.10 and 1.11 use SI units.)
The use of the psychrometric chart for air conditioning and other mass
transfer purposes will be discussed in the chapter on mass transfer. The
mechanics of reading a chart are as follows. For any point on the chart, there
is one value each of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, relative
humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, and volume. These values can be deter-
mined by interpolating between the appropriate adjacent lines. The dew-point
temperature can also be determined by reading the saturation temperature for
the same humidity ratio. Specific humidity, absolute humidity, and degree of
saturation can be calculated using data taken from the chart together with
Equations 1.17-1.19. The density can be calculated using Equation 1.38 and
the appropriate data read from the chart.
Psychrometric charts can be constructed for any gas-vapor mixture or for
any absolute or barometric pressure. Various calculation procedures can be
used. Example 1.8 illustrates a simplified method that can be performed
rather quickly with a calculator. For more detailed calculations, a computer
routine should be considered.

Example 1.8 Constructing a Psychrometric Chart

Given an altitude of 5000 feet, construct a skeleton psychrometric chart


covering a range of dry-bulb temperatures from 50°F to 100°F.

Choose an appropriate set of coordinates. In this example, dry-bulb tempera-


ture t will be abscissa and humidity ratio W will be ordinate. Lines of
constant wet-bulb temperature t ′ , constant relative humidity ϕ , constant
enthalpy h , and constant volume per unit mass of dry air vmý will also be
drawn. The absolute pressure p will be constant at the standard value for the
altitude taken from Table 1.2,

p = 24.90 in. Hg.

The coordinates of various points on the saturation curve and other selected
relative humidity curves can be determined using Equation 1.21 together with
values of the relative density of water vapor w from Figure 1.1 and saturation
vapor pressure pws from Table 1.7. For example:

t = 50°F, ϕ = 1. 0, w = 0.6219,
pws = 0. 3626 in. Hg, and
p ϕw 0.3626 × 10
. × 0.6219 lbm w.v.
W = ws = = 0.00919 .
p − pwsϕ 24.90 − 0.3626 × 10
. lbm d.a.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-37

p = 24.90 ϕ = 10
. ϕ = 0.5
t pws w W w W
°F in. Hg - lbm w.v./lbm d.a - lbm w.v./lbm d.a.
50 .3626 .6219 .009 19 .6218 .004 56
60 .5218 .6221 .013 32 .6219 .006 59
70 .7392 .6223 .019 05 .6220 .009 38
80 1.032 .6225 .026 93 .6221 .013 17
90 1.422 .6228 .037 74 .6222 .018 30
100 1.932 .6231 .052 44 '6223 .025 13

Curves for ϕ = 10. and ϕ = 0.5 can now be faired in through plotted points.
Curves for other values of ϕ could also be drawn.

Ideally, lines of constant enthalpy should be drawn for integer values, but to
simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve
coordinates will be determined. Using values of heat of vaporization hlw from
Figure 1.5, enthalpy of water hl from Equation 1.49, enthalpy of water vapor
hw from Equation 1.51, and enthalpy of air ha from Equation 1.48, the
enthalpy per unit mass of dry air hmý can be determined from Equation 1.54.
For example:
t = 50°F, ϕ = 1.0, hlw = 1065 Btu/lbm w.v.,
1 6
hl = c pl t − 32 = 100 1 6
. 50 − 32 = 18 Btu/lbm w.v.,
hw = hlw + hl = 1065 + 18 = 1083 Btu/lbm w.v.
ha = c pa t = 0.24 × 50 = 12.00 Btu/lbm d.a., and
hmý = ha + hwW = 12.00 + 1083 × 0.00919 = 21.95 Btu/lbm d.a.

t hlw hl hw ha hmý th
°F Btu/lbm w.v. Btu/lbm d.a. °F
50 1065 18 1083 12.00 21.95 91.5
60 1059 28 1087 14.40 28.88 120.3
70 1053 38 1091 16.80 37.58 156.6
80 1048 48 1096 19.20 48.72 203.0
90 1043 58 1101 21.60 63.15 263.1
100 1037 68 1105 24.00 81.95 341.5

The last column lists values of t h , the temperature of dry air having the same
enthalpy hmý calculated for moist air at saturation shown in the previous
column, based on Equation 1.48. For example:

hmý 2195 .
th = = = 91.5°F.
c pa 0.24

Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t h on the dry air line
can be drawn.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-38 FAN ENGINEERING

Ideally, lines of constant volume should be drawn for integer values, but to
simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve
coordinates will be determined. Since the reciprocal of ρ g is vmý Equation
1.29 can be used. For example:

vmý =
1
= 0
1 6
R t+A
=
1
0.7543 459.7 + 50 6
= 15.67 ft3/lbm d.a.
ρg p − pwsϕ 24.90 − 0.3626 × 10
.

t vmý tv h0 tt ′
3
°F ft /lbm d.a. °F Btu/lbm d.a. °F
50 15.67 57.6 21.78 90.75
60 16.09 71.4 28.51 118.79
70 16.54 86.3 36.86 153.58
80 17.06 103.5 47.43 197.63
90 17.67 123.6 60.96 254.00
100 18.39 147.4 78.38 326.58

The third column lists values of t v , based on Equation 1.27. This temperature
is that temperature of dry air which has the same volume vmý previously
calculated for moist air at saturation and shown in the preceding column. For
example:

pvmý 24.90 × 15.67


tv = −A= − 459.7 = 57.6°F.
R0 0.7543

Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t v on the dry air line
can be drawn.

At saturation, the wet-bulb temperature is equal to the dry-bulb temperature;


therefore, the coordinates calculated previously for the saturation curve can be
used. The last column of the table above lists values of t t ′ , the temperature of
dry air having the same temperature of adiabatic saturation, based on Equa-
tions 1.10 and 1.48. For example:

1 6
h0 = hs ∗ Ws − 0 = 2195
. − 18 × 0.00919 = 21.78 Btu/lbm d.a., and

h0 2178 .
tt ′ = = = 90.8°F.
c pa 0.24

Observe that straight lines connecting these points do not deviate very much
from the lines of constant enthalpy previously drawn. Actually, on rectangu-
lar coordinates, the wet-bulb lines are slightly concave in the upward direc-
tion. The coordinates for wet-bulb temperature points between saturation and
dry air can be calculated using Equations 1.13 and 1.21.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-39

For example:-

t = 70°F,
t ′ = 50°F,
çå p − p ′ äâ
ws
124.90 − 0.36266170 − 506 = 01833
pw = pws ′− = 0.3626 − . in. Hg
C5 − C6t ′ 2803 − 01833
.
p w 01833
. × 0.6221
W= w = = 0.00461 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.
p − pw 24.90 − 01833.
A plot of this point falls on the straight line previously drawn. However, for
large temperature ranges, intermediate points should be calculated.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-40 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 1.17 Properties of Dry Air


Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. Hg
t ρ v h s t ρ v h s
°F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F

0 .08637 11.578 0.000 .00000 45 .07863 12.717 10.809 .02245


1 .08618 11.604 0.240 .00052 46 .07848 12.742 11.049 .02293
2 .08599 11.629 0.480 .00104 47 .07833 12.767 11.289 .02340
3 .08581 11.654 0.721 .00156 48 .07817 12.792 11.530 .02387
4 .08562 11.679 0.961 .00208 49 .07802 12.818 11.770 .02434

5 .08543 11.705 1.201 .00260 50 .07786 12.843 12.010 .02481


6 .08525 11.730 1.441 .00312 51 .07771 12.868 12.250 .02528
7 .08506 11.756 1.681 .00364 52 .07756 12.894 12.491 .02575
8 .08488 11.781 1.922 .00415 53 .07741 12.919 12.731 .02622
9 .08470 11.806 2.162 .00467 54 .07726 12.944 12.971 .02669

10 .08452 11.831 2.402 .00518 55 .0771 0 12.970 13.211 .02716


11 .08434 11.857 2.642 .00569 56 .07695 12.995 13.452 .02762
12 .08416 11.882 2.882 .00620 57 .07680 13.020 13.692 .02809
13 .08398 11.907 3.123 .00671 58 .07666 13.045 13.932 .02855
14 .08380 11.933 3.363 .00721 59 .07651 13.071 14.172 .02902

15 .08363 11.958 3.603 .00772 60 .07636 13.096 14.413 .02948


16 .08345 11.983 3.843 .00822 61 .07621 13.121 14.653 .02994
17 .08327 12.009 4.083 .00873 62 .07606 13.147 14.893 .03040
18 .08310 12.034 4.324 .00923 63 .07592 13.172 15.134 .03086
19 .08293 12.059 4.564 .00973 64 .07577 13.197 15.374 .03132

20 .08275 12.084 4.804 .01023 65 .07563 13.222 15.614 .03177


21 .08258 12.110 5.044 .01073 66 .07549 13.247 15.855 .03223
22 .08241 12.135 5.284 .01123 67 .07534 13.273 16.095 .03269
23 .08224 12.160 5.525 .01173 68 .07520 13.298 16.335 .03314
24 .08206 12.186 5.765 .01223 69 .07506 13.323 16.576 .03360

25 .08189 12.211 6.005 .01273 70 .07492 13.348 16.816 .03405


26 .08173 12.236 6.245 .01322 71 .07478 13.373 17.056 .03450
27 .08155 12.262 6.485 .01372 72 .07464 13.398 17.297 .03495
28 .08139 12.287 6.726 .01421 73 .07449 13.424 17.537 .03540
29 .08122 12.312 6.966 .01470 74 .07435 13.449 17.778 .03585

30 .08105 12.338 7.206 .01519 75 .07422 13.474 18.018 .03630


31 .08089 12.363 7.446 .01568 76 .07408 13.499 18.259 .03675
32 .08072 12.388 7.686 .01617 77 .07394 13.525 18.499 .03720
33 .08056 12.413 7.927 .01666 78 .07380 13.550 18.740 .03765
34 .08040 12.438 8.167 .01715 79 .07366 13.575 18.980 .03810

35 .08023 12.464 8.407 .01764 80 .07352 13.601 19.221 .03854


36 .08007 12.489 8.647 .01812 81 .07339 13.626 19.461 .03899
37 .07991 12.514 8.887 .01861 82 .07325 13.651 19.702 .03943
38 .07974 12.540 9.128 .01909 83 .07312 13.676 19.942 .03987
39 .07959 12.565 9.368 .01957 84 .07298 13.702 20.183 .04031

40 .07943 12.590 9.608 .02005 85 .07285 13.727 20.423 .04075


41 .07926 12.616 9.848 .02053 86 .07272 13.752 20.663 .04119
42 .07911 12.641 10.088 .02101 87 .07258 13.777 20.904 .04163
43 .07895 12.666 10.329 .02149 88 .07245 13.803 21.144 .04207
44 .07880 12.691 10.569 .02197 89 .07232 13.828 21.385 .04251

Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-41

Table 1.17 Properties of Dry Air (Concluded)


Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. Hg

t ρ v h s t ρ v h s
°F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F

90 .07219 13.853 21.625 .04295 135 .06671 14.990 32.452 .06189


91 .07205 13.879 21.865 .04339 136 .06660 15.016 32.692 .06229
92 .07192 13.904 22.106 .04382 137 .06648 15.041 32.933 .06270
93 .07179 13.929 22.346 .04426 138 .06637 15.066 33.174 .06310
94 .07166 13.954 22.587 .04469 139 .06626 15.091 33.414 .06350

95 .07153 13.980 22.827 .04513 140 .06615 15.117 33.655 .06390


96 .07140 14.005 23.068 .04556 141 .06604 15.142 33.896 .06430
97 .07128 14.030 23.308 .04600 142 .06593 15.167 34.136 .06470
98 .07114 14.056 23.548 .04643 143 .06582 15.192 34.377 .06510
99 .07102 14.081 23.789 .04686 144 .06571 15.218 34.618 .06549

100 .07089 14.106 24.029 .04729 145 .06560 15.243 34.859 .06589
101 .07077 14.131 24.270 .04772 146 .06550 15.268 35.099 .06629
102 .07064 14.157 24.510 .04815 147 .06539 15.293 35.340 .06669
103 .07051 14.182 24.751 .04858 148 .06528 15.319 35.581 .06708
104 .07039 14.207 24.991 .04900 149 .06517 15.344 35.822 .06748

105 .07026 14.232 25.232 .04943 150 .06507 15.369 36.063 .06787
106 .07014 14.258 25.472 .04985 151 .06496 15.394 36.304 .06827
107 .07001 14.283 25.713 .05028 152 .06485 15.420 36.545 .06866
108 .06989 14.308 25.953 .05070 153 .06475 15.445 36.785 .06906
109 .06977 14.333 26.194 .05113 154 .06464 15.470 37.026 .06945

110 .06964 14.359 26.434 .05155 155 .06453 15.496 37.267 .06984
111 .06952 14.384 26.675 .05197 156 .06443 15.521 37.508 .07023
112 .06940 14.409 26.915 .05239 157 .06433 15.546 37.749 .07062
113 .06928 14.435 27.156 .05281 158 .06422 15.571 37.990 .07101
114 .06916 14.460 27.397 .05323 159 .06411 15.597 38.231 .07140

115 .06904 14.485 27.637 .05365 160 .06401 15.622 38.472 .07179
116 .06892 14.510 27.878 .05407 161 .06391 15.647 38.713 .07218
117 .06879 14.536 28.119 .05449 162 .06381 15.672 38.954 .07257
118 .06868 14.561 28.359 .05490 163 .06370 15.698 39.195 .07296
119 .06856 14.586 28.600 .05532 164 .06360 15.723 39.436 .07334

120 .06844 14.611 28.841 .05573 165 .06350 15.748 39.677 .07373
121 .06832 14.637 29.082 .0561 5 166 .06340 15.773 39.918 .07411
122 .06820 14.662 29.322 .05656 167 .06330 15.799 40.159 .07450
123 .06809 14.687 29.563 .05698 168 .06320 15.824 40.400 .07488
124 .06797 14.712 29.804 .05738 169 .06310 15.849 40.641 .07527

125 .06785 14.738 30.044 .05780 170 .06300 15.874 40.882 .07565
126 .06774 14.763 30.285 .05821 171 .06289 15.900 41.123 .07603
127 .06762 14.788 30.526 .05862 172 .06279 15.925 41.364 .07641
128 .06751 14.813 30.766 .05903 173 .06270 15.950 41,605 .07680
129 .06739 14.839 31.007 .05944 174 .06260 15.975 41.846 .07718

130 .06728 14.864 31.248 .05985 175 .06250 16.001 42.087 .07756
131 .06716 14.889 31.489 .06026 176 .06240 16.026 42.328 .07794
132 .06705 14.915 31.729 .06067 177 .06230 16.051 42.569 .07832
133 .06693 14.940 31.970 .06108 178 .06220 16.076 42.810 .07870
134 .06682 14.965 32.211 .06148 179 .06210 16.102 43.051 .07908

Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-42 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 1.18 Properties of Moist Air at Saturation


Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. Hg

t W vmý hmý smý t W vmý hmý smý


°F - ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F - ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F

0 .000787 11.593 0.835 .00192 45 .006331 12.846 17.650 .03670


1 .000830 11.619 1.120 .00254 46 .006578 12.876 18.161 .03771
2 .000874 11.645 1.408 .00316 47 .006835 12.907 18.680 .03874
3 .000920 11.671 1.698 .00379 48 .007100 12.938 19.211 .03978
4 .000969 11.697 1.991 .00442 49 .007374 12.969 19.751 .04084

5 .001020 11.724 2.286 .00506 50 .007658 13.001 20.301 .04192


6 .001074 11.750 2.583 .00570 51 .007952 13.032 20.862 .04302
7 .001130 11.777 2.883 .00635 52 .008256 13.064 21.436 .04414
8 .001189 11.803 3.188 .00700 53 .008569 13.097 22.020 .04528
9 .001251 11.830 3.494 .00766 54 .008894 13.129 22.615 .04645

10 .001315 11.856 3.803 .00832 55 .009229 13.162 23.22 .04763


11 .001383 11.883 4.116 .00899 56 .009575 13.195 23.84 .04883
12 .001454 11.910 4.432 .00966 57 .009934 13.228 24.48 .05006
13 .001528 11.936 4.753 .01034 58 .01030 13.261 25.12 .05131
14 .001606 11.963 5.076 .01101 59 .01069 13.295 25.78 .05259

15 .001687 11.990 5.403 .01171 60 .01108 13.329 26.46 .05389


16 .001772 12.017 5.735 .01240 61 .01149 13.363 27.15 .05521
17 .001861 12.044 6.071 .01311 62 .01191 13.398 27.85 .05656
18 .001953 12.072 6.412 .01382 63 .01 326 13.504 30.06 .06078
19 .002051 12.099 6.756 .01454 64 .01280 13.468 29.31 .05935

20 .002152 12.126 7.106 .01527 65 .01326 13.504 30.06 .06078


21 .002258 12.154 7.460 .01601 66 .01374 13.539 30.83 .06225
22 .002369 12.181 7.820 .01676 67 .01424 13.576 31.62 .06375
23 .002485 12.209 8.186 .01752 68 .01475 13.613 32.42 .06527
24 .002606 12.237 8.557 .01830 69 .01528 13.650 33.25 .06683

25 .002733 12.265 8.934 .01908 70 .01582 13.687 34.09 .06842


26 .002865 12.293 9.317 .01987 71 .01639 13.724 34.95 .07004
27 .003003 12.321 9.706 .02068 72 .01697 13.762 35.83 .07170
28 .003147 12.349 10.103 .02149 73 .01757 13.801 36.74 .07340
29 .003297 12.377 10.506 .02231 74 .01819 13.841 37.66 .07513

30 .003454 12.406 10.915 .02315 75 .01882 13.881 38.61 .07690


31 .003617 12.434 11.333 .02400 76 .01948 13.921 39.57 .07872
32 .003788 12.463 11.758 .02487 77 .02016 13.962 40.57 .08057
33 .003944 12.492 12.169 .02570 78 .02086 14.003 41.58 .08247
34 .004107 12.520 12.585 .02655 79 .02158 14.045 42.62 .08441

35 .004275 12.549 13.008 .02741 80 .02233 14.087 43.69 .08638


36 .004450 12.578 13.438 .02828 81 .02310 14.130 44.78 .08841
37 .004631 12.607 13.874 .02917 82 .02389 14.174 45.90 .09048
38 .004818 12.637 14.319 .03006 83 .02471 14.218 47.04 .09260
39 .005012 12.666 14.771 .03096 84 .02555 14.262 48.22 .09477

40 .005213 12.695 15.230 .03188 85 .02642 14.308 49.43 .09699


41 .005421 12.725 15.697 .03281 86 .02731 14.354 50.66 .09926
42 .005638 12.755 16.172 .03376 87 .02824 14.401 51.93 .10158
43 .005860 12.785 16.657 .03472 88 .02919 14.448 53.23 .10396
44 .006091 12.815 17.149 .03570 89 .03017 14.496 54.56 .10640

Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-154.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-43

Table 1.18 Properties of Moist Air at Saturation (Concluded)


Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. H

t W vmý hmý smý t W vmý hmý smý


°F - ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F - ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F

90 .03118 14.545 55.93 .10890 135 .1308 18.122 178.9 .3233


91 .03223 14.595 57.33 .11146 136 .1350 18.253 183.9 .3318
92 .03330 14.645 58.78 .11407 137 .1393 18.389 189.0 .3405
93 .03441 14.697 60.25 .11675 138 .1439 18.528 194.4 .3496
94 .03556 14.749 61.77 .11949 139 .1485 18.671 199.9 .3589

95 .03673 14.802 63.32 .12231 140 .1534 18.819 205.7 .3686


96 .03795 14.856 64.92 .12519 141 .1584 18.971 211.6 .3785
97 .03920 14.911 66.55 .12815 142 .1636 19.128 217.7 .3888
98 .04049 14,967 68.23 .13117 143 .1689 19.290 224.1 .3994
99 .04182 15.023 69.96 .13427 144 .1745 19.457 230.6 .4104

100 .04319 15.081 71.73 .13745 145 .1803 19.629 237.4 .4218
101 .04460 15.140 73.55 .14071 146 .1862 19.807 244.4 .4335
102 .04606 15.200 75.42 .14406 147 .1924 19.991 251.7 .4457
103 .04756 15.261 77.34 .14749 148 .1989 20.181 259.3 .4583
104 .04911 15.324 79.31 .1510 149 .2055 20.377 267.1 .4713

105 .05070 15.387 81.34 .1546 150 .2125 20.580 275.3 .4848
106 .05234 15.452 83.42 .1584 151 .2197 20.790 283.6 .4987
107 .05404 15.518 85.56 .1621 152 .2271 21.007 292.4 .5132
108 .05578 15.586 87.76 .1660 153 .2349 21.233 301.5 .5282
109 .05758 15.654 90.03 .1700 154 .2430 21.466 310.9 .5438

110 .05944 15.724 92.34 .1742 155 .2514 21.709 320.8 .5599
111 .06135 15.796 94.72 .1784 156 .2602 21.960 331.0 .5768
112 .06333 15.869 97.18 .1826 157 .2693 22.221 341.7 .5943
113 .06536 15.944 99.71 .1870 158 .2788 22.493 352.7 .6125
114 .06746 16.020 102.31 .1916 159 .2887 22.775 364.2 .6314

115 .06962 16.098 104.98 .1963 160 .2990 23.068 376.3 .6511
116 .07185 16.178 107.73 .2011 161 .3098 23.374 388.8 .6716
117 .07415 16.259 110.55 .2060 162 .3211 23.692 402.0 .6930
118 .07652 16.343 113.46 .2111 163 .3329 24.024 415.7 .7153
119 .07897 16.428 116.46 .2163 164 .3452 24.371 429.9 .7385

120 .08149 16.516 119.54 .2216 165 .3581 24.733 445.0 .7629
121 .08410 16.605 122.72 .2272 166 .3716 25.112 460.7 .7883
122 .08678 16.696 125.98 .2329 167 .3858 25.507 477.2 .8150
123 .08955 16.790 129.35 .2387 168 .4007 25.922 494.4 .8429
124 .09242 16.886 132.8 .2446 169 .4163 26.357 512.4 .8722

125 .09537 16.985 136.4 .2508 170 .4327 26.812 531.5 .9030
126 .09841 17.086 140.1 .2571 171 .4500 27.291 551.5 .9352
127 .1016 17.189 143.9 .2636 172 .4682 27.795 572.7 .9691
128 .1048 17.295 147.8 .2703 173 .4875 28.326 594.9 1.0049
129 .1082 17.404 151.8 .2772 174 .5078 28.886 618.3 1.0426

130 .1116 17.516 155.9 .2844 175 .5292 29.476 643.2 1.083
131 .1152 17.631 160.3 .2917 176 .5519 30.100 669.4 1.125
132 .1189 17.749 164.7 .2993 177 .5760 30.761 697.3 1.169
133 .1227 17.870 169.3 .3070 178 .6016 31.462 726.9 1.216
134 .1267 17.994 174.0 .31 51 179 .6288 32.206 758.3 1.266

Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-154.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-44 FAN ENGINEERING

Fog
Fog is a mixture of air, water vapor, and very fine water droplets, all at the
same temperature. The mixture is a mechanical one; the water vapor is at
saturation; and the water droplets are suspended. The fog region on a
psychrometric chart is the area above the saturation curve. On Figures 1.6-
1.8, the humidity ratio and enthalpy lines extend partly into the fog region.
They can be extended even further if necessary. To determine the properties
for any point in the fog region, read the humidity ratio W and enthalpy h
directly by interpolating between lines. To determine the temperature, extend
wet-bulb lines and interpolate. The dry-bulb temperature t will equal the
wet-bulb temperature t ′ . Since the humidity ratio W is the total mass of
droplets and vapor per unit mass of dry air, the mass of droplets per unit mass
of dry air Wd can be obtained by subtracting the humidity ratio at saturation
Ws at the same temperature. The density of the mixture ρ can be determined
from the chart values of the volume per unit mass of dry air at saturation vmý
and the humidity ratio W using Equation 1.38.

Barometric Corrections
Psychrometric data taken from published charts or tables may not be
sufficiently accurate if the actual pressure is different from the pressure for
which the data were prepared. If greater accuracy is required, corrections can
be applied as discussed in this section. Alternatively, a special chart can be
drawn, as illustrated in Example 1.8. ASHRAE has prepared charts for
elevations of 5000 feet and 7500 feet.
If only the density is required, Figure 1.2, the Psychrometric Density
Chart, is convenient to use. Density can also be computed using the equations
and examples in the section on density, or even Tables 1.19 and 1.20.
The effect of a change in pressure on the general appearance of a
psychrometric chart is to displace the saturation curve and all the relative
humidity lines. The displacement will be upward for a reduction in pressure.
Similarly, the wet-bulb lines will be moved upward resulting in higher values
for humidity ratio and enthalpy. The change in saturation humidity ratio, or
the difference between the saturation humidity ratio W ′ at elevation Z and
zs

W0 s ′ , that at the chart elevation, can be determined using the actual pressure
pz , the chart pressure p0 , the partial pressure of the vapor pws ′ , and

p0 − p z
Wzs′ − W0 s′ = W0 s′ . (1.60)
pz − pws′

Note that the prime signifies that properties are at the wet-bulb temperature.
This equation is for points on the saturation curve, but it can be used in the
partially saturated region with only slight errors. Figure 1.12 is a graphical
representation of Equation 1.60

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-45

The change in enthalpy, or the difference between the enthalpy hzs ′ at


elevation Z and h0s′ , that at chart elevation, can be determined using the
change in saturation humidity ratio from Equation 1.60, latent heat hlw ′ , and

( )
hzs′ − h0 s′ = hlw′ Wzs′ − W0 s′ . (1.61)

Figure 1.13 is a graphical representation of this equation. It is for points on


the saturation curve, but usually only slight inaccuracies will result if used in
the superheated region.

Example 1.9 Barometric Corrections

Given a barometric pressure of 24.90 in. Hg, a dry-bulb temperature of 70°F,


and a wet-bulb temperature of 50°F, find the density, the humidity ratio, and
the enthalpy.

Using Figure 1.6:


W0 = 0.0031 lbm w.v./lbm d.a., W0s′ = 0.00765 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.,
h0 = 20.2 Btu/lbm d.a., and h0s′ = 20.3 Btu/lbm-d.a

Using U.S. units, Table 1.7, and Equations 1.60, 1.45, 1.61, and 1.31:
p ′ = 0.3626,
ws
p0 − pz 29.92 − 24.90
Wzs′ − W0 s′ = W0 s′ = 0.00765 = .0016 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.,
pz − pws′ 24.90 − 0.3626

( )
Ws = W0 + Wzs′ − W0 s′ = 0.0031 + 0.0016 = 0.0047 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.,

hlw ′ = 1093 − 0.55t ′ = 1093 − 0.55 × 50 = 1065 Btu/lbm w.v.

( )
hzs′ − h0 s′ = hlw′ Wzs′ − W0 s′ = 1065 × 0.0016 = 1.704 Btu/lbm d.a.,

( )
hz = h0 + hzs′ − h0 s′ = 20.2 + 1.7 = 21.9 Btu/lbm d.a., and

p 1+W 1 624.90 1 + 0.0047 1 6


R t+A
ρ= 0 =
1 6
0.7543 70 + 459.7 1
= 0.0621 lbm/ft3.
6
1 W 1 0.0047
+ +
G w 1 0.622

Using Figures 1.12 and 1.13 leads to the same results:


W ′ − W0 ′ = 0.0016 lbm w.v./lbm d.a. and
zs s

hzs ′ − h0 s ′ = 1.7 Btu/lbm d.a.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-46 FAN ENGINEERING

Figure 1.12 Barometric Humidity Ratio Corrections

Figure 1.13 Barometric Enthalpy Corrections

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-47

Table 1.19 Density Factors for Air at Various Elevations


Standard Air at Sea. Level and 29.92 in. Hg-= 1.00

Z fx b Z fx b Z fx b Z fx b
ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg

0 1.000 29.92 1500 0.947 28.33 3000 0.896 26.82 6000 0.801 23.98
100 0.996 29.81 1600 0.944 28.23 3200 0.890 26.62 6500 0.786 23.53
200 0.993 29.70 1700 0.940 28.13 3400 0.883 26.42 7000 0.772 23.09
300 0.989 29.60 1800 0.937 28.02 3600 0.877 26.23 7500 0.757 22.65
400 0.986 29.49 1900 0.933 27.92 3800 0.870 26.03 8000 0.743 22.22

500 0.982 29.38 2000 0.930 27.82 4000 0.864 25.84 8500 0.729 21.80
600 0.979 29.28 2100 0.926 27.72 4200 0.857 25.65 9000 0.715 21.39
700 0.975 29.17 2200 0.923 27.62 4400 0.851 25.46 9500 0.701 20.98
800 0.971 29.07 2300 0.920 27.52 4600 0.845 25.27 10000 0.688 20.58
900 0.968 28.96 2400 0.916 27.42 4800 0.838 25.08 15000 0.564 1 6.89

1000 0.964 28.86 2500 0.913 27.32 5000 0.832 24.90 20000 0.460 13.75
1100 0.961 28.75 2600 0.909 27.21 5200 0.826 24.71 25000 0.371 11.10
1200 0.957 28.65 2700 0.906 27.11 5400 0.820 24.52 30000 0.297 8.89
1300 0.954 28.54 2800 0.903 27.01 5600 0.814 24.34 35000 0.235 7.04
1400 0.950 28.44 2900 0.899 26.91 5800 0.807 24.16 40000 0.185 5.54

Calculated from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to
65,800 Feet," Report 1235, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp. 66-81.

Table l.20 Density Factors for Dry Air a Various Temperatures


Standard Air at 70°F =1.00

t ft t ft t ft t ft t ft
°F - °F - °F - °F - °F -

-5 1.165 62 1.015 105 .938 210 .791 425 .599


-10 1.178 60 1.019 100 .946 200 .803 400 .616
0 1.152 64 1.011 110 .930 220 .779 450 .582
5 1.140 66 1.008 115 .922 230 .768 475 .567
10 1.128 68 1.004 120 .914 240 .757 500 .5 52

15 1.116 70 1.000 125 .906 250 .747 525 .538


20 1.104 72 .996 130 .898 260 .736 550 .525
25 1.093 74 .992 135 .891 270 .726 575 .512
30 1.082 76 .989 140 .883 280 .716 600 .500
35 1.071 78 .985 145 .876 290 .707 625 .488

40 1.060 80 .982 150 .869 300 .697 650 .477


42 1.056 82 .978 155 .862 310 .688 675 .467
44 1.052 84 .974 160 .855 320 .680 700 .457
46 1.047 86 .971 165 .848 330 .671 725 .447
48 1.043 88 .967 170 .841 340 .662 750 .438

50 1.039 90 .964 175 .835 350 .654 775 .429


52 1.035 92 .960 180 .828 360 .646 800 .421
54 1.031 94 .957 185 .822 370 .638 825 .412
56 1.027 96 .953 190 .815 380 .631 850 .404
58 1.023 98 .950 195 .809 390 .624 875 .397

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-48 FAN ENGINEERING

Barometric Measurements
Barometric pressures can be measured with either a Fortin or an aneroid
barometer. A Fortin, or mercurial barometer, consists of a vertical glass tube
with the top sealed and the bottom immersed in a cistern of mercury. The
tube is evacuated, and the mercury rises to a height corresponding to the
atmospheric pressure. However, because of thermal expansion, the reading at
any given pressure will vary slightly with temperature. Corrections to the
standard temperature of reference can be made using Table 1.21. Theoreti-
cally, an additional correction for the difference in gravitational acceleration
from the standard value should also be made using the data of Table 1.22.
However, such corrections are negligible in most fan engineering work. Even
properly designed, built, and maintained mercurial barometers should be
checked periodically against the National Bureau of Standards' (now NIST)
reference barometer. One way to do this is to compare readings with those on
the local weather station barometer, which is checked periodically against the
national standard. Simultaneous readings can be compared via the telephone,
but to eliminate the possibility of local variations in atmospheric pressure, a
transfer instrument should be used. An aneroid barometer can be transported
to both locations for comparison with both instruments. An aneroid barome-
ter consists of an evacuated capsule whose movement under changes in
pressure is transmitted to an indicator that is calibrated in units of pressure.
Gravity corrections are not necessary since aneroid instruments are force
gages. If the instrument is temperature compensated, no corrections for
temperature deviations are needed either. Aneroid barometers should be
calibrated frequently
The U.S. Weather Bureau reports barometric pressure converted to sea
level conditions at 45° latitude using the data of Tables 1.22 and 1.23. In
order to compare true values with Weather Bureau reports, the true values
should also be converted. Example 1.10 illustrates how these conversions are
made.

Example 1.10 Barometric Measurements

Given a mercurial barometer reading of 29.10 in. Hg, at 75°F, 600 ft eleva-
tion, and 40° latitude, find the true atmospheric pressure and the pressure
converted to Weather Bureau Standards.

Using Table 1.21, the temperature correction is -0.13 in. Hg, and from Table
1.22, the gravity correction is -0.02 in. Hg, so that the true atmospheric
pressure is 29.10 - 0.13 - 0.02 = 28.95 in. Hg.

Using Table 1.23, the elevation correction is 0.10 in. Hg/100 ft of elevation,
. × 6 = 0.60 in. Hg, making the converted reading 28.95+0.60=29.55 in.
or 010
Hg.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-49

Table l.21 Temperature Corrections for Barometers


(Use in all engineering calculations assuming brass scale is true at 62°F)

Column Observed reading of column in in. Hg


Temp. 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
°F add in. Hg
-20 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14
-10 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11
0 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08

10 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05


20 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

°F subtract in. Hg
35 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
40 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
45 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05

50 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06


55 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08
60 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09

65 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10


70 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.12
75 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.13

80 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15


85 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
90 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18

95 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19


100 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20

Adapted from.. the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes, Instruments and Apparatus,
Part 2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2-1964, pp. 25-26.

Table l.22 Gravity Corrections for Barometers


(Negligible in engineering calculations)

North Elevation, ft
Latitude 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Degrees Add or subtract in. Hg as indicated
25 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.06 -0.06 -0.05
30 -0.04 -0.04 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05
35 -0.03 -0.03 -0.03 -0.04 -0.04 -0.04

40 -0.02 -0.02 -0.02 -0.03 -0.03 -0.03


45 -0.00 -0.01 -0.01 -0.01 -0.02 -0.02
50 +0.01 +0.01 -0.00 -0.00 -0.01 -0.01

Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Performance Test Codes, Instruments, and Appara-
tus Part 2, Pressure Measurement. ASME PTC 19.2, 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-50 FAN ENGINEERING

Table l.23 Elevation Corrections for Barometers


(Use only for comparing personal data with Weather Bureau data.)

Mean Mean Atmospheric Temperature, °F


Altitude -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
ft in. Hg/100 ft

0 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10


1000 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10
2000 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09

3000 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09


4000 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08
5000 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08

6000 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08


7000 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08

Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes - Instruments and Apparatus, Part
2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2; 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.

Temperature Measurements
Temperatures can be measured with a variety of instruments. The most
common, liquid-in-glass thermometers, use various liquids depending on the
working range:

Material Working Range in °F


Mercury -30 to 925
Alcohol -100 to 250
Toluol -150 to 200
Pentane -300 to 70

Calibrated instruments can be read directly with sufficient accuracy for most
engineering work. When only partially immersed, precautions must be taken
to ensure that heat conduction due to the emergent stem is either negligible or
accounted for. Figure 1.14 can be used to determine the necessary correction.
In making average temperature determinations, be sure that the sample or
samples are representative. Such determinations in a moving gas stream
should be weighted according to mass flow. If a gas stream and its retaining
walls are at different temperatures, the thermometer should be shielded to
eliminate radiation effects.
Resistance thermometers, which determine temperature by measuring the
change in resistance of a calibrated wire, can be extremely accurate and are
suitable for temperatures from -400 to 1800°F.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


CHAPTER 1 – PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES 1-51

Figure l.14 Emergent Stem Corrections for Liquid-in-Glass


Thermometers

When two dissimilar metal wires are joined together, as in a thermocouple,


the difference in temperature between the junction and the opposite ends
produces an emf, the magnitude of which is a function of temperature differ-
ence. Combinations of metals that give nearly straight-line relationships
between emf and temperature are iron-constantan, copper-constantan, chro-
mel-alumel, and platinum-(87% platinum/13% rhodium). Very good accu-
racy is obtained by measuring the emf with a potentiometer and reading the
corresponding temperature from calibration tables.
For measuring very high temperatures, pyrometers of either the radiation
or optical type give reasonably accurate readings.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.


1-52 FAN ENGINEERING

Wet-bulb temperatures can be obtained in the same manner as dry-bulb


temperatures except that the bulb must be kept wet. As indicated in the
discussion on the temperature of adiabatic saturation, both gas velocity and
radiation from surroundings affect wet-bulb readings. The reading from an
unshielded wet-bulb thermometer in an air stream at 800 or 900 feet per
minute is accurate to within about 0.5% according to Carrier and Mackey.1 A
sling psychrometer can easily be whirled at speeds sufficient to produce this
velocity past the bulb. Aspiration psychrometers that use tiny fans to produce
a uniform circulation of air over the thermometer bulbs are available. When-
ever the wet bulb is shielded, it will yield a temperature slightly lower than
the temperature of adiabatic saturation. Usually this can be disregarded, but
for accuracy a correction should be made, the value of which depends upon
the velocity of air over the bulbs. There may be a 5% error in the wet- bulb
depression if the velocity is 800 or 900 fpm. That is, up to 5% of the wet-bulb
depression may have to be added to the observed wet-bulb reading to obtain
the true temperature of adiabatic saturation. If a thermometer is dipped into
water and used to record wet-bulb temperatures below 32°F, it will first
indicate the wet-bulb temperature over sub-cooled water. When freezing
begins the temperature will return to and remain at 32°F until freezing is
completed. The thermometer will then ultimately register the wet-bulb
temperature over ice after equilibrium is obtained and until the ice is all
evaporated.

Humidity Measurements
Humidity is not measured directly; rather, some property related to
humidity is measured and the humidity determined therefrom. Psychrome-
ters, hygrometers, and dew-point detectors are used. The sling psychrometer
and its motorized equivalent were described in the previous section. The
relative humidity, humidity ratio, or any of the other humidity terms previ-
ously defined can be determined using a psychrometric chart or the formulae
in this chapter. Hygrometers are calibrated to read directly in terms of relative
humidity. They utilize the effects of humidity on various properties, such as
the length of an organic fiber, the electrical resistance of a hygroscopic
material, the weight of an absorbing material, the thermal conductivity of the
moist air itself, and others. Dew-point detectors are calibrated to read in
terms of dew-point temperature. They operate by cooling a surface to pro-
duce condensation, by expanding a gas sample to produce fog, or by passing
an electrical current through a salt film to produce a vapor pressure equal to
that of the atmosphere.
1
W. H. Carrier and C. O. Mackey, "A Review of Existing Psychrometric Data in Relation to
Practical Engineering Problems," Trans. ASME, vol. 59, paper PRO-59-1, 1937, pp. 33-47.

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