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Atmospheric Air
Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air, water vapor, and impurities. Dry
air is a mechanical mixture of gases, whose principal constituents are listed in
Table 1.1. (The table values may be considered representative of the compo-
sition of normal outdoor air throughout the troposphere.) The amount of
water vapor in atmospheric air will depend on weather conditions. The nature
and amount of impurities in the atmosphere depend on the forces at work in
producing and dispersing contaminants. Industrial, urban, rural, seaside, and
other areas have characteristic atmospheres due to differences in impurities.
The reference for Table 1.1 lists neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon,
ozone, and radon, totaling less than 0.0025 percent by volume, as the residual
part of atmospheric air. ASHRAE1 also lists methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur
.
1
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 3.
Standard Atmosphere
In 1952, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics adopted the
International Civil Aviation Organization's Standard Atmosphere. Portions of
this Standard are given in Table 1.2. (The reference contains much more
extensive data in both U.S. and metric units.) Temperatures t are based on
15°C at sea level and a lapse rate of 0.0065°C/m throughout the troposphere,
and they are assumed to be constant throughout the stratosphere. The tropo-
pause is considered to be at the level where the temperature becomes -
56.50°C. Pressures p are based on 101.325 kPa at sea level, a gas constant of
287.04 J/kg-K, and the perfect gas laws. Densities ρ are based on the tem-
perature and pressure at the altitude Z and the perfect gas laws. Absolute
viscosities µ , kinematic viscosities ν , and speeds of sound c are based on
relationships that will be explained in later sections dealing with these sub-
jects.
Z t p ρ µ × 105 ν × 10 4 c
ft °F in. Hg lbm/ft3 lbm/ft-s ft2/s ft/s
-1000 62.6 31.02 .0787 1.212 1.539 1120.7
-500 60.8 30.47 .0776 1.208 1.557 1118.8
0 59.0 29.92 .0765 1.205 1.576 1116.9
500 57.2 29.38 .0754 1.202 1.595 1115.0
1000 55.4 28.86 .0743 1.198 1.614 1113.1
1500 53.7 28.33 .0732 1.195 1.633 1111.1
2000 51.9 27.82 .0721 1.192 1.653 1109.2
2500 50.1 27.32 .0710 1.189 1.673 1107.3
3000 48.3 26.82 .0700 1.185 1.694 1105.3
3500 46.5 26.33 .0689 1.182 1.714 1103.4
4000 44.7 25.84 .0679 1.179 1.735 1101.4
4500 43.0 25.37 .0669 1.175 1.757 1099.5
5000 41.2 24.90 .0659 1.172 1.778 1097.5
5500 39.4 24.43 .0649 1.169 1.800 1095.6
6000 37.6 23.98 .0639 1.165 1.823 1093.6
6500 35.8 23.53 .0630 1.162 1.846 1091.7
7000 34.0 23.09 .0620 1.158 1.869 1089.7
7500 32.3 22.65 .0610 1.155 1.892 1087.7
8000 30.5 22.22 .0601 1.152 1.916 1085.7
Z t p ρ µ × 105 ν × 10 4 c
ft °F in. Hg lbm/ft3 lbm/ft-s ft2/s ft/s
8500 28.7 21.80 .0592 1.148 1.940 1083.8
9000 26.9 21.39 .0583 1.145 1.965 1081.8
9500 25.1 20.98 .0574 1.142 1.990 1079.8
10000 23.3 20.58 .0565 1.138 2.015 1177.8
11000 19.8 19.79 .0547 1.131 2.067 1073.8
12000 16.2 19.03 .0530 1.125 2.121 1069.8
13000 12.6 18.29 .0513 1.118 2.177 1065.8
14000 9.1 17.58 .0497 1.111 2.234 1061.8
15000 5.5 16.89 .0481 1.104 2.294 1057.7
20000 -12.3 13.75 .0407 1.069 2.624 1037.3
25000 -30.2 11.10 .0343 1.034 3.016 1016.4
30000 -48.0 8.89 .0286 0.997 3.486 995.1
35000 -65.8 7.04 .0237 0.961 4.053 973.3
40000 -69.7 5.54 .0188 0.952 5.059 968.5
45000 -69.7 4.35 .0148 0.952 6.434 968.5
50000 -69.7 3.42 .0116 0.952 8.181 968.5
55000 -69.7 2.69 .0092 0.952 10.404 968.5
60000 -69.7 2.12 .0072 0.952 13.230 968.5
65000 -69.7 1.67 .0057 0.952 16.824 968.5
Adapted from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to
65,800 Feet," Report 1235, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp.
66-81.
Standard Air
In fan engineering, standard air is considered to be air with a density of
1.2 kg /m3 when SI units are employed, or 0.075 lbm/ft3 when U.S. customary
units are used. These two values are not exact equivalents, but they are close
enough for most fan engineering purposes. Neither do these values exactly
correspond to the sea level value given for the Aeronautical Standard in Table
1.2. Atmospheric air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 will have stan-
dard density at various combinations of pressure, temperature, and humidity.
Two convenient combinations are shown in Table 1.3, one for dry air and
another for moist air. Note that all the combinations listed in Table 1.3 utilize
the standard barometric pressure at sea level.
The concept of standard air is useful in rating fans, ducts, and other air
handling equipment. Often both duct losses and fan capabilities can be
determined from standard air data and used without correction. Even when
the actual density is considerably different from standard air density, it is
frequently more convenient to apply corrections to standard air data than it
would be to publish separate data for each condition.
A slightly different concept, that of standard, or normal, temperature and
pressure (STP or NTP), is sometimes employed in specifications. The values
.
for standard temperature and pressure may differ from those in Table 1.3.
One should always verify the exact values of standard conditions before
selecting a fan based on STP or NTP. See the discussion of conversion from
standard, or normal, conditions to actual conditions in Chapter 19.
Property U.S. SI
Dry Air
Pressure 29.921 in. Hg 101.325 kPa
Temperature 70°F (529.7°R) 21°C (294.2K)
Humidity 0% 0%
Density 0.075 lbm/ft3 1.2 kg/m3
Moist Air
Pressure 29.921 in. Hg 101.325 kPa
Temperature 68°F (527.7°R) 20°C (293.2K)
Humidity 50% 50%
Density 0.075 lbm/ft3 1.2 kg/m3
Molecular Weight
The molecular weight of a pure substance is the sum of the atomic weights
of the atoms in a molecule of that substance. Water, for instance, has a
molecular weight of 18.015 based on two atoms of hydrogen at 1.008 each
and one atom of oxygen at 15.999, all on the carbon-12 scale. Because air is a
mechanical mixture of gases, it does not have a true molecular weight. Dry
air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 has an apparent molecular weight
of 28.964. The apparent molecular weight M of any mixture of gases can be
calculated either from a volumetric analysis using
4 9
n
∑ Mx fx
M = x =1 (1.1)
n
∑ fx
x =1
n
∑ fx
M= x =1 (1.2)
4 9
n
∑ fx Mx
x =1
Examples 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the use of these equations in calculating
the apparent molecular weight of dry outdoor air of the composition shown in
Table 1.1.
Example 1.1
Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Volumetric Analysis
Component fx Mx Mx fx
Nitrogen 0.7809 × 28.013 = 21.875
Oxygen 0.2095 × 31.999 = 6.704
Argon 0.0093 × 39.948 = 0.372
Carbon Dioxide 0.0003 × 44.010 = 0.013
∑ fx = 1.0000 1
∑ Mx fx 6 = 28.964
28.964
Apparent Molecular Weight = = 28.964
10000
.
Example 1.2
Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Mass Analysis
Component fx Mx fx / Mx
Nitrogen 0.7553 ÷ 28.013 = 0.026962
Oxygen 0.2315 ÷ 31.999 = 0.007235
Argon 0.0128 ÷ 39.948 = 0.000320
Carbon Dioxide 0.0004 ÷ 44.010 = 0.000009
∑ fx = 1.0000 1
∑ fx / Mx 6 = 0.034526
10000
.
Apparent Molecular Weight = = 28.964
0.034526
The unit of molecular weight is the kg/kg-mol in metric units, and the
lbm/lbm-mol in U.S. units. The number of molecules in a kg-mol of any gas
is 6.02252 ×10 26 . There are 2.73177 ×10 26 molecules in a lbm-mol of gas.
The volume occupied by a mole of gas will depend on the unit of the mole
and on the temperature and pressure. For a gas constituent, the mole fraction,
volume fraction, and pressure fraction are equal.
p v R T Cp
3
Pa m /kg J/kg-K K 1.0
kPa m3/kg J/kg-K K 1000 Pa/kPa
lb/ft2 ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 1.0
in. Hg ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 70.73 lb/ft2-in. Hg
in. wg ft3/lbm ft-lb/lbm-°R °R 5.193 lb/ft2-in. wg
mm Hg m3/kg J/kg-K K 133.32 Pa/mm Hg
mm wg m3/kg J/kg-K K 9.790 Pa/mm wg
p = pb + pg . (1.4)
1
Boyles' and Charles' laws state that the volume of a perfect gas varies inversely with absolute
pressure and directly with absolute temperature.
2
The equation of state for real gases can be expressed as:
ç ä
å
pv = RT 1 + B p + C p 2 + D p 3 +...
p p p â
where the empirical coefficients 3 B , C , D ,...8 are temperature-dependent and are called
p p p
the second, third, fourth.... virial coefficients. Another expression of the equation of state for
real gases is:
pv = ZRT
where the compressibility factor Z is dependent upon both pressure and temperature.
p = Cb pb + C g p g (1.5)
where conversion factors Cb and C g are those given in Table 1.5 for the
combinations listed.
p pb Cb pg Cg
kPa mm Hg 0.133 32 mm wg 0.009 790
kPa in. Hg 3.3864 in. wg 0.248 66
in. Hg in. Hg 1.0 in. wg 0.073 43
in. wg in. Hg 13.619 in. wg 1.0
T=t+A (1.6)
T t A
K (kelvins) °C (degrees Celsius) 273.2
°R (degrees Rankine) °F (degrees Fahrenheit) 459.7
Ru
R= (1.7)
M
where the gas constant R for a particular gas and the universal gas constant
Ru can be expressed in any consistent units. If the molecular weight M is
based on the carbon-12 scale, the value of the universal gas constant Ru is
8314.3 J/kg-mol-K in SI units or 1545.32 ft-lb/lbm- mol-°R in U.S. customary
units. Based on Equation 1.7, the gas constant for dry air is 287.05 J/kg-K or
53.35 ft-lb/lbm-°R.
There are no perfect gases; but air, other real gases, and even water vapor
can be considered to behave according to the perfect gas laws in most fan
engineering applications. Deviations from perfect gas law behavior increase
as a gas or vapor approaches the liquid state. The water vapor in atmospheric
air has such a low partial pressure that it can safely be assumed to be a perfect
gas even when near saturation. However, deviations should be calculated for
higher pressures.
The equation of state can be used to compute any one of the variables p ,
v , R , or T when the other three are known. Numerous formulae based on
this equation are given in the sections on humidity and density. A typical fan
engineering application is given below.
Given 45359 kg/hr, 27.41 kg/kg-mol, 176.7°C, 98.78 kPa barometric pres-
sure, and -4.97 kPa gage pressure, find the volume flow rate in m3/s.
Using Equations 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.3 with U.S. units:
Specific Gravity
Since air is the gas most frequently involved in fan engineering, it is
convenient to base equations and data on the properties of air. One of the
properties of air that is used as a common reference is its density. The ratio of
the density of any dry gas to the density of dry air at the same temperature and
pressure is called the specific gravity G of the gas. For perfect gases, spe-
…..
cific gravity can be obtained by dividing the molecular weight M of the dry
gas by 28.965, the molecular weight of dry air, as follows:
M
G= . (1.8)
28.965
For a sample calculation illustrating the use of Equation 1.8, refer to Example
1.5.
The ratio w of the density of water vapor to the density of dry air is not
constant for any temperature but a function of relative humidity ϕ , as
illustrated in Figure 1.1. The ratio of the molecular weights (18.015/28.965)
would indicate that w , is equal to 0.622, a value that is suitable for most fan
engineering purposes. For high pressures and temperatures, Figure 1.1 should
be used. The following formula, which is accurate to 0.1 % in the range of
temperatures from 32°F to 400°F, can also be used:
w = 0.6214 +
1 6
ϕ pws
1 1.42
. (1.9)
1130
The vapor pressure of pure water pws can be determined from Table 1.7
opposite the dry-bulb temperature t of the gas. For sample calculations
illustrating the use of the ratio w refer to Examples 1.5 and 1.6.
1 6
h + hl ∗ Ws ∗ − W = hs ∗ . (1.10)
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-20 .0126 .0119 .0112 .0106 .0100 .0095 .0089 .0084 .0080 .0075
-10 .0222 .0209 .0199 .0187 .0176 .0168 .0158 .0150 .0142 .0134
-0 .0376 .0359 .0339 .0324 .0306 .0289 .0275 .0259 .0247 .0233
0 .0376 .0398 .0417 .0441 .0463 .0489 .0517 .0541 .0571 .0598
10 .0631 .0660 .0696 .0728 .0768 .0810 .0846 .0892 .0932 .0982
20 .1025 .1080 .1127 .1186 .1248 .1302 .1370 .1429 .1502 .1567
30 .1647 .1716 .1803 .1878 .1955 .2035 .2118 .2203 .2292 .2383
40 .2478 .2576 .2677 .2782 .2891 .3004 .3120 .3240 .3364 .3493
50 .3626 .3764 .3906 .4052 .4203 .4359 .4520 .4686 .4858 .5035
60 .5218 .5407 .5601 .5802 .6009 .6222 .6442 .6669 .6903 .7144
70 .7392 .7648 .7912 .8183 .8462 .8750 .9046 .9352 .9666 .9989
80 1.032 1.066 1.102 1.138 1.175 1.213 1.253 1.293 1.335 1.378
90 1.422 1.467 1.513 1.561 1.610 1.660 1.712 1.765 1.819 1.875
100 1.932 1.992 2.052 2.114 2.178 2.243 2.310 2.379 2.449 2.521
110 2.596 2.672 2.749 2.829 2.911 2.995 3.081 3.169 3.259 3.351
120 3.446 3.543 3.642 3.744 3.848 3.954 4.063 4.174 4.289 4.406
130 4.525 4.647 4.772 4.900 5.031 5.165 5.302 5.442 5.585 5.732
140 5.881 6.034 6.190 6.350 6.513 6.680 6.850 7.024 7.202 7.384
150 7.569 7.759 7.952 8.150 8.351 8.557 8.767 8.981 9.200 9.424
160 9.652 9.885 10.12 10.36 10.61 10.86 11.12 11.38 11.65 11.92
170 12.20 12.48 12.77 13.07 13.37 13.67 13.98 14.30 14.62 14.96
180 15.29 15.63 15.98 16.34 16.70 17.07 17.44 17.82 18.21 18.61
190 19.01 19.42 19.84 20.27 20.70 21.14 21.59 22.05 22.52 22.99
200 23.47 23.96 24.46 24.97 25.48 26.00 26.53 27.07 27.62 28.18
210 28.75 29.33 29.92 30.52 31.13 31.75 32.38 33.02 33.67 34.33
220 35.00 35.68 36.37 37.07 37.78 38.50 39.24 39.99 40.75 41.52
230 42.31 43.11 43.92 44.74 45.57 46.41 47.27 48.14 49.03 49.93
240 50.84 51.76 52.70 53.65 54.62 55.60 56.60 57.61 58.63 59.67
250 60.72 61.79 62.88 63.98 65.10 66.23 67.38 68.54 69.72 70.92
260 72.13 74.36 74.61 75.88 77.16 78.46 79.78 81.11 182.46 83.83
270 85.22 86.63 88.06 89.51 90.97 92.45 93.96 95.49 97.03 98.61
280 100.2 101.8 103.4 105.0 106.7 108.4 110.1 111.8 113.6 115.4
290 117.2 119.0 120.8 122.7 124.6 126.5 128.4 130.4 132.4 134.4
300 136.4 138.5 140.6 142.7 144.8 147.0 149.2 151.4 153.6 155.9
310 158.2 160.5 162.8 165.2 167.6 170.0 172.5 175.0 177.5 180.0
320 182.6 185.2 187.8 190.4 193.1 195.8 198.5 201.3 204.1 206.9
330 209.8 212.7 215.6 218.6 221.6 224.6 227.7 230.8 233.9 237.1
340 240.3 243.5 246.8 250.1 253.4 256.7 260.1 263.6 267.1 270.6
350 274.1 277.7 281.3 284.9 288.6 292.3 296.1 299.9 303.8 307.7
360 311.6 315.5 319.5 323.5 327.6 331.7 335.9 340.1 344.4 348.7
370 353.0 357.4 361.8 366.2 370.7 375.2 379.8 384.4 389.1 393.8
380 398.6 403.4 408.2 413.1 418.1 423.1 428.1 433.1 438.2 443.4
390 448.6 453.9 459.2 464.6 470.0 475.5 481.0 486.6 492.2 497.9
400 503.6 509.3 515.1 521.0 526.9 532.9 538.9 545.0 551.1 557.3
1
Adapted from data of the National Research Council: International Critical Tables, vol. 3,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1928, P. 210.
2
Adapted from data of J. H. Keenan and E. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic Properties of Steam,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936. These data differ only slightly from the data of J.
A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51,
1945, pp. 125-164 and from corrections thereto by J. A. Goff. "Saturation Pressure of Water
on the New Kelvin Temperature Scale," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 63, 1957, pp. 347-354.
as one constituent. Each constituent will exert a certain pressure called its
partial pressure, and the sum of these partial pressures must equal the absolute
pressure of the mixture. The pressure fraction will equal the mole fraction for
each constituent; i.e. the partial pressure of a constituent divided by the
absolute pressure of the mixture will equal the number of moles of the con-
stituent divided by the number of moles of the mixture.
Saturation is a condition of equilibrium between a liquid or solid and its
vapor. The pressure exerted by a vapor at saturation is called its saturation
vapor pressure or, in short, its saturation pressure. (When the actual pressure
exerted by a vapor is less than its saturation pressure, the vapor is said to be
superheated. The temperature of a superheated vapor is higher than the
temperature that would exist if that vapor was at saturation at the actual
pressure.) The saturation pressures of water vapor over water and ice are of
particular concern in fan engineering. Table 1.7 lists values of saturation
pressure versus temperature. Below the freezing point, the saturation pres-
sures over sub-cooled water are generally higher than the saturation pressures
over ice. The table lists the latter. Saturation pressures p ws ′ , over a limited
range of wet-bulb temperatures t ′ , can also be approximated from
p ws ′ = C1t ′ 2 + C2 t ′ + C3 (1.11)
using Table 1.8. (The values in Table 1.8 are based on AMCA 210-85.1
Equations yielding greater accuracy over larger ranges can be found in the
ASHRAE Handbook,2 the Brochure,3 or the references for Table 1.7.
pws ′ t′ Range C1 C2 C3
Pa °C 4°-32°C 3.25 18.6 692
kPa °C 4°-32°C 3.25 × 10-3 1.86 × 10-2 0.692
in. Hg °F 40°-90°F 2.96 × 10-4 -1.59 × 10-2 0.41
pw = pws ′ −
1 6
p t − t′
(1.12)
C4
1
"Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for Rating:" AMCA Standard 210-85, ASHRAE
Standard 51-85, 1985, pp. 12 & 42. -
'2ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals. ASHRAE, New York,
1977, p. 5.2.
3
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE New York, 1977, pp. 44-46.
çå p − p ′ äâ 1t − t ′6
ws
p w = p ws ′− (1.13)
C5 − C6 t ′
Table 1.9 Units and Values for Equations 1.12 and 1.13
pw p ws ′ p t − t′ t C4 C5 C6
Pa Pa Pa °C °C 1500 1557 0.74
in. Hg in. Hg in. Hg °F °F 2700 2803 1.33
Humidity
Humidity, in its general sense, is the presence of water vapor in the air.
The amount of water vapor that can be mixed with dry air (or any gas) may
vary from zero to a maximum that is dependent on temperature and pressure.
The water vapor displaces an equal number of molecules of dry air, according
to Avogadro's hypothesis.2 Thus, moist air is not the result of adding water
vapor to dry air but the result of substituting water vapor for some of the dry
air.
The amount of water vapor in moist air or gas can be described in various
ways. ASHRAE, in its Handbook,3 has adopted certain terminology, which
with few exceptions, is used here for the sake of uniformity. Previous
editions of Fan Engineering used older terms and definitions.
The relative humidity ϕ of moist air or gas is the ratio of the partial
pressure of the water vapor p w to the saturation vapor pressure pws for the
same dry-bulb temperature:
pw
ϕ= . (1.14)
pws
This is also equal to the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor f w to the
mole fraction of water vapor that would exist at saturation f ws for the same
dry-bulb temperature:
1
W. H. Carrier, "Rational Psychrometric Formulae," Trans. ASME, vol. 33, 1911, pp. 1309-
1350.
2
Avogadro’s hypothesis is that the number of gas molecules in any given volume at any given
pressure and temperature is constant regardless of the gas or gases involved.
3
ASHRAE Handbook and, Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York,
1977. p. 5.2.
ϕ = f w f ws . (1.15)
The humidity ratio W of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the mass of dry gas mg :
W = mw mg . (1.16)
The specific humidity H of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the total mass of the mixture mw + mg :
3
H = mw mw + mg . 8 (1.17)
The absolute humidity ρ w of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor mw to the total volume of the mixture Q :
ρ w = mw Q . (1.18)
δ = W Ws . (1.19)
pw = pwsϕ . (1.20)
pw w pwsϕ w
W=
1 6 1
p − pw G
=
p − pwsϕ G
.
6 (1.21)
pw w pwsϕ w
H=
1 6
p − pw G + p w w
=
1 6
p − pwsϕ G + pwsϕ w
. (1.22)
δ = mw mws . (1.23)
This is not quite the same as relative humidity ϕ . The relationship between
ϕ and δ is expressed in
δ
ϕ=
1 6
1 − 1 − δ p ws p
(1.24)
pGW
pw = . (1.25)
w + GW
M T0 p
ρ= (1.26)
C0 T p0
should be used together with Table 1.10 to determine density ρ . By using the
.
ρ M C0 T T0 p p0 C0 p0 T0
3
kg/m kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 Pa 101300 8311
kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 kPa 101.3 8.311
lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 lb/in.2 14.70 10.73
3
lbm/ft lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 in. Hg 29.92 21.84
lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 °R 529.7 in. wg 407.5 297.5
3
kg/m kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm Hg 1760.0 62.35
kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm wg 10350 849.1
If the gas is dry and if its specific gravity G , absolute temperature T , and
absolute pressure p are known,
Gp
ρ= (1.27)
R0T
should be used together with Tables 1.10 and 1.11 to calculate density ρ .
The adjusted gas constant R0 is for air and includes the conversion factor C p
from Equation 1.3.
Given dry gas, 30.6 kg/kg-mol, 176.7°C, and 98.78 kPa, find the gas density.
Mp 30.6 × 98.78
ρ= = = 0.808 kg/m3.
8.311T 8.311 × 449.9
Given dry gas, 30.6 lbm/lbm-mol (or 1.0564 specific gravity), 350°F, and
29.17 in. Hg, find the density of the gas.
Mp 30.6 × 29.17
ρ= = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3.
2184 . × 809.7
. T 2184
Gp 10564
. × 29.17
ρ= = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3.
0.7543T 0.7543 × 809.7
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t , and relative humidity ϕ are known,
1 p − p ϕ 6G + p ϕw
R 1t + A6
ρ= ws ws
(1.28)
0
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ . The partial
densities of the dry gas ρ g and the water vapor ρ w can be determined using
1 p − p ϕ 6G and
R 1t + A6
ρg = ws
(1.29)
0
pwsϕ w
ρw =
R0 t + A1 6
. (1.30)
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t and humidity ratio W are known,
1 6
p 1+ W
R t+A1 6
ρ= 0
çæ äã
1 W
, (1.31)
å â
G w
+
1
ρg = ρ , and (1.32)
1+ W
W
ρw = ρ (1.33)
1+W
p
R0 t + A 1 6
ρ=
çæ
1− H H
,
äã (1.34)
Gå +
w â
1 6
ρ g = ρ 1 − H , and (1.35)
ρ w = ρH (1.36)
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ and partial
densities ρ g and ρ w .
Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 176.7°C, 98.78 kPa, and 0.2 kg
water vapor per kg dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components.
1
p 1+ W 6 98.78 × 12
1 6
.
0.2870 t + 273.2
ρ= = 0.2870 × 449.9 = 0.724 kg/m3,
1 W 1 0.2
+ +
G w .
10564 0.622
1 1
ρg = ρ = 0.724 = 0.603 kg dry air/m3, and
1+W 12
.
W 0.2
ρw = ρ = 0.724 = 0.121 kg water vapor/m3
1+W 12
.
Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 350°F, 29.17 in. Hg, and 0.2 lbm
water vapor per lbm dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components.
1 6
p 1+W 29.17 × 12
0.75431t + 459.76 0.7543 × 809.7
.
ρ= = = 0.0452 lbm/ft , 3
1 W 1 0.2
+ +
G w .
10564 0.622
1 1
ρg = ρ = 0.0452 = 0.0377 lbm dry air/ft3, and
1+W 12
.
W 0.2
ρw = ρ = 0.0452 × = 0.0075 lbm water vapor/ft3.
1+ W 12
.
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , dry-
bulb temperature t , and wet-bulb temperature t ′ are known,
1p − p 6+ p w
R 1 t + A6
ρ= w w
(1.37)
0
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density ρ . The partial
pressure of the vapor ρ w can be determined from Equation 1.12 or 1.13.
Alternatively, if the gas is air, its density can be found in the psychrometric
density chart, Figure 1.2.
If the gas is moist air and if its humidity ratio W and the volume of the
mixture per unit mass of dry air v mý are known,
1+W
ρ= . (1.38)
v mý
p
ρ = ρ0 . (1.39)
p0
Given moist air, 28.50 in. Hg, 90°F dry-bulb, and 75°F wet-bulb, find the
density of the air.
p ws ′ = 2.96 × 10 −4 t ′ 2 − 159
. × 10 −2 t ′ + 0.41 = 0.88 in. Hg for t ′ = 75,
pw = p ws ′ −
1
p t − t′ 6 = 0.88 −
1
28.50 90 − 75 6
= 0.72 in. Hg, and
2700 2700
1 6
p − pw + pw w 1 6
28.50 − 0.72 + 0.72 × 0.622
ρ=
1
0.7543 t + 459.7 6 =
1
0.7543 549.7 6 = 0.0681 lbm/ft3.
W0 = 0.0153 lbm water vapor/lbm dry air from chart for 29.92 in. Hg,
vmý = 14.18 ft3/lbm dry air from Figure 1.6 for 29.92 in. Hg,
1 + W 10153
.
ρ0 = = = 0.0716 lbm/ft3 for 29.92 in. Hg, and
vmý 14.18
çæ p äã = 0.0716çæ 28.5 äã = 0.0682 lbm/ft for 28.5 in. Hg.
ρ = ρ0
åp â å 29.92 â
3
According to Avogadro's hypothesis,1 moist air is less dense than dry air
at any particular dry-bulb temperature and pressure, because air molecules are
displaced by lighter water vapor molecules. However, moist air is more dense
than dry air at any particular wet-bulb temperature and pressure. This is
because the dry-bulb temperature is lower, and there are more molecules in a
unit volume of mixture at the moist condition.
degree. A constant volume process does not involve any external work;
therefore, according to the first law of thermodynamics, the heat required is
equal to the change in the internal energy ∆ u . Hence,
∆ u = cv ∆ t (1.40)
∆u+
1 6
∆ pv
= cp ∆ t (1.41)
J
R
c p − cv = . (1.42)
J
Table 1.13 Units and Values for Equations 1.42, 1.55, and 1.56
c p ,cv ,& s R J
J/kg-K J/kg-K 1.00 J/J
Btu/lbm-°R ft-lb/lbm-°R 778.17 ft-lb/Btu
cal/g-K J/g-K 4.1868 J/cal
cp
γ = (1.43)
cv
This ratio has values of about 1.66 for monatomic gases, 1.40 for diatomic
gases, and 1.30 for polyatomic gases. Values for specific gases are given in
the appendix on properties of materials.
The specific heats of various gases, at constant pressure and various
temperatures, are listed in Table 1.15. Values for dry air are plotted against
temperature in Figure 1.3. (The references for Table 1.15 and Figure 1.3
contain many more values at different temperatures.) Figure 1.4 plots specific
heat for water vapor against temperature, for various vapor pressures and
relative humidities.
The average specific heat for a mixture of dry air and water vapor ex-
pressed per unit mass of dry air c pmý can be calculated from the humidity ratio
W and the specific heats of dry air c pa and water vapor c pw using
c pmý = c pa + Wc pw . (1.44)
Refer to Table 1.14 for units of measurement and values of the various
coefficients.
Table 1.14 Units and Values for Equations 1.45 and 1.46
Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy h is a measure of the total heat content of a unit mass of
substance. Specific enthalpy values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is
assigned to some arbitrarily selected state point. For most gases, including
air, the zero value is for zero degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending
on the system of units employed) and standard atmospheric pressure.
Adapted from the data of J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1948, pp. 34, 102, 107, 112, 117, 122, 127, and 128.
pv
h = u+ . (1.47)
J
ha = c pa t . (1.48)
1
hl = c pl t − C11 . 6 (1.49)
1
hi = c pi t − C12 . 6 (1.50)
hx c px t C11 C12
kJ/kg kJ/kg-K °C 0 171
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F 32 340
The specific enthalpy of water vapor hw can be determined from the specific
enthalpy of water and the latent heat of vaporization hlw using
hw = hl + hlw , (1.51)
or from the enthalpy of ice and the latent heat of sublimation hiw using
hw = hi + hiw . (1.52)
The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of mixture hm can be determined from
the specific humidity H and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using
1 6
hm = 1 − H ha + Hhw . (1.53)
The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of dry air hmý can be determined from
the humidity ratio W and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using
Given dry air at 68°F and 29.92 in. Hg, find the specific enthalpy and the
specific entropy.
Using U.S. units and Equations 1.11, 1.45, 1.49, 1.51, and 1.54:
pws = 0.6903 in. Hg from Table 1.7 and w = 0.622 from Figure 1.1,
p ϕw 0.6903 × 10
. × 0.622
W = ws = = 0.01469,
p − pwsϕ 29.92 − 0.6903 × 10 .
hlw = C7 − C8 t = 1093 − 0.55 × 68 = 1055.6 Btu/lbm,
1 6 1
hl = c pl t − C11 = 10 6
. 68 − 32 = 36 Btu/lbm,
hw = hl = hlw = 36 + 1055.6 = 1091.6 Btu/ lbm, and
hmý = ha + Whw = 16.3 + 0.01469 × 10916
. = 32.3 Btu/lbm d.a.
Using U.S. units and Equations 1.57, 1.56, 1.58, and 1.59:
hlw 1055.6
slw = = = 2.00 Btu/lbm-°R,
T 68 + 459.7
çæ
68 + 459.7 äã 85.78 çæ
29.92 äã
sl = 100
. ln
å
32 + 459.7 â
−
778.2
ln
å
29.92 â
= 0.07 Btu/lbm-°R,
Specific Entropy
Entropy is a property that is related to the second law of thermodynamics.
Changes in entropy are useful in comparing actual and ideal processes. In fan
engineering, efficiency considerations may involve the use of entropy.
Specific entropy s is entropy per unit mass of substance. Specific entropy
values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is assigned to some arbitrarily
selected state point. For most gases, including air, the zero value is for zero
degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending on the system of units
employed) and standard atmospheric pressure. For many refrigerants, specific
entropy is zero for saturated liquid at -40°. For water, the reference state
selected is usually the freezing point and saturation pressure. Other state
points can be used for other substances. Tables 1.17 and 1.18 list values for
dry and moist air, respectively.
Specific entropy differences can be calculated for any process from
specific heat c absolute temperature T gas constant R , and absolute pressure
p using
I
2
çæ dT äã − R lnçæ p äã .
s1 − s2 = c p
å t â J åpâ
2
(1.55)
1 1
çæ T äã − R lnçæ p äã
s1 − s2 = c p ln
åT â J å p â
2 2
(1.56)
1 1
Refer to Table 1.13 for appropriate units and values. By setting T1 and p1 at
the appropriate values corresponding to the reference conditions, the value of
s1 becomes zero, and the value of s2 will approximate the tabulated value for
a pure substance, provided that there is no change of state when compared to
the reference state. The entropy of dry air sa and that of liquid water sl can
both be calculated in this manner.
When there is a change of state point compared to the reference state, as is
the case for water vapor, the entropy of vaporization slw must also be
calculated. This can be approximated from the latent heat of vaporization hlw
and the absolute temperature T using
hlw
slw = . (1.57)
T
sw = sl + slw , (1.58)
The entropy of the mixture of dry air and water vapor referred to a unit
mass of dry air smý can then be calculated using
Psychrometric Tables
Thermodynamic properties of dry and moist air have been tabulated by
Goff and Gratch and reproduced in various works. The ASHVE Transactions,l
the ASHRAE Handbook,2 and the ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry3 all
contain these tables, which cover a range of temperatures from -160°F to
200°F at 29.921 in. Hg barometric pressure. These data are computed from
equations containing virial coefficients, which in turn are based on experi-
mental data. Table values, therefore, will differ from those predicted by the
perfect gas laws, but only slightly in the normal air conditioning range. The
ASHRAE Brochure gives complete details of the derivations, sources of data,
and methods of correcting for differences in pressure. Portions of these data
are reproduced in Tables 1.17 and 1.18. Table 1.17 lists dry air values of
specific volume, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy, which were extracted
directly, and density, which was calculated. All the data for moist air in Table
1.18 was taken directly from the original listings. Observe that all the moist
air data are referred to a unit mass of dry air. This is the usual practice in air
conditioning. The original tabulations also list the differences between
properties at saturation and properties for dry air to facilitate interpolation for
various degrees of saturation. Thermodynamic properties have been tabulated
in SI units by Raznjevic.4
Psychrometric Charts
Psychrometric charts have been published in many formats. Among the
most common are those that utilize the rectangular coordinates of humidity
ratio versus dry-bulb temperature and those that use the non-rectangular
coordinates of humidity ratio versus enthalpy per unit mass of dry air. Prior
to the Eighth Edition, the charts in Fan Engineering were always drawn using
rectangular coordinates, as Figure 1.9 still is. Figures 1.6-1.8, however, are
based on the current ASHRAE practice of using a uniform but slanted en-
thalpy scale. The use of the rectangular coordinates, humidity ratio versus
dry-bulb temperature, leads to curved wet-bulb temperature lines and a non-
uniform enthalpy scale. The use of the non-rectangular coordinates of hu-
midity ratio versus enthalpy leads to non-parallel dry-bulb temperature lines.
Neither method of presentation is inherently more accurate for single point
determinations; however, the ASHRAE charts are more accurate for mixture
.
1
J. A. Goff and S. Gratch, "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51,
New York, 1945, pp. 144-154.
2
ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York,
1977, pp. 6.3-6.6.
3
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, pp. 23-26.
4
K. Raznjevic, Handbook of Thermodynamic Tables and Charts, Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, Washington, 1976.
processes, which are depicted by a straight line. The error in the other chart
usually is negligible in air conditioning work. Most charts are drawn for one
barometric pressure. Lines of constant volume per unit mass of dry air
usually are superimposed on the chart, as are lines of constant relative humid-
ity. Any system of units can be used. (Figures 1.10 and 1.11 use SI units.)
The use of the psychrometric chart for air conditioning and other mass
transfer purposes will be discussed in the chapter on mass transfer. The
mechanics of reading a chart are as follows. For any point on the chart, there
is one value each of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, relative
humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, and volume. These values can be deter-
mined by interpolating between the appropriate adjacent lines. The dew-point
temperature can also be determined by reading the saturation temperature for
the same humidity ratio. Specific humidity, absolute humidity, and degree of
saturation can be calculated using data taken from the chart together with
Equations 1.17-1.19. The density can be calculated using Equation 1.38 and
the appropriate data read from the chart.
Psychrometric charts can be constructed for any gas-vapor mixture or for
any absolute or barometric pressure. Various calculation procedures can be
used. Example 1.8 illustrates a simplified method that can be performed
rather quickly with a calculator. For more detailed calculations, a computer
routine should be considered.
The coordinates of various points on the saturation curve and other selected
relative humidity curves can be determined using Equation 1.21 together with
values of the relative density of water vapor w from Figure 1.1 and saturation
vapor pressure pws from Table 1.7. For example:
t = 50°F, ϕ = 1. 0, w = 0.6219,
pws = 0. 3626 in. Hg, and
p ϕw 0.3626 × 10
. × 0.6219 lbm w.v.
W = ws = = 0.00919 .
p − pwsϕ 24.90 − 0.3626 × 10
. lbm d.a.
p = 24.90 ϕ = 10
. ϕ = 0.5
t pws w W w W
°F in. Hg - lbm w.v./lbm d.a - lbm w.v./lbm d.a.
50 .3626 .6219 .009 19 .6218 .004 56
60 .5218 .6221 .013 32 .6219 .006 59
70 .7392 .6223 .019 05 .6220 .009 38
80 1.032 .6225 .026 93 .6221 .013 17
90 1.422 .6228 .037 74 .6222 .018 30
100 1.932 .6231 .052 44 '6223 .025 13
Curves for ϕ = 10. and ϕ = 0.5 can now be faired in through plotted points.
Curves for other values of ϕ could also be drawn.
Ideally, lines of constant enthalpy should be drawn for integer values, but to
simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve
coordinates will be determined. Using values of heat of vaporization hlw from
Figure 1.5, enthalpy of water hl from Equation 1.49, enthalpy of water vapor
hw from Equation 1.51, and enthalpy of air ha from Equation 1.48, the
enthalpy per unit mass of dry air hmý can be determined from Equation 1.54.
For example:
t = 50°F, ϕ = 1.0, hlw = 1065 Btu/lbm w.v.,
1 6
hl = c pl t − 32 = 100 1 6
. 50 − 32 = 18 Btu/lbm w.v.,
hw = hlw + hl = 1065 + 18 = 1083 Btu/lbm w.v.
ha = c pa t = 0.24 × 50 = 12.00 Btu/lbm d.a., and
hmý = ha + hwW = 12.00 + 1083 × 0.00919 = 21.95 Btu/lbm d.a.
t hlw hl hw ha hmý th
°F Btu/lbm w.v. Btu/lbm d.a. °F
50 1065 18 1083 12.00 21.95 91.5
60 1059 28 1087 14.40 28.88 120.3
70 1053 38 1091 16.80 37.58 156.6
80 1048 48 1096 19.20 48.72 203.0
90 1043 58 1101 21.60 63.15 263.1
100 1037 68 1105 24.00 81.95 341.5
The last column lists values of t h , the temperature of dry air having the same
enthalpy hmý calculated for moist air at saturation shown in the previous
column, based on Equation 1.48. For example:
hmý 2195 .
th = = = 91.5°F.
c pa 0.24
Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t h on the dry air line
can be drawn.
Ideally, lines of constant volume should be drawn for integer values, but to
simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve
coordinates will be determined. Since the reciprocal of ρ g is vmý Equation
1.29 can be used. For example:
vmý =
1
= 0
1 6
R t+A
=
1
0.7543 459.7 + 50 6
= 15.67 ft3/lbm d.a.
ρg p − pwsϕ 24.90 − 0.3626 × 10
.
t vmý tv h0 tt ′
3
°F ft /lbm d.a. °F Btu/lbm d.a. °F
50 15.67 57.6 21.78 90.75
60 16.09 71.4 28.51 118.79
70 16.54 86.3 36.86 153.58
80 17.06 103.5 47.43 197.63
90 17.67 123.6 60.96 254.00
100 18.39 147.4 78.38 326.58
The third column lists values of t v , based on Equation 1.27. This temperature
is that temperature of dry air which has the same volume vmý previously
calculated for moist air at saturation and shown in the preceding column. For
example:
Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t v on the dry air line
can be drawn.
1 6
h0 = hs ∗ Ws − 0 = 2195
. − 18 × 0.00919 = 21.78 Btu/lbm d.a., and
h0 2178 .
tt ′ = = = 90.8°F.
c pa 0.24
Observe that straight lines connecting these points do not deviate very much
from the lines of constant enthalpy previously drawn. Actually, on rectangu-
lar coordinates, the wet-bulb lines are slightly concave in the upward direc-
tion. The coordinates for wet-bulb temperature points between saturation and
dry air can be calculated using Equations 1.13 and 1.21.
For example:-
t = 70°F,
t ′ = 50°F,
çå p − p ′ äâ
ws
124.90 − 0.36266170 − 506 = 01833
pw = pws ′− = 0.3626 − . in. Hg
C5 − C6t ′ 2803 − 01833
.
p w 01833
. × 0.6221
W= w = = 0.00461 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.
p − pw 24.90 − 01833.
A plot of this point falls on the straight line previously drawn. However, for
large temperature ranges, intermediate points should be calculated.
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150.
t ρ v h s t ρ v h s
°F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F °F lbm/ft3 ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-°F
100 .07089 14.106 24.029 .04729 145 .06560 15.243 34.859 .06589
101 .07077 14.131 24.270 .04772 146 .06550 15.268 35.099 .06629
102 .07064 14.157 24.510 .04815 147 .06539 15.293 35.340 .06669
103 .07051 14.182 24.751 .04858 148 .06528 15.319 35.581 .06708
104 .07039 14.207 24.991 .04900 149 .06517 15.344 35.822 .06748
105 .07026 14.232 25.232 .04943 150 .06507 15.369 36.063 .06787
106 .07014 14.258 25.472 .04985 151 .06496 15.394 36.304 .06827
107 .07001 14.283 25.713 .05028 152 .06485 15.420 36.545 .06866
108 .06989 14.308 25.953 .05070 153 .06475 15.445 36.785 .06906
109 .06977 14.333 26.194 .05113 154 .06464 15.470 37.026 .06945
110 .06964 14.359 26.434 .05155 155 .06453 15.496 37.267 .06984
111 .06952 14.384 26.675 .05197 156 .06443 15.521 37.508 .07023
112 .06940 14.409 26.915 .05239 157 .06433 15.546 37.749 .07062
113 .06928 14.435 27.156 .05281 158 .06422 15.571 37.990 .07101
114 .06916 14.460 27.397 .05323 159 .06411 15.597 38.231 .07140
115 .06904 14.485 27.637 .05365 160 .06401 15.622 38.472 .07179
116 .06892 14.510 27.878 .05407 161 .06391 15.647 38.713 .07218
117 .06879 14.536 28.119 .05449 162 .06381 15.672 38.954 .07257
118 .06868 14.561 28.359 .05490 163 .06370 15.698 39.195 .07296
119 .06856 14.586 28.600 .05532 164 .06360 15.723 39.436 .07334
120 .06844 14.611 28.841 .05573 165 .06350 15.748 39.677 .07373
121 .06832 14.637 29.082 .0561 5 166 .06340 15.773 39.918 .07411
122 .06820 14.662 29.322 .05656 167 .06330 15.799 40.159 .07450
123 .06809 14.687 29.563 .05698 168 .06320 15.824 40.400 .07488
124 .06797 14.712 29.804 .05738 169 .06310 15.849 40.641 .07527
125 .06785 14.738 30.044 .05780 170 .06300 15.874 40.882 .07565
126 .06774 14.763 30.285 .05821 171 .06289 15.900 41.123 .07603
127 .06762 14.788 30.526 .05862 172 .06279 15.925 41.364 .07641
128 .06751 14.813 30.766 .05903 173 .06270 15.950 41,605 .07680
129 .06739 14.839 31.007 .05944 174 .06260 15.975 41.846 .07718
130 .06728 14.864 31.248 .05985 175 .06250 16.001 42.087 .07756
131 .06716 14.889 31.489 .06026 176 .06240 16.026 42.328 .07794
132 .06705 14.915 31.729 .06067 177 .06230 16.051 42.569 .07832
133 .06693 14.940 31.970 .06108 178 .06220 16.076 42.810 .07870
134 .06682 14.965 32.211 .06148 179 .06210 16.102 43.051 .07908
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150.
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-154.
100 .04319 15.081 71.73 .13745 145 .1803 19.629 237.4 .4218
101 .04460 15.140 73.55 .14071 146 .1862 19.807 244.4 .4335
102 .04606 15.200 75.42 .14406 147 .1924 19.991 251.7 .4457
103 .04756 15.261 77.34 .14749 148 .1989 20.181 259.3 .4583
104 .04911 15.324 79.31 .1510 149 .2055 20.377 267.1 .4713
105 .05070 15.387 81.34 .1546 150 .2125 20.580 275.3 .4848
106 .05234 15.452 83.42 .1584 151 .2197 20.790 283.6 .4987
107 .05404 15.518 85.56 .1621 152 .2271 21.007 292.4 .5132
108 .05578 15.586 87.76 .1660 153 .2349 21.233 301.5 .5282
109 .05758 15.654 90.03 .1700 154 .2430 21.466 310.9 .5438
110 .05944 15.724 92.34 .1742 155 .2514 21.709 320.8 .5599
111 .06135 15.796 94.72 .1784 156 .2602 21.960 331.0 .5768
112 .06333 15.869 97.18 .1826 157 .2693 22.221 341.7 .5943
113 .06536 15.944 99.71 .1870 158 .2788 22.493 352.7 .6125
114 .06746 16.020 102.31 .1916 159 .2887 22.775 364.2 .6314
115 .06962 16.098 104.98 .1963 160 .2990 23.068 376.3 .6511
116 .07185 16.178 107.73 .2011 161 .3098 23.374 388.8 .6716
117 .07415 16.259 110.55 .2060 162 .3211 23.692 402.0 .6930
118 .07652 16.343 113.46 .2111 163 .3329 24.024 415.7 .7153
119 .07897 16.428 116.46 .2163 164 .3452 24.371 429.9 .7385
120 .08149 16.516 119.54 .2216 165 .3581 24.733 445.0 .7629
121 .08410 16.605 122.72 .2272 166 .3716 25.112 460.7 .7883
122 .08678 16.696 125.98 .2329 167 .3858 25.507 477.2 .8150
123 .08955 16.790 129.35 .2387 168 .4007 25.922 494.4 .8429
124 .09242 16.886 132.8 .2446 169 .4163 26.357 512.4 .8722
125 .09537 16.985 136.4 .2508 170 .4327 26.812 531.5 .9030
126 .09841 17.086 140.1 .2571 171 .4500 27.291 551.5 .9352
127 .1016 17.189 143.9 .2636 172 .4682 27.795 572.7 .9691
128 .1048 17.295 147.8 .2703 173 .4875 28.326 594.9 1.0049
129 .1082 17.404 151.8 .2772 174 .5078 28.886 618.3 1.0426
130 .1116 17.516 155.9 .2844 175 .5292 29.476 643.2 1.083
131 .1152 17.631 160.3 .2917 176 .5519 30.100 669.4 1.125
132 .1189 17.749 164.7 .2993 177 .5760 30.761 697.3 1.169
133 .1227 17.870 169.3 .3070 178 .6016 31.462 726.9 1.216
134 .1267 17.994 174.0 .31 51 179 .6288 32.206 758.3 1.266
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist
Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-154.
Fog
Fog is a mixture of air, water vapor, and very fine water droplets, all at the
same temperature. The mixture is a mechanical one; the water vapor is at
saturation; and the water droplets are suspended. The fog region on a
psychrometric chart is the area above the saturation curve. On Figures 1.6-
1.8, the humidity ratio and enthalpy lines extend partly into the fog region.
They can be extended even further if necessary. To determine the properties
for any point in the fog region, read the humidity ratio W and enthalpy h
directly by interpolating between lines. To determine the temperature, extend
wet-bulb lines and interpolate. The dry-bulb temperature t will equal the
wet-bulb temperature t ′ . Since the humidity ratio W is the total mass of
droplets and vapor per unit mass of dry air, the mass of droplets per unit mass
of dry air Wd can be obtained by subtracting the humidity ratio at saturation
Ws at the same temperature. The density of the mixture ρ can be determined
from the chart values of the volume per unit mass of dry air at saturation vmý
and the humidity ratio W using Equation 1.38.
Barometric Corrections
Psychrometric data taken from published charts or tables may not be
sufficiently accurate if the actual pressure is different from the pressure for
which the data were prepared. If greater accuracy is required, corrections can
be applied as discussed in this section. Alternatively, a special chart can be
drawn, as illustrated in Example 1.8. ASHRAE has prepared charts for
elevations of 5000 feet and 7500 feet.
If only the density is required, Figure 1.2, the Psychrometric Density
Chart, is convenient to use. Density can also be computed using the equations
and examples in the section on density, or even Tables 1.19 and 1.20.
The effect of a change in pressure on the general appearance of a
psychrometric chart is to displace the saturation curve and all the relative
humidity lines. The displacement will be upward for a reduction in pressure.
Similarly, the wet-bulb lines will be moved upward resulting in higher values
for humidity ratio and enthalpy. The change in saturation humidity ratio, or
the difference between the saturation humidity ratio W ′ at elevation Z and
zs
W0 s ′ , that at the chart elevation, can be determined using the actual pressure
pz , the chart pressure p0 , the partial pressure of the vapor pws ′ , and
p0 − p z
Wzs′ − W0 s′ = W0 s′ . (1.60)
pz − pws′
Note that the prime signifies that properties are at the wet-bulb temperature.
This equation is for points on the saturation curve, but it can be used in the
partially saturated region with only slight errors. Figure 1.12 is a graphical
representation of Equation 1.60
( )
hzs′ − h0 s′ = hlw′ Wzs′ − W0 s′ . (1.61)
Using U.S. units, Table 1.7, and Equations 1.60, 1.45, 1.61, and 1.31:
p ′ = 0.3626,
ws
p0 − pz 29.92 − 24.90
Wzs′ − W0 s′ = W0 s′ = 0.00765 = .0016 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.,
pz − pws′ 24.90 − 0.3626
( )
Ws = W0 + Wzs′ − W0 s′ = 0.0031 + 0.0016 = 0.0047 lbm w.v./lbm d.a.,
( )
hzs′ − h0 s′ = hlw′ Wzs′ − W0 s′ = 1065 × 0.0016 = 1.704 Btu/lbm d.a.,
( )
hz = h0 + hzs′ − h0 s′ = 20.2 + 1.7 = 21.9 Btu/lbm d.a., and
Z fx b Z fx b Z fx b Z fx b
ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg ft - in. Hg
0 1.000 29.92 1500 0.947 28.33 3000 0.896 26.82 6000 0.801 23.98
100 0.996 29.81 1600 0.944 28.23 3200 0.890 26.62 6500 0.786 23.53
200 0.993 29.70 1700 0.940 28.13 3400 0.883 26.42 7000 0.772 23.09
300 0.989 29.60 1800 0.937 28.02 3600 0.877 26.23 7500 0.757 22.65
400 0.986 29.49 1900 0.933 27.92 3800 0.870 26.03 8000 0.743 22.22
500 0.982 29.38 2000 0.930 27.82 4000 0.864 25.84 8500 0.729 21.80
600 0.979 29.28 2100 0.926 27.72 4200 0.857 25.65 9000 0.715 21.39
700 0.975 29.17 2200 0.923 27.62 4400 0.851 25.46 9500 0.701 20.98
800 0.971 29.07 2300 0.920 27.52 4600 0.845 25.27 10000 0.688 20.58
900 0.968 28.96 2400 0.916 27.42 4800 0.838 25.08 15000 0.564 1 6.89
1000 0.964 28.86 2500 0.913 27.32 5000 0.832 24.90 20000 0.460 13.75
1100 0.961 28.75 2600 0.909 27.21 5200 0.826 24.71 25000 0.371 11.10
1200 0.957 28.65 2700 0.906 27.11 5400 0.820 24.52 30000 0.297 8.89
1300 0.954 28.54 2800 0.903 27.01 5600 0.814 24.34 35000 0.235 7.04
1400 0.950 28.44 2900 0.899 26.91 5800 0.807 24.16 40000 0.185 5.54
Calculated from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to
65,800 Feet," Report 1235, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp. 66-81.
t ft t ft t ft t ft t ft
°F - °F - °F - °F - °F -
Barometric Measurements
Barometric pressures can be measured with either a Fortin or an aneroid
barometer. A Fortin, or mercurial barometer, consists of a vertical glass tube
with the top sealed and the bottom immersed in a cistern of mercury. The
tube is evacuated, and the mercury rises to a height corresponding to the
atmospheric pressure. However, because of thermal expansion, the reading at
any given pressure will vary slightly with temperature. Corrections to the
standard temperature of reference can be made using Table 1.21. Theoreti-
cally, an additional correction for the difference in gravitational acceleration
from the standard value should also be made using the data of Table 1.22.
However, such corrections are negligible in most fan engineering work. Even
properly designed, built, and maintained mercurial barometers should be
checked periodically against the National Bureau of Standards' (now NIST)
reference barometer. One way to do this is to compare readings with those on
the local weather station barometer, which is checked periodically against the
national standard. Simultaneous readings can be compared via the telephone,
but to eliminate the possibility of local variations in atmospheric pressure, a
transfer instrument should be used. An aneroid barometer can be transported
to both locations for comparison with both instruments. An aneroid barome-
ter consists of an evacuated capsule whose movement under changes in
pressure is transmitted to an indicator that is calibrated in units of pressure.
Gravity corrections are not necessary since aneroid instruments are force
gages. If the instrument is temperature compensated, no corrections for
temperature deviations are needed either. Aneroid barometers should be
calibrated frequently
The U.S. Weather Bureau reports barometric pressure converted to sea
level conditions at 45° latitude using the data of Tables 1.22 and 1.23. In
order to compare true values with Weather Bureau reports, the true values
should also be converted. Example 1.10 illustrates how these conversions are
made.
Given a mercurial barometer reading of 29.10 in. Hg, at 75°F, 600 ft eleva-
tion, and 40° latitude, find the true atmospheric pressure and the pressure
converted to Weather Bureau Standards.
Using Table 1.21, the temperature correction is -0.13 in. Hg, and from Table
1.22, the gravity correction is -0.02 in. Hg, so that the true atmospheric
pressure is 29.10 - 0.13 - 0.02 = 28.95 in. Hg.
Using Table 1.23, the elevation correction is 0.10 in. Hg/100 ft of elevation,
. × 6 = 0.60 in. Hg, making the converted reading 28.95+0.60=29.55 in.
or 010
Hg.
°F subtract in. Hg
35 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
40 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
45 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05
Adapted from.. the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes, Instruments and Apparatus,
Part 2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2-1964, pp. 25-26.
North Elevation, ft
Latitude 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Degrees Add or subtract in. Hg as indicated
25 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.06 -0.06 -0.05
30 -0.04 -0.04 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05
35 -0.03 -0.03 -0.03 -0.04 -0.04 -0.04
Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Performance Test Codes, Instruments, and Appara-
tus Part 2, Pressure Measurement. ASME PTC 19.2, 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.
Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes - Instruments and Apparatus, Part
2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2; 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.
Temperature Measurements
Temperatures can be measured with a variety of instruments. The most
common, liquid-in-glass thermometers, use various liquids depending on the
working range:
Calibrated instruments can be read directly with sufficient accuracy for most
engineering work. When only partially immersed, precautions must be taken
to ensure that heat conduction due to the emergent stem is either negligible or
accounted for. Figure 1.14 can be used to determine the necessary correction.
In making average temperature determinations, be sure that the sample or
samples are representative. Such determinations in a moving gas stream
should be weighted according to mass flow. If a gas stream and its retaining
walls are at different temperatures, the thermometer should be shielded to
eliminate radiation effects.
Resistance thermometers, which determine temperature by measuring the
change in resistance of a calibrated wire, can be extremely accurate and are
suitable for temperatures from -400 to 1800°F.
Humidity Measurements
Humidity is not measured directly; rather, some property related to
humidity is measured and the humidity determined therefrom. Psychrome-
ters, hygrometers, and dew-point detectors are used. The sling psychrometer
and its motorized equivalent were described in the previous section. The
relative humidity, humidity ratio, or any of the other humidity terms previ-
ously defined can be determined using a psychrometric chart or the formulae
in this chapter. Hygrometers are calibrated to read directly in terms of relative
humidity. They utilize the effects of humidity on various properties, such as
the length of an organic fiber, the electrical resistance of a hygroscopic
material, the weight of an absorbing material, the thermal conductivity of the
moist air itself, and others. Dew-point detectors are calibrated to read in
terms of dew-point temperature. They operate by cooling a surface to pro-
duce condensation, by expanding a gas sample to produce fog, or by passing
an electrical current through a salt film to produce a vapor pressure equal to
that of the atmosphere.
1
W. H. Carrier and C. O. Mackey, "A Review of Existing Psychrometric Data in Relation to
Practical Engineering Problems," Trans. ASME, vol. 59, paper PRO-59-1, 1937, pp. 33-47.