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PROBLEM #1

Consider the Wheatstone bridge depicted in Figure 1 with one sensor arm
represented by the resistance X.

a) Derive the normalized output voltage V0 /Vs as a function of the four

bridge resistances.

b) What is the condition for a balanced bridge, defining Xmin ?

The limiting error in determining the minimum value of Xmin can be defined
as:      
 ∂X   ∂X   ∂X 
∆X =   ∆M  + 
  ∆P  + 
  ∆N  (1)
∂M ∂P ∂N

c) Find ∆Xmin /Xmin using the condition in b).

Assume that the resistances P and M are known to an accuracy of 0.02%,

whereas N is known to an accuracy of 0.01%.

d) Show that the numerical value of ∆Xmin /Xmin in c) is 0.05%.

Define α = V0 /Vs , β = M/N , and χ = X/Xmin .

D W

sŽ
sƐ sϭ н sϮ


E y

Figure 1: Wheatstone bridge with one sensor arm X.

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e) Based on these definitions, derive the normalized bridge function for
the balanced bridge in Figure 1.

Define the Taylor series expansion of the Wheatstone bridge output as:
 
∂α
∆α = ∆χmin (2)
∂χ
∂α
f ) Find the sensitivity Sα = ∂χ .

g) Determine which β that maximizes Sα .

h) Show that this β-value gives the maximized value of Sαmax = 1/(4χ),
for χ ≥ 1.

i) Give an argument for that this implies an optimum β-value equal to

1.

Assume that χ ' 1.

j) Show that the normalized bridge output can be approximated by αapp =

(χ − 1)/4.

k) Plot the approximative αapp and exact α in the same coordinate sys-
tem for χ ∈ [1, 1.5].

l) Find the maximum non linearity factor N̂ (in % of full scale deflection)
of α in this interval.

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 PROBLEM #2

Consider a differential pressure transducer. The following results were ob-

tained (see Table 1) when the pressure transducer under investigation was
tested in the laboratory given the following conditions:

I: Ambient temperature 20 o C, supply voltage 5 V (standard).

II: Ambient temperature 20 o C, supply voltage 7 V.
III: Ambient temperature 25 o C, supply voltage 5 V.

Input (105 Pa) 0 1 2 3 5 7 10

Output (mA), I 4.0 6.3 8.7 10.8 15.5 20.0 27.0
II 4.0 6.6 9.3 11.8 17.0 22.0 30.0
III 6.0 8.3 10.6 13.1 18.0 23.0 31.0

Table 1: Output vs. input for differential pressure transducer. The input is
taken to be steady state and relative to atmospheric pressure.

a) Determine the values a and K associated with the linearized model equa-
tion O = KI + a.

b) Determine the values of modifying KM and interfering KI sensitivities as-

sociated with the generalized model equation O = (K +KM IM )I +a+KI II .

c) Show that both temperature and supply voltage contribute to the modi-
temp
fying output changes, and that KM ≈2 A/(Pa o C).

d) Predict an output value when the input is 8 × 105 Pa, Vs = 7 V and

ambient temperature is 25 o C.

Now, let a pressure measurement system consist of a pressure sensor, a

deflection bridge, an amplifier, and a recorder. Table 2 gives linear sensitiv-
ities and error bandwidths for each element in the system.

e) Calculate the standard deviation σE of the error distribution function.

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f ) Interpret your results in terms of statistical uncertainty relating the true
input and measured output.

g) Given that the recorder is incorrectly adjusted so that its sensitivity

is 25 Pa/mV, calculate the mean error E for an input pressure of 5 kPa.

Element Linear sensitivity K Error bandwidth ±h

Pressure sensor 10−4 Ω/Pa ±0.005 Ω
Deflection bridge 0.05 mV/Ω ±3×10−4 mV
Amplifier 104 ±6 mV
Recorder 20 Pa/mV ±50 Pa

Table 2: Sensitivity and error bandwidths for respective elements in pressure

measurement system.